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WORD ORDER IN POSITIVE SENTENCES (STATEMENTS)

Remember: Any sentence in English has a fixed WORD ORDER: S V (Subject + Verb)
or a bit more complete: S V O C (Subject + Verb + Object(s) + Complements)
Subj Ver Indirect Direct Manner Place Time
ect b Object Object (How) (Where) (When)
We gav them the test quietly in the on
e library Tuesday
Les dimos los exmenes tranquilamente en la Biblioteca el martes.
or
Subj Ver Direct t Indirect Manner Place Time
ect b Object o Object (How) (Where) (When)
We gav the test t them quietly in the on
e o library Tuesday
Les dimos los exmenes tranquilamente en la Biblioteca el martes.

A verb is a word expressing an action or a condition of a subject.

The subject of a sentence or clause is the part of the sentence or clause about which something is being said. It is usually
the doer of the action. It is a noun or a pronoun. It answers the question WHO?

A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or shows the result of the action. It answers the
question "WHAT?" or "WHOM?" after an action verb. An action verb with a direct object is called a transitive verb. It
usually refers to THINGS.

An indirect object precedes the direct object and tells TO WHOM or FOR WHOM the action of the verb is done and who is
receiving the direct object. There must be a direct object to have an indirect object. Indirect objects are usually found with
verbs of giving or communicating like give, bring, tell, show, send, get, buy, build, take, or offer. An indirect object is always a
noun or pronoun which is not part of a prepositional phrase. It usually refers to PEOPLE.

WORD ORDER IN NEGATIVES


The word order in negative sentences is the same as in affirmative sentences. Note, however, that in negative sentences we
usually need an auxiliary verb:
Subj Verb in negative (- Indirect Direct Manner Place Time
ect nt / not) Object Object (How) (Where) (When)
They dont speak English
I will not tell you the story in detail at school tomorrow
No te contar la historia detalladamente maana en el colegio

WORD ORDER IN QUESTIONS


The word order subject-verb-object is the same as in affirmative sentences. The only thing thats different is that you usually
have to put the auxiliary verb before the subject. Interrogatives are put at the beginning of the sentences:
Interroga Auxiliary Subj Other Indirect Direct Place Time ?
tive Verb ect Verb(s) Object Object
Did you have a party in your yesterd ?
flat ay
When were you there? ?

WH- QUESTIONS
WHO ...? Quin? WHAT KIND ...? Qu tipo de? HOW WIDE ...? Cunto mide de
ancho?
WHAT ...? Qu? WHAT TIME ...? Qu hora? HOW HIGH ...? Qu alto? Hasta
dnde?
WHEN ...? Cundo? HOW ...? Cmo? HOW FAR ...? A qu distancia?
WHERE ...? Dnde? HOW MANY ...? Cuntos? HOW FAST ...? Qu rpido?
WHY ...? Por qu? HOW MUCH ...? Cunto? HOW BIG ...? Qu grande?
WHICH ...? HOW OFTEN ...? Con qu frecuencia? HOW SMALL ...? Qu pequeo?
Cul(es)?
WHOSE ...? De HOW LONG ...? Cunto tiempo? De qu HOW HEAVY ...? Cunto pesa?
quin? largo?

YES/NO QUESTIONS
The answer to the question is "Yes" or "No"
(Do/does/Did/Am/Are/Is/Was/Were ... ?
Auxiliary Subjec Main Short answer
verb t verb
Do you want dinner? Yes, I do.
Can you drive? No, I can't.
Has she finished her work? Yes, she has.
Did they go home? No, they didn't.
Exception! verb be simple present and simple
past
Is Anne French? Yes, she is.
Was Ram at home? No, he wasn't.

INFORMATION QUESTIONS
The answer to the question is information. They start with Wh-
(except How).
Question Auxiliary Subj Main Short answer
word verb ect verb information
Review - Grammar, page 1
Where do you live? In Paris.
When will we have lunc At 1pm.
h?
Who did she meet? She met Mark.
Why hasn't Tara done it? Because she
can't.
Exception! verb be simple present and simple past
Where is Bombay? In India.
How was she? Very well.

