Soil Fertility & Plant Nutrition

Effect of Wood Ash and Compost Application on Nitrogen

Transformations and Availability in Soil-Plant Systems
M. Kaleem Abbasi*
Nadia Afsar
Nasir Rahim

Department of Soil and

Environmental Sciences
Faculty of Agriculture
The University of Poonch
Rawalakot Azad Jammu and Kashmir
Pakistan

Application of organicinorganic by-products, that is, wood ash (WA),

compost, and organic manures is a valuable restoration strategy that can
alleviate the physical conditions and improve the nutrient status of degraded
soils. To get the maximum benefits, proper management and N turnover of
these resources need to be examined. The aim of this study was to investigate
the effects of WA and compost applied alone or with N fertilizer on different
fractions of mineral N, that is, mineralization, nitrification, and recovery of N
in soil-pant systems. Laboratory and greenhouse experiments were conducted
at the University of Poonch, Rawalakot Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. In
the incubation experiment, soil (Humic Lithic Eutrudepts, Inceptosols) from
an arable field was collected (015 cm) and amended with WA, compost,
and N fertilizer diammonium phosphate (DAP) [(NH4)2HPO4]. In addition,
a pot experiment was conducted in the greenhouse to examine the response
of sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] to these amendments. Results
indicated that WA and compost significantly increased N mineralization by
releasing a maximum of 48.5 and 76.1 mg N kg1, respectively compared
to 21.9 mg N kg1 in the control. Combined application of 1/2DAP
with WA and compost resulted in a significant reduction in the extent
of total mineral nitrogen (TMN) disappearance observed in N fertilizer
(DAP, full) treatment. Both WA and compost significantly increased
nitrification potential and accumulation of NO3N at the end was 36.4 and
70.5 mg kg1, respectively compared to 10.3 mg kg1 in the control. Wood
ash applied alone or in mixtures significantly increased soil pH by 0.99 to
1.45 units. Results obtained from the greenhouse experiment indicated that
WA alone did not affect most of the growth characteristics, however, N
contents and N uptake by sorghum were significantly increased by WA and
compost. Plant N uptake in the combined treatments (1/2DAP+compost,
1/2DAP+WA+compost) was 44 and 57 mg plant1, respectively, significantly
higher than the 31 mg N plant1 in the full DAP treatment. The increase in N
uptake and plant dry matter yield was associated with N released from added
amendments and a significant correlation existed between TMN and plant
N uptake (R2 = 0.56) and TMN and plant dry matter yield (R2 = 0.61). The
present study demonstrates the existence of substantial amount of N reserve
present in these amendments. After proper combinations and management,
N from these resources can be taken into account as potential source for the
management of nutrient poor soils and plant growth.
Abbreviations: DAP, diammonium phosphate; HKH, Hindu Kush Himalaya; TMN, total
mineral nitrogen; WA, wood ash; WFPS, water-filled pore space.

oil quality deterioration and soil fertility depletion are the two major ecological problems throughout the world (Harden, 2001; Lal, 2001), but they are
especially serious in the heavily populated, underdeveloped, and ecologically

Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 77:558567

doi:10.2136/sssaj2012.0365
Received 31 Oct. 2012.
*Corresponding author (kaleemabbasi@yahoo.com).
Soil Science Society of America, 5585 Guilford Rd., Madison WI 53711 USA
All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
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reprinting the material contained herein has been obtained by the publisher.