CHOICE QUESTIONS
The answer to the question is "in the question".
Auxiliary Subj Main O Short answer
verb ect verb r
Do you want tea O coffee? Coffee, please.
r
Will we meet John O James? John.
r
Did she go to O New She went to
London r York? London.
Exception! verb be simple present and simple past
Is your car white O black? It's black.
r
Were they $15 O $50? $15.
r

SUBJECT QUESTIONS
When who or what is the subject of the question, we use the affirmative
form of the verb.
Who gave you the money?

OBJECT QUESTIONS
When who or what is the object of the question, we use the interrogative
form of the verb.
What did Mark give you for your birthday?

SHORT ANSWERS.
We repeat the first word in the question. We dont usually answer a
Yes/No Question in full:
Was James late? - Yes, he was / No, he wasnt.
Did you read the book? Yes, I did / No, I didnt.

AUXILIARY VERBS.
To be (am/are/is) - Ser; estar
was/were - been
To have - had - had Tener; haber
To do - did - done Aux. para preguntas;
hacer

MODAL AUXILIARIES
Can Poder; saber (presente).
Could Pasado de CAN.
May Poder (presente).
Might Pasado de MAY.
Must Deber (presente).
Had to Pasado de MUST
Shall Auxiliar de futuro en 1 persona.
Should Auxiliar de condicional; debera.
Will Auxiliar de futuro.
Would Auxiliar de condicional.
Need Tener que (presente).
Dare Atreverse (presente).
Used to Soler (presente)

TO BE (SER/ESTAR) - PRESENT SIMPLE TO BE PRESENT SIMPLE NEGATIVE


AFFIRMATIVE
FULL FORMS SHORT FULL FORMS SHORT FORMS
FORMS
I am = yo soy/estoy Im = yo I am not = yo no soy; Im not = yo no soy,
Review - Grammar, page 2
You are = t eres/ests soy/estoy no estoy no estoy
He is = l es(/est Youre You are not You arent
She is = ella es/est Hes He is not He isnt
It is = l/ella [cosa, animal, tiempo, Shes She is not She isnt
clima] es/est Its It is not It isnt
We are = nosotros somos/estamos Were We are not We arent
You are = vosotros sois/estis Youre You are not You arent
They are = ellos son/estn Theyre They are not They arent

TO BE - PRESENT SIMPLE TO BE PRESENT SIMPLE INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE


INTERROGATIVE
FULL FORMS FULL FORMS SHORT FORMS
Am I ? = Yo soy?/Yo estoy? Am I not ? = Yo no soy?/Yo -
Are you ? no estoy? Arent you ? = T no eres?/T
Is he ? Are you not? no ests?
Is she ? Is he not ? Isnt he ?
Is it ? Is she not ? Isnt she ?
Are we ? Is it not ? Isnt it ?
Are you ? Are we not ? Arent we ?
Are they ? Are you not ? Arent you ?
Are they not ? Arent they ?

TO BE (SER/ESTAR) - PAST SIMPLE TO BE PAST SIMPLE NEGATIVE


AFFIRMATIVE
FULL FORMS FULL FORMS SHORT FORMS
I was = yo era/estaba I was not = yo no I wasnt = yo no
You were = t eras/estabas era/estaba era/estaba
He was = l era/estaba You were not You werent
She was = ella era/estaba He was not He wasnt
It was = l/ella [cosa, animal, tiempo, She was not She wasnt
clima] era/estaba It was not It wasnt
We were = nosotros ramos/estbamos We were not We werent
You were = vosotros rais/estbais You were not You werent
They were = ellos eran/estaban They were not They werent

TO BE - PAST SIMPLE TO BE PAST SIMPLE INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE


INTERROGATIVE
FULL FORMS FULL FORMS SHORT FORMS
Was I ? = Yo era?/Yo Was I not ? = Yo no era?/Yo Wasnt I? = Yo no era?/Yo no
estaba? no estaba? estaba?
Were you ? Were you not? Werent you ? = T no eres?/T
Was he ? Was he not ? no ests?
Was she ? Was she not ? Wasnt he ?
Was it ? Was it not ? Wasnt she ?
Were we ? Were we not ? Wasnt it ?
Were you ? Were you not ? Werent we ?
Were they ? Were they not ? Werent you ?
Werent they ?