Soil Science Society of America Journal

fragile areas of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region

(Tiwari et al., 2010). Each year, a considerable amount of soil
and nutrients are lost from sloping uplands of the HKH region
mainly as a result of soil erosion and surface run-off. Agriculture
production and proper restoration of these degraded and eroded
soils is the real concern to provide better soil conditions to belowground soil microbial composition and aboveground plant
community development.
Application of organicinorganic by-products as soil
amendments is a common restoration strategy that improves
the physical conditions of the degraded land and also alters the
nutrient cycling below ground and consequently aboveground
plant production. Recyclable plant biomass, organic manures, and
wastes from urban, industrial, and agricultural activity have been
identified as valuable natural resources that can be effectively used
for sustainable production and ecosystem restoration. Among
these resources, WA is increasingly produced as a consequence
of the increased use of wood as an energy-supply source. After
combustion most of the inorganic nutrients, trace elements,
and heavy metals from biomass are retained in the WA which
could be a significant source of P, K, Mg, Ca, and could well be
used as a supplement to fertilizers (Bougnom and Insam, 2009;
Bougnom et al., 2009). Studies have shown that WA increased
soil pH and stimulated bacterial activities that in turn increase
decomposition rate of the humus layer, N mineralization, and N
availability to plants (Fritze et al., 1994; Kreutzer, 1995; Haimi
et al., 2000). Odlare and Pell (2009) reported that application of
WA to an arable soil increased nitrification rate by 82 to 205%
and decreased denitrification rates by 16 to 56% compared to
the control. It has been reported that WA application increased
microbial activity (Fritze et al., 2000; Perkimki and Fritze,
2002) and enhanced CO2 evolution (Zimmermann and Frey,
2002). A significant increase in growth and yield of different
crops following the application of WA has been reported
(Odiete et al., 2005; Adekayode and Olojugba, 2010; Gupta et
al., 2010). In an experiment under field conditions application
of WA increased grain yields of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.),
canola (Brassica rapa L.), and pea (Pisum sativum L.) by 49, 59,
and 55%, respectively, compared to a corresponding increase of
38, 31, and 49% by lime. The increase in crop yield with WA
is attributed partly to increased P availability in WA-amended
plots (Arshad et al., 2012).
The use of compost in agriculture aids in replenishing and
maintaining long-term soil fertility by enhancing soil biological
activity and providing nutrients that are slowly released in
accordance with the crop needs (Ros et al., 2006). Ribeiro et
al. (2010) reported that use of compost by recycling farm and
agri-industrial residues provides several agricultural benefits,
for example, preserve/restore soil organic C and control plant
diseases and is a relatively cheap source of nutrients. Compost
when applied to soil may contribute to soil quality by improving
aeration, water status, and aggregate stability and as a consequence
erosion stability (Kuba et al., 2008). Macro- and micronutrients
present in compost improve plant growth, increase organic
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matter, and consequently increase cation exchange that would

improve the quality characteristics and nutrient turnover in the
examined soil. In a study under controlled conditions, Ngo et
al. (2011) found that composting or vermi-composting not only
increased plant growth but also have positive effects on quantity
and quality of soil organic matter. It has been reported that N
release capacity of soil was significantly increased following the
application of compost (Cordovil et al., 2005; Busby et al., 2007).
Huang and Chen (2009) reported that following the application
of compost, the maximum N released was observed after 14 to 21 d
of incubation, and then the concentration gradually decreased as
the incubation period progressed.
It is clear that WA and compost have an effect on plant
growth promotion and net N mineralization both directly
through release of N into mineral N pool and indirectly through
altering the physical, chemical, and microbiological properties
of soils. Little is known, however, about the effect of both on
different fractions of mineral N especially the effect of combined
application of WA, compost, and mineral N on N turnover in
soilplant systems. We hypothesized that WA and compost
would enhance microbial growth and activity (as reported
earlier), and combination of these by-products with DAP would
increase N release into soil mineral N pool and N recovery in
soilplant systems that would affect plant growth promotion.
The aim of the present study was to quantify the relative potential
rates of different fractions of mineral N, that is, mineralization,
nitrification, and N recovery of soil amended with WA and
compost applied alone or with mineral N fertilize, to assess the N
fertilizer value of these amendments and to examine their effect
on plant (sorghum) growth promotion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Soil Sampling/Collection

The soil used in this study was collected from an arable

field located at the research farm, Faculty of Agriculture, The
University of Poonch, Rawalakot Azad Jammu and Kashmir,
Pakistan. The soil in the study site was clay loam in texture, Humic
Lithic Eutrudepts (Inceptosols). The field was bare at the time of
sampling but previously maize (Zea mays L.) and wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.) were cultivated. Soil samples were collected from
0- to 15-cm depth at random from five different locations and
mixed well. The field fresh soil was passed through a 4-mm sieve
to eliminate coarse rock and plant material, thoroughly mixed to
ensure uniformity and stored at 4C before use (not more than 2
wk). A subsample of about 0.5 kg was taken, air dried, and passed
through a 2-mm sieve and used for the determination of physical
and chemical characteristics (Table 1). Soil pH was determined
in distilled water with a glass electrode (soil/H2O ratio 1:2.5
w/v). Soil texture was determined by the hydrometer method
while total N was determined by the Kjeldahl method (Bremner
and Mulvaney, 1982). Soil organic matter was determined using a
modified Mebius method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Soil test
P and K were determined according to the methods described by
Winkleman et al. (1985).
559

Wood Ash and Compost Collection

Wood ash and compost were selected as organicinorganic
by-products for soil amendments. Commercially available
compost in the market was used and purchased from the local
market. Wood ash was collected from wood combustion in local
houses and also from the local restaurants of the city. Samples
of both WA and compost were air dried and screened through
a 2-mm sieve. Samples were sealed in glass containers until used
for analysis or in the experiments. Triplicate samples from each
of WA and compost were analyzed for total N, total C, P, and K
according to methods described for soil analysis.

Laboratory Incubation
Thirty grams of finely ground soil already stored in the
refrigerator at 4C was weighed and transferred into plastic pots
of about 100 mL capacity. The initial moisture content of soil
was 15% (w/w) that was increased by adding distilled water
to achieve a final resulting water-filled pore space (WFPS) of
approximately 58%. This moisture was maintained throughout the incubation period. Water-filled pore space (WFPS) was
calculated as follows: WFPS = (soil gravimetric water content
bulk density)/[1 (bulk density/particle density)] (Sistani et
al., 2008).
There were eight treatments: (i) mineral N fertilizer
diammonium phosphate, that is, DAP [(NH4)2HPO4], (ii)
WA, (iii) compost, (iv) WA+compost, (v) DAP+WA, (vi)
DAP+compost, (vii) DAP+WA+compost, (viii) a control;
seven sampling times i.e., 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 d and three
replications. A total of 168 experimental units were used at the
start of the experiment. Phosphorus and K were incorporated
into all jars (including control) at the rate of 90 mg P2O5 kg1
in the form of single superphosphate and 60 mg K2O kg1as
potassium sulfate, respectively. Both P and K at this rate are
recommended for sorghum under arid conditions of Pakistan.
All the amendments except the control were applied on N
content basis. In the treatments receiving DAP and compost
alone, N was added at the rate of 200 mg N kg1(100:0 ratio,
w/w). The ratio was 50:50 in the combined treatments of
DAP+WA, DAP+compost while the proportion of N in
DAP+WA+compost was 50:25:25. In the treatment receiving
only WA, WA was applied equivalent to 6.4% of dry soil as
reported earlier (Odlare and Pell, 2009). After the addition of
these amendments, all the jars were weighed and arranged in the
incubator according to a completely randomized design. The
jars were covered with parafilm having three to four small holes
on the top to allow O2 exchange. Soil samples were incubated
under controlled conditions at 22C. Soil moisture was checked/
adjusted every 2 d by weighing the glass jars and adding the
required amount of distilled water when the loss was >0.05 g.
During this process care was taken not to disturb the soil either
through stirring or shaking.

Table 1. Selected physicochemical properties of the soil and the

chemical composition of wood ash and compost used in the study.
Parameter

Porosity, %
Particle size distribution
Sand, g kg1
Silt, g kg1
Clay, g kg1
Texture class
pH
CEC, cmolc kg1
Organic matter, g kg1
Organic C, g kg1
Total N, g kg1
C/N ratio
Total mineral N, mg kg1
Total organic N, mg kg1
P, mg kg1
K, mg kg1
Fe, mg kg1
Mn, mg kg1
Cu, mg kg1
Zn, mg kg1
Cd, mg kg1
Cr, mg kg1

1.20
2.48
48.3
241
394
365
7.5
7.3
10.4
6.03
0.60
10:1
8.7
591.0
3.4
88.0
15.7
17.0
1.02
1.16
0.056
0.054

Wood ash

Compost

Clay loam
10.4
8.7

27.3
335.2
15.8
194.9
0.56
9.7
28:1
20:1

4634
10,239
6318
2,960
1985
3,641
417.0
470.0
49.8
79.5
141.2
216.1
3.5
2.0
48.0
13.0

Soil Extraction and Analysis

Samples of all treatments were analyzed for TMN and
NH4+N. Soil samples were extracted by shaking for 1 h with
200 mL of 1 M KCl followed by filtration through Whatmans
no. 40 filter paper. Initial concentration of TMN and NH4+N
at Day 0 was determined by adding the KCl directly to the flask
immediately after incorporation of each amendment. Thereafter,
triplicate samples from each treatment were removed randomly
from the incubator at different incubation periods, that is, 5,
10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 d and extracted accordingly. The mineral
N contents of the extract were determined by using the steam
distillation and titration method (Keeney and Nelson, 1982).
Aliquots (40 mL) of the extracts were pippetted into a distillation
flask and steam distillation was performed after adding
magnesium oxide (MgO) and Devardas alloy in case of TMN
and by adding only MgO in case of NH4+N. The distillate was
then collected in 5 mL of boric acid containing bromocresol
green/methyl red mixed indicator and titrated against 0.05 M
HCl. Nitrate-N was calculated by subtracting NH4+N from
total mineral N. Any NO2 present would have been included in
the NO3 fraction.
The recovery of added N and gain in NO3N were
calculated (from the mean values) as follows:
Recovery of added N(%) =

560

Soil

Bulk density, Mg m3
Particle density, Mg m3

TMN of amended soils (mg kg -1 ) - TMN of control soils(mg kg -1 )