TO HAVE (TENER/HABER) - PRESENT SIMPLE TO HAVE PRESENT SIMPLE NEGATIVE


AFFIRMATIVE
FULL FORMS SHORT FULL FORMS SHORT FORMS
FORMS
I have = yo tengo/he Ive = yo I have not = yo no soy; I havent = yo no
You have = t tienes/has tengo/he no estoy tengo/yo no he
He has = l tiene/ha Youve You have not You havent
She has = ella tiene/ha Hes He has not He hasnt
It has = l/ella [cosa, animal, tiempo, Shes She has not She hasnt
clima] tiene/ha Its It has not It hasnt
We have = nosotros tenemos/hemos Weve We have not We havent
You have = vosotros tenis/habis Youve You have not You havent
They have = ellos tienen/han Theyve They have not They havent

TO HAVE - PRESENT SIMPLE TO HAVE PRESENT SIMPLE INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE


INTERROGATIVE
FULL FORMS FULL FORMS SHORT FORMS
Have I ? = Yo tengo?/Yo he? Have I not ? = Yo no tengo?/ Havent I ? = Yo no tengo?/
Have you ? Yo no he? Yo no he?
Has he ? Have you not? Havent you ?
Has she ? Has he not ? Hasnt he ?
Has it ? Has she not ? Hasnt she ?
Have we ? Has it not ? Hasnt it ?

Review - Grammar, page 3


Have you ? Have we not ? Havent we ?
Have they ? Have you not ? Havent you ?
Have they not ? Havent they ?

TO HAVE (TENER/HABER) - PAST SIMPLE TO BE PAST SIMPLE NEGATIVE


AFFIRMATIVE
FULL FORMS FULL FORMS SHORT FORMS
I had = yo tena/tuve/haba I had not = yo no I hadnt = yo no
You had = t tenas/tuviste/habas tena/tuve/haba tena/tuve/haba
He had = l tena/tuvo/haba You had not You hadnt
She had = ella tena/tuvo/haba He had not He hadnt
It had = l/ella [cosa, animal, tiempo, clima] She had not Shehadnt
tena/tuvo/haba It had not It hadnt
We had = nosotros tenamos/tuvimos/habamos We had not We hadnt
You had = vosotros tenais/tuvisteis/habais You had not You hadnt
They had = ellos tenan/tuvieron/haban They had not They hadnt

TO HAVE - PAST SIMPLE TO HAVE PAST SIMPLE INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE


INTERROGATIVE
FULL FORMS FULL FORMS SHORT FORMS
Had I ? = Yo tena/tuve/haba? Had I not ? = Yo no Hadnt I? = Yo no
Had you ? tena/tuve/haba? tena/tuve/haba?
Had he ? Had you not? Hadnt you ? = T no eres?/T
Had she ? Had he not ? no ests?
Had it ? Had she not ? Hadnt he ?
Had we ? Had it not ? Hadnt she ?
Had you ? Had we not ? Hadnt it ?
Had they ? Had you not ? Hadnt we ?
Had they not ? Hadnt you ?
Hadnt they ?