100
N applied(mg kg -1 )

Soil Science Society of America Journal

Gain in NO3 - - N (%) =

NO3 - - N of amended soils (mg kg -1 ) - NO3 - - N of control soils (mg kg -1 )

100
N applied (mg kg -1 )

Sorghum Growth and Nitrogen Accumulation

A pot experiment was conducted in sorghum under
greenhouse conditions using cleaned earthen pots of 38 cm
height and 18 cm width. Each pot contained approximately
12 kg soil. There were eight treatments with three replications
(as described in Lab experiment), comprising a total of 24 pots.
The pots were arranged in a randomized complete block (RCB)
design.Two plants from each treatment were sampled at different
growth stages (Vn, milking, and maturity). At each sampling
time data were collected for shoot length, root length, shoot
dry weight, root dry weight, and chlorophyll content. Averaged
values (three samplings) of these parameters were taken to
present the results. Chlorophyll content was measured following
the method of Bansal et al. (1999) and Amujoyegbe et al. (2007)
as reported in detailed by Abbasi et al. (2012).
Total chlorophyll (g kg1) =

[20.2(A645) 8.02 (A663) VW]/1000
where A = absorbance at the given wavelength, W = weight of
fresh leaf sample, V = final volume of chlorophyll solution.
For analysis of the N content in shoot (including leaves),
oven-dried plant material from each pot were ground separately
with a grinder (Polymix PX-MFC 90D; Switzerland) to pass
through a 2 mm-mesh sieve. Total N concentrations in the
samples were determined using Kjeldahls method (Bremner and
Mulvaney, 1982).

Statistical Analysis
The data obtained from pots was analyzed statistically
according to the RCB design, while laboratory data was analyzed
according to the completely randomized design (CRD). The
M-STAT C software was used to analyze all the data. To show
significant variations among means for selected subsets of data
LSD value was used. Individual treatments were compared for
mean at 5% probability level (Steel and Torrie, 1980).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Nitrogen Mineralization

Total mineral N content in the unamended control at the

start (Day 0) was 4 mg kg1 and showed no significant changes
until Day 20. Thereafter the concentration increased to 21.9,
18.9, and 15.4 mg kg1 at Day 30, 40, and 50, respectively (Fig.
1). The initial lag phase, then increasing tendency and at the
end the declining phase showed the mineralization trend of the
control soil. Averaged across incubation periods, only about
12 mg kg1 of N was released from the control soil. The low N
concentration implies that microbial activity (for N cycling) and
N turnover is restricted by the lack of available N. These results
highlighted the importance of applying additional N in this soil
for sustainable crop production. Expressed as percentage of total
organic N initially present, the N mineralized (maximum) during
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the incubation was 3.7%. This value for N mineralization (3.7%)

was comparable to that reported earlier in arable soils (2.78.8%)
(Haer and Benbi, 2003) but lower than that recorded in our
previous study, that is, 9.5% (Abbasi et al., 2011).
The TMN in soil amended with WA increased as the
incubation proceeded (Fig. 1). A maximum of 48.5 mg N kg1
was recorded at Day 40 compared to 7.0 mg kg1 at the start
showing a substantial N release over time. Overall effect indicated
a twofold increase in TMN by WA compared to the control
demonstrating stimulating effect of WA on decomposition of
organic N which in turn increased N mineralization. Effect
of WA on N mineralization has been reported to increase soil
pH and stimulate bacterial activities that may have increased
N mineralization and availability to plants (Fritze et al., 1994;
Haimi et al., 2000). Jacobson et al. (2004) reported a significant
increase in mineral N in the humus layer of a forest soil following
WA application. The authors explained that addition of an
alkaline compound (WA) increased the decomposition rate,
which sequentially increased N mineralization.
In the soil amended with compost, after an initial lag phase
TMN was significantly increased at Day 20 and continued to
increase until the end. The maximum concentration of 76.1
mg kg1 was released at the end (Day 50) that was significantly
higher than the TMN released from WA (42.5 mg kg1) and
from the control soil (15.4 mg kg 1) showing that TMN of
compost-amended soil was 1.8-fold higher than the WA and
fivefold higher than the control soil. Similar positive effects
of compost on soil N mineralization have also been reported
earlier (Cordovil et al., 2005; Busby et al., 2007; Barbanti et al.,
2011). Our results indicated that under optimum temperature
and moisture (as managed in the experimental conditions),
application of compost to soil can supply sufficient available N to
the growing crops. Such environmental conditions exist during
kharif (summer) season when major crops and vegetables are
grown in this region.
On the basis of the maximum net N released (subtracting
from the control), apparent soil N mineralization approximately
reached 30% of the compost N applied at the beginning. A study
on N release capacity of a 15N-labeled compost indicated that
apparent soil mineralization was about 45% of compost total
N in pots without plants (Barbanti et al., 2011). Similarly, the
apparent N mineralization of different organic amendments
including composted municipal solid waste was 22 to 37%
reported earlier by Cordovil et al. (2005).In the combined
treatment of WA+compost, the N release was comparable
to WA but values were significantly lower than the compost
treatment showing some negative effects of WA on compost
decomposition and mineralization.
Soil amended with mineral N as DAP (full dose
200 mg N kg1) displayed a different N turnover and TMN
significantly decreased with incubation periods (Fig. 1). By the
end, the TMN remained in mineral N pool was 95.2 mg kg1
compared to 173.6 mg kg1 at the start showing that 45% of
TMN initially present had disappeared during incubation. These
561

results were in accordance with our previous

study conducted in grassland soil where 30%
of the initial mineral N added by DAP had
disappeared over 42 d incubation (Abbasi
et al., 2001). The N unaccounted for may be
denitrified due to simultaneous nitrification
and denitrification in soil as reported earlier
(Abbasi and Adams, 1998, 2000a).
When mineral N (DAP) was combined
with WA and compost (50:50; 50:25:25),
the TMN remained stable throughout the
incubation (except few samplings) and
loss of initial N was low compared to the
treatment where DAP was applied alone.
Results indicated that WA and compost either
reduced the N losses of applied N fertilizer or
recovered any loss by supplying N after their
decomposition or mineralization. These results
demonstrated that combined application
of DAP, WA, and compost resulted in (i) a
significant reduction in the extent and rate of
TMN disappearance and (ii) TMN released
from these treatments (at the end was) was
comparable to that released from full DAP
(100:0) treatment.

Changes in Ammonium-Nitrogen

Fig. 1. Total mineral N (NH4+N + NO3N) at successive incubation periods of a soil (015 cm)
amended with wood ash, compost, and diammonium phosphate (DAP) [(NH4)2HPO4] applied
alone or in different combinations over a 50-d period under controlled laboratory conditions.

The concentration of NH4+N in the

control and soil amended with WA, compost and WA+compost
did not follow any particular pattern or significant changes
(except at few samplings) during incubation (Fig. 2). The
concentration never exceeded 12 mg kg1 soil in these treatments.
In the soil amended with DAP alone or DAP combined with
WA, or compost, initial NH4+N significantly increased
ranged between 98 and 179 mg kg1. However, a substantial
proportion of the initial NH4+N continued to disappear
during incubation and very little NH4+ was left at the end.
During NH4+N disappearance, concentrations of NO3N
increased to a maximum of 72 to 85 mg kg1 indicating that
nitrification was also occurring. However, it is worth noting that
the depletion of NH4+N during the same period was greater
than the accumulation of NO3N indicating that the buildup
of NO3N was much smaller than the decrease in NH4+N.
A reasonable interpretation of this disparity is that NO3N
was being lost through denitrification after nitrification. Thus
a substantial accumulation of NO3N would not be expected
where both processes occurring simultaneously (Abbasi and
Adams, 1998).
The pattern of changes in NH4+N observed here was
almost similar to that found in our previous study in grassland
soil where more than 50% of N applied as NH4+ disappeared
over a period of 42 d and only 35 mg kg1 was accumulated as
NO3N (Abbasi and Adams, 2000b). The low concentration
of NH4+N with the subsequent increase in NO3N in the
562

mineral N pool indicating that nitrification was not a ratelimited process in the net mineralization of organic N or N from
DAP or combined treatments. The declining trend of NH4+N
with incubation periods reported here was similar as reported
earlier (Cordovil et al., 2005; Azeez and Van Averbeke, 2010).

Accumulation of Nitrate-Nitrogen
In contrast to the NH4+N, the concentration of NO3N
was significantly increased as the incubation period progressed
(Fig. 2). In the soil to which WA, compost, and WA+compost
was applied, the maximum NO3N was 41.0, 70.5, and 41.5
mg kg1, respectively, compared to 15.4 mg kg1 in the control.
Averaged over incubation periods, NO3N concentration
of WA, compost, and WA+compost was 21.3, 26.6, and
22.2 mg kg1, respectively compared to 6.0 mg kg1 in the
control. A significant increase in nitrification rate following
the addition of WA has already been reported in an incubation
study (Odlare and Pell, 2009). The authors explained that WA
increased soil pH that may increase populations of nitrifying
bacteria by enzyme production and growth and consequently
increase nitrification. However, several authors reported WA
as a significant source of P, K, Mg, Ca, and lime (Merino et al.,
2006; Bougnom and Insam, 2009; Bougnom et al., 2009) and
found that application of WA stimulated microbial activity
(Fritze et al., 2000; Perkimki and Fritze, 2002). Therefore, the
increase in nitrification due to WA in the present study may also
Soil Science Society of America Journal