DEMONSTRATIVES
THIS [s] ste, -a, -o are used to talk about / point to people, animals or things which are
THESE Esos, -as near us.
[:z]
THAT [t] Ese, -a, -o; aqul, -la, are used to talk about / point to people, animals or things which are
-lo far away from us.
THOSE Esos, -as; aquellos, -as
[uz]

PREPOSITION +
-ING
Im tired of doing this.
Have a drink before
leaving.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS POSSESSIVE


SUBJECT OBJECT ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS
REFLEXIVE-EMPHATIC
PRONOUNS PRONOUNS Followed by Not followed by
PRONOUNS
Before verbs as After verbs as nouns nouns
subject objects
I (yo) me (me, m) my (mi) mine (mo) myself (m mismo)
You (t) you your yours yourself
He (l) him his his himself
She (ella) her her hers herself
It (ello) it its its itself
We (nosotros) us our ours ourselves
You you your yours yourselves
(vosotros/ustedes) them their theirs themselves
They (ellos)

SUBJECT PERSONAL PRONOUNS


We can use SUBJECT PERSONAL PRONOUNS before a verb instead of the noun or the name of the person.
We use HE for a man or a boy.
We use SHE for a woman or girl.
We use IT for a thing or an animal when we do not know its sex. When we talk about pets or animals whose sex we
know we can use he or she.
In the plural we use THEY for people, animals, plants and things.

OBJECT PERSONAL PRONOUNS


OBJECT PERSONAL PRONOUNS go after verbs as objects (Direct and
Indirect) and after prepositions.
Look at them! They are acrobats.
Its a present for you.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES/PRONOUNS
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES/PRONOUNS show that something belongs to somebody or the relationship
between two or more people.
We put possessive adjectives:
a) before nouns. Possessive pronouns are not followed by nouns.
Review - Grammar, page 4
This is my bag. This bag is mine.
b) with personal objects:
He is putting his shoes on.
c) with body parts:
Ive cut my finger.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS are not used before
nouns. They can be:
a) SUBJECT:
Is that her car? No, hers is red.
b) OBJECT:
If you havent brought a dictionary, you can
borrow mine.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS are used:
a) after certain verbs (kill, cut, behave, burn, enjoy, hurt, look at, teach, etc) when the subject and the object of
the verb are the same person.
He is enjoying himself tonight.
b) when the subject and object are the same person:
I looked at myself in the mirror.
c) to mean without help:
We made this ourselves.

EMPHATIC PRONOUNS
EMPHATIC PRONOUNS are used at the end of the sentence or after the noun
phrase they refer to, to emphasize the noun or the fact that one person and not
another performs the action.
He can fix the car (by) himself = l puede arreglar el coche.

NOTE THESE EXPRESSIONS:


Enjoy yourself! = Have a good time!
Behave yourself! = Be good!
I like being by myself = I like being alone.
She lives by herself = She lives alone.
Help yourself to tea! = Dont wait to be offered tea!

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
They express an interchangeable or mutual action or relationship. They show that an action is two-way. There are two forms
and each has a possessive case:
each other one another
each other's one another's
Examples:
Mark and Dave greeted each other OR Mark and Dave greeted one another.
Mark and Dan were embarrassed that they had forgotten each other's names OR Mark and Dan were embarrassed that they
had forgotten one another's names.

Review - Grammar, page 5


PLURALS
Regular plural -s book books
Ending in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z, -zz, -es kiss (beso) kisses
consonant + o
Ending in consonant + y y body (cuerpo)
ies bodies
Ending in -f or fe -ves thief (ladrn)
thieves

THERE IS / THERE ARE


We use THERE IS / THERE ARE to say that something/someone exists.
There are four children in the garden.
The short form of THERE IS is THERES. THERE ARE hasnt got a short
form.
Theres a sofa in the room.
The negative form of THERE IS is THERE ISNT or THERE IS NOT.
There isnt a letter on your desk.
The affirmative question is IS THERE? or ARE THERE?
Are there any apples in the basket?
The negative question is ISNT THERE? or ARENT THERE?
Isnt there any coffee?
In short answers we use Yes, there is/Yes, there are or No, there
isnt/No, there arent.
Are there any biscuits left? No, there arent.

FREQUENCY ADVERBS
Always, almost always, usually, generally, normally, frequently, often, sometimes, occasionally, hardly ever,
rarely, seldom, ever, never, etc.
Frequency Adverb + Verb:
I always study English in my bedroom (Siempre estudio ingls en mi dormitorio).
Auxiliary (To be, To have, can, could, will, etc.) + Frequency Adverb:
I am never late (Nunca llego tarde).