Fig. 2. Changes in NH4+N and accumulation of NO3N at successive incubation periods of a soil (015 cm) amended with wood ash, compost, and
diammonium phosphate (DAP) [(NH4)2HPO4] applied alone or in different combinations over a 50-d period under controlled laboratory conditions.

be due to its effect on the availability of nutrients especially P

that may have an affect on the nitrifying population. It has been
reported that by making soil pH more optimal for nitrifying
bacteria and providing extra substrate (NH4+N) to nitrifying
microorganisms, WA+mineral N fertilizer increased net
nitrification of soil (Saarsalmi et al., 2010).
The effect of compost on nitrification was more visible and
evident than WA. Accumulation of NO3N from compostamended soil at Day 50 (end of incubation) was 70.5 mg kg 1
compared to 36.4 mg kg1 in WA treatment and 56.8 mg kg1
in DAP full dose (200 mg N kg 1) indicating 94 and 24%
higher nitrification by compost than WA and DAP, respectively.
Results of our study showed that accumulation of NO3N
in compost-amended soil was slow initially and then increased
progressively with time reached to a maximum of 70.5 mg kg1
at Day 50, that is, significantly higher than the NO3N in the
mineral N (DAP) treatment. These results suggested that slow
decomposition and degradation of compost provided a steady
and significant amount of NO3N in mineral N pool that
may affect the N availability to plants in the later stages of their
growth. The reduction in NH4+N disappearance and increase
in NO3N with incubation periods (up to 220 mg kg1)
following the application of municipal solid waste compost was
also reported earlier (Madrid et al., 2011). It has been reported
that use of compost in agriculture soil tended to increase soil
NO3N that comes after mineralization of soil organic matter
(Baldi et al., 2010). The amount and trend (with time) of NO3
N accumulation found in this study was quite similar to the
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previous observation where more than 80 mg NO3N kg1

was recorded in compost-amended soil after 100 d incubation
(Moore et al., 2010).
Addition of WA with compost significantly increased
nitrification compared to the control. The concentration was
comparable to WA treatment but lower than that recorded
for compost showing that WA decreased nitrification of the
added compost (Fig. 2). However, in the combined treatments
of DAP+WA, DAP+compost, and DAP+WA+compost,
nitrification at the end was either comparable or significantly
higher than full DAP treatment. Results suggested that
application of half mineral N with WA or compost under
favorable moisture and temperature conditions released and
accumulated NO3N equivalent to or higher than the full
(200 mg N kg1) fertilizer N application. These results are in
accordance with our previous study (Abbasi and Khizar, 2012)
where poultry manure and white clover (Trifolium repens L.)
residues in combination with half urea N accumulated NO3N
equivalent to or higher than full urea N.

Recovery of Added Nitrogen and Gain in

Nitrate-Nitrogen
Nitrogen recovery from WA, compost, and WA+compost
was 14, 30, and 16%, respectively, while the recovery from DAP
alone or DAP+WA, DAP+compost, and DAP+WA+compost
was 40, 29, 32, and 33%, respectively (Fig. 3). A 14% recovery
of N from WA showed that WA increased decomposition and
consequently mineralization of soil organic matter resulting
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a considerable release of N into

mineral N pool. The N recovery from
full DAP was significantly higher
than the remaining treatments while
recovery from full compost treatment
(equivalent to 200 mg N kg1)
was at par with that recorded from
1/2DAP+1/2compost treatment. In
contrast, the conversion of added N
into NO3N (gain in NO3N)
was significantly higher in soil
amended either with compost
alone or compost with 1/2DAP or
compost with 1/2DAP+WA (30,
31, and 32%, respectively) compared
to the soil amended with full DAP
(23%). These results indicated that
WA and compost when applied with
N fertilizer increased the nitrification
of added fertilizer. This might be due
to the effect of WA and compost on
microbial population and activity
especially the effect on nitrifying
bacteria that tended to increase
nitrification process in soil.

Changes in Soil pH

Fig. 3. Recovery of added N (%) and gain in NO3N (%) (calculated from the values found at the end
at Day 50) at successive incubation periods of a soil (015 cm) amended with wood ash, compost, and
diammonium phosphate (DAP) [(NH4)2HPO4] applied alone or in different combinations over a 50-d
period under controlled laboratory conditions. Vertical lines on each bar represent the LSD (P 0.05)
for percent recovery of added N to total mineral nitrogen (TMN) and percent added N converted into
NO3N across different N treatments. Comp represents compost.

reported earlier (Usman et al., 2004; Bougnom et al., 2009). The

reason is a flow of protons from the soil to the organic matter
sites; composts are stable products rich in humic substances with
functional groups (carboxyl, phenolic, and enolic) conferring
binding and buffering capacities (Bougnom et al., 2009).

Results presented in Table 2 indicated that DAP

significantly decreased soil pH from 6.8 at Day 0 to 6.4 at Day
20 and thereafter pH became stable until the end of incubation.
Sorghum Growth and Nitrogen Accumulation
Similarly DAP when combined with compost significantly
decreased pH from 7.7 at Day 0 to 6.64 at Day 50. On the other
The results of the Exp. 2 indicated that WA did not affect
hand, WA considerably increased soil pH from 7.4 at Day 0 to
most of the growth characteristics except shoot length when
the maximum of 8.3 at Day 30 and 50. Wood ash when added
applied alone (Table 3). However, application of WA either
with combined treatments of DAP+WA, WA+compost, and
with compost or DAP tended to increase plant growth showing
DAP+WA+compost significantly increase pH Table 2. Changes in soil pH (015 cm) at successive incubation periods amended
compared with the control and DAP treatments. with wood ash, compost, and a mineral N fertilizer, that is, diammonium phosCompost also significantly increased pH from phate (DAP) applied alone or in different combinations over a 50-d period under
controlled laboratory conditions.
7.2 at Day 0 to 7.5/7.6 at Day 5 and Day 40.
Days after incubation
Averaged over incubation periods, soil pH in WA,
LSD
Treatments
0
5
10
20
30
40
50
WA+compost, and DAP+WA was significantly
(P 0.05)
Soil pH
higher than the pH of the remaining treatments.
Control
6.2c 6.4c 7.0ab 6.97ab 7.1a 6.7b 7.1a
0.35
The increased in pH due to WA application
DAP
6.8a 6.6b 6.8a 6.4c
6.3c 6.3c 6.4c
0.15
ranged between 0.56 to 1.45 units.
Wood ash (WA)
7.4b 7.5b 8.0a 8.29a 8.3a 8.1a 8.3a
0.52
The increase in soil pH following WA Compost
7.2d 7.6a 7.3cd 7.5ab 7.4bc 7.5ab 7.38bc
0.15
application had also been reported in other WA+compost (50:50)
7.3e 7.6d 7.8c 8.0b
8.1ab 8.2a 8.1ab
0.17
studies (Merino et al., 2006; Kuba et al., 2008; DAP+WA (50:50)
7.5d 7.8bc 7.7c 7.9b
8.0a 8.0a 7.9b
0.09
Bougnom et al., 2009; Adekayode and Olojugba, DAP+compost (50:50)
7.7a 7.1b 6.9bc 6.8bc 6.9bc 6.8bc 6.64c
0.41
2010). The acid neutralization capacity of the DAP+WA+compost
7.2d 7.4c 7.5c 7.6bc 7.9a 7.7ab 7.7ab
0.22
(50:25:25)
oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates of Ca, Mg, LSD (P 0.05)
0.53 0.29 0.14 0.18
0.18 0.29 0.22
and K in WA is probably its most important The least significant difference (LSD P 0.05) at the end of each column is given
characteristic (Vance, 1996), that may increase showing significant difference among different treatments at each incubation periods.
pH of the soil. Soil pH also increased after Lettering is done across each row showing significant difference (P 0.05) among
different incubation periods of individual treatments.
compost amendments confirming the results
2
DAP = diammonium phosphate, that is, DAP[(NH4) HPO4].

564

Soil Science Society of America Journal

Table 3. Effect of organicinorganic by-products, that is, wood ash, compost, and a mineral N fertilizer, that is, diammonium
phosphate (DAP) applied alone or in different combinations on the growth and N accumulation of sorghum grown in pots under
glasshouse conditions.
Treatments