ADVERBIAL PHRASES
once a week, twice a fortnight, three times a month,
twelve times a year, etc.
Adverbial Phrases usually go at the end, although they can go
at the beginning.

POSSESSIVE CASE
We use the possessive case:
a) to show that something belongs to somebody
Marys bag.
b) to explain the relationship between two or more people
Toms uncle.
c) to talk about shops and houses
Hes at the bakers (=Hes at the bakers shop)
We are at Bobs (=We are at Bobs house).
It is formed in two ways:
a) with s for people and animals.
Jims flat.
b) with the preposition of for things.
The legs of the table.
Singular nouns or proper nouns take s but when the proper noun ends in s we add s or only an apostrophe ().
Emilys car.
Doriss hat or Doris hat.
Plural nouns ending in s take (apostrophe). Irregular plural nouns take s.
The girls house.
The mens boat.
When the same thing belongs to two or more people we add s only to the last noun.
Paul and Tinas house. (the house belongs to both of them)
When two or more things belong to two or more people and we want to show that each person has his/her own
thing we add s to each noun.
Marys and Sarahs roller skates. (each girl has her own roller skates)
When we want to know to whom something belongs we use the question word whose.
Whose horse is this? Its Helens.

ARTICLE.
Definite (THE) THE [] + Hablando en sentido general, THE se omite delante de:
consonant Nombres abstractos:
THE [:] + vowel Love is wonderful (El amor es maravilloso).
Nombres incontables:
I don't like meat (No me gusta la carne).
Nombres en plural:
I like sports (Me gustan los deportes).
Hablando en sentido particular nunca se omite THE:
The meat at our supermarket is cheap (La carne en nuestro supermercado
es barata).
Indefinite (A, A + consonant No tiene plural, pero en su lugar se utiliza SOME:
Review - Grammar, page 6
AN) An + vowel Some boys are playing in the garden (Unos muchachos estn jugando en el
jardn).
Se utiliza delante de nombres de profesiones:
Shes a teacher (Es profesora).

Review - Grammar, page 7


SOME / ANY.
SOM + (Plural de a, an; "algn," I have some pens = Tengo unos lpices.
E "algunos,"
"un cierto nmero de" o "un I want some milk = Quiero leche.
poco de"
? = respuesta afirmativa Do you want some coffee? = Quieres caf?
ANY - I dont see anything = I see nothing = No
veo nada.
? Can you see anything? = Ves algo?
+ = cualquier Anybody can do that = Cualquiera puede
hacerlo.

We use some, any and no with uncountable nouns (e.g. bread, sugar, etc.) and plural countable nouns (e.g. pens, cars, etc.)
Some bread (a little bread).
Some cherries (a few cherries).
Some means a little or a few. We use some in positive statements.
Ive got some money. (=Ive got a little money).
We use any in questions and not any in negations.
Have you got any money? No, I havent got any money.
We can use no instead of not any in negations.
I havent got any money. / I have go no money.
Note: We use some in questions when we are making an offer or when we are asking for something.
Would you like some coffee? (offer)
Can I have some coffee, please? (request)

Somebody/someone (a person), something (a thing) and somewhere (in/to/at a place) are used in positive statements.
There is somebody at the door.
Anybody/anyone, anything and anywhere are used in questions and negations.
Is there anything on the table?
Nobody/no one, nothing and nowhere can be used in negations instead of not anybody/not anything/not anywhere.
There isnt anything on the table = There is nothing on the table.
I cant see anybody in the garden = I can see nobody in the garden.