Shoot length Root length

Shoot fresh Root fresh

weight
weight

Shoot dry
weight

Root dry
weight

Chlorophyll
content

Shoot N

N uptake

cm
g plant1
mg g1
%
mg plant1
Control
29.6e
12.3d
2.43e
0.34c
1.04d
0.13d
3.03d
0.69e
7e
DAP
48.1bc
19.8ab
7.35b
0.92ab
2.32bc
0.36bc
7.91a
1.34bc
31c
Wood ash (WA)
35.0d
13.8cd
3.11e
0.35c
1.11d
0.15d
4.94c
1.16d
13d
Compost
45.8c
18.7b
6.60bc
1.18a
1.99c
0.40bc
6.46ab
1.43bc
28c
WA+compost (50:50)
51.5b
18.9b
5.08d
0.70bc
2.11c
0.28c
5.95bc
1.29cd
27c
DAP+WA (50:50)
46.9c
14.7c
5.86d
0.72abc
1.88c
0.24c
6.04b
1.40bc
26c
DAP+compost (50:50)
51.6b
18.6b
8.22ab
0.90ab
2.85ab
0.83a
7.93a
1.56b
44b
DAP+WA+compost (50:25:25)
59.4a
20.5a
10.01a
1.12ab
3.05a
0.49b
6.21b
1.88a
57a
LSD (P 0.05)
4.45
1.69
1.85
0.45
0.47
0.20
1.49
0.16
5.11
The least significant difference (LSD P 0.05) at the end of each column is given showing significant difference among different treatments for
each parameter.

stimulating effect when applied with organic or mineral N

fertilizer. Since a substantial amount of N from WA-amended
soil was released into mineral N pool (under Lab experiment),
therefore response of plant growth to WA was expected as
reported in different studies. But such response was not found
here. Demeyer et al. (2001) reported that since WA contains
virtually no N, combination of WA with additional N is
necessary if a balanced fertilization is required. Application of
compost significantly increased sorghum growth compared to
the control and the values for most of the growth characteristics
were comparable to those recorded for full DAP. Combined
application of DAP, WA, and compost resulted in the highest
growth compared to sole application and the maximum values
were recorded in the treatment receiving DAP+WA+compost.
Total N uptake by plants (shoot) treated with WA, compost,
and WA+compost was 13, 28, and 27 mg plant1 compared to
7 mg plant1 in the control (Table 3) demonstrating a two- to
fourfold increase in N uptake due to WA and compost application.
The effect of WA on N contents and N uptake was more evident
than its effect on growth characteristics showing WA influence
on N dynamics as presented in mineralization experiment under
Lab conditions. Plants supplemented with combined application
of DAP+compost or DAP+WA+compost exhibited the highest
N-uptake of 44 and 57 mg plant1 compared to 31 mg plant1
in full DAP (100:0) treatment. These results indicated that
application of WA and compost with half mineral N significantly
increased N accumulation in sorghum compared to full mineral
N (DAP) application. The increase in N uptake and plant dry
matter yield (shoot dry weight) was associated with N released
from added amendments as a significant correlation existed
between TMN and plant N uptake (R2 = 0.56) and TMN and
plant dry matter yield (R2 = 0.61) (data not shown).

supplement value for poor and degraded soils. Our results showed
that WA addition has some benefits in terms of raising the soil
pH, stimulating N mineralization potential and plant N uptake,
therefore proper use of WA either with organic amendments
or with mineral N fertilizer may be an important management
strategy for sustainable agriculture production systems in
subhumid, rainfed soils low in organic matter. Considering
its chemical composition (as reported in the literature), WA
constitutes an excellent source of major and minor nutrient
elements and is therefore of interest in correcting certain nutrient
deficiencies in soils. Similarly, the release of mineral N from soil
was increased by threefold following the addition of compost.
Our results showed that compost applied alone or as a mixture
with 1/2 DAP or 1/2 DAP+WA appears to be an effective N
amendment approach since it provides an amount of available
N equivalent to or higher than that recorded for full DAP,
therefore allowing a reduction by half of the typical mineral
fertilizer (if applied) and also cutting fertilization cost. Results
also indicated that the highest mineral N from WA, compost,
1/2 DAP+compost was recorded in the later part of incubation
that can be associated with minimum N losses and maximum
availability to crop. Application of these organic-inorganic byproducts to sorghum showed some promising results. Effect
of integrated use of WA, compost, and mineral N (1/2DAP)
on plant growth promotion, N contents, and N uptake was
equivalent to or higher than full DAP treatment showing the
fertilizer value of both WA and compost when combined with
mineral N. This study is a step forward toward the use of easily
available, less expensive, and environmental friendly nutrient
resources for sustainable agriculture production systems in the
HKH region.

CONCLUSIONS

Authors wish to acknowledge anonymous reviewers for the critical

review of the manuscript. We are grateful to the staff of the Department
of Soil & Environmental Sciences, University of Poonch, Rawalakot
Azad Jammu & Kashmir for their favor and help both in lab and
greenhouse work.

The quantitative measurements of N turnover and N release

capacity of soil amended with WA and compost applied alone
or in different combinations showed a substantial quantity
of N released into the mineral N pool, indicate their nutrient
www.soils.org/publications/sssaj

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

565

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