Affirmat Interroga Negative


ive tive
Peop Who? someone anyone no one / not anyone
le somebod anybody nobody / not anybody
y
Thin What somethin anything nothing / not
gs ? g anything
Plac Wher somewhe anywhere nowhere / not
es e? re anywhere

SOME / NO / ANY / EVERY


Somethi Algo, alguna cosa Nothing Nada
ng Alguien Nobody Nadie
Somebo Alguien No one Nadie
dy En algn lugar Nowher En ningn lugar
Someon e
e
Somewh
ere
Anythin Algo, alguna cosa; Everythi Todo, todas las
g cualquier cosa ng cosas
Anybody Alguien; cualquiera Everybo Todos, todo el
Anyone Alguien; cualquiera dy mundo
Anywher En algn lugar; en Everyon Todos, todo el
e cualquier lugar e mundo
Everywh En todas partes
ere

NUMBE CARDINALS ORDINALS


RS
FORM 0 nought/zero/nil/oh/love 1one 2 two 3 three 4 four 5 1st first 2nd second 3rd third 4th fourth 5th fifth
five 6 six 7 seven 8 eight 9 nine 10 ten 20 twenty 26 6th sixth 7th seventh 8th eighth 9th ninth 10th
twenty-six 30 thirty 100 one/a hundred 300 three tenth 20th twentieth 26th twenty-sixth 30th
hundred 389 three hundred and eighty-nine 1,000 one thirtieth 100th hundredth 300th three hundredth
thousand 1,000,000 one million 389 three hundred and eighty-ninth 1,000th
thousandth 1,000,000th one millionth
USE Dates
We write: 9 June or 9th June and we say: the ninth of June or June the ninth.

Years
We read them in pairs:
1935 = Nineteen thirty-five.
2010 = Twenty ten or two thousand and ten.

Telephone numbers
We read them figure by figure or in pairs. 0 is read as oh. We say double when the same figure is repeated.

Review - Grammar, page 8


922261011 = nine, two two/double two, two, six, one, oh, one one/double one.

Review - Grammar, page 9


A LOT OF / MUCH / MANY
Affirmative Interrogative Negative
Countable nouns a lot (of) (how) many many
lots of
Uncountable nouns a lot (of) (how) much much
We use a lot of / lots of with plural countable nouns (e.g. books, cars, etc.) and uncountable nouns (e.g. sugar,
milk, etc.) in positive statements.
Shes got a lot of/lots of books.
We omit of when a lot is not followed by a noun.
Are there many people in the room? Yes, there are a lot.
We normally use much with uncountable nouns in questions and negations.
How much money have you got?
We normally use many with plural countable nouns in questions and negations.
Are there many books on the shelf? -- There arent many books on the shelf.
In questions we use how much to ask about the amount of something and how many to ask about the number of
things.
How much sugar do we need? -- A kilo. (we want to know the amount)
How many boys are there in your class? -- Twenty. (we want to know the number)

A LITTLE / A FEW / FEW


We use a little / little with uncountable nouns (e.g. water,
money, rice, etc.).
A little means not much but enough.
Ive got a little money. I can buy some bread.
Little means hardly any, almost nothing and can go with
very for emphasis.
Theyve got (very) little money. They cant buy any
bread.
We use a few/few with plural countable nouns (e.g. tomatoes,
books, cups, etc.).
A few means not many but enough.
There are a few tomatoes. We can make a salad.
Few means hardly any, almost none and can go with very for
emphasis.
There are (very) few people in the cinema. Its empty.

ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
Adjectives describe nouns; they say what kind a Adverbs describe verbs; they explain how (adverbs of
noun is. manner), where (adverbs of place), when (adverbs of
ADJECTIVES GO BEFORE NOUNS. time) or how often (adverbs of frequency) someone does
They can also be used alone after the verb TO BE. something or something happens.
They have the same for in the singular and plural. ADVERBS GO AFTER VERBS.
They have a big house. (a house big) He walks slowly. (Adverb of manner).
He is poor. John is here. (Adverb of place).
They are poor. (poors) He wakes up early. (Adverb of time).
Sometimes the adverb goes BEFORE the verb, e.g. the
adverbs of frequency (often, always, etc.)
She often visits her parents.

ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
OPINION adjectives (bad, good, etc.) go before FACT adjectives (old, red,
etc.)
She bought a beautiful red dress.
When there are two or more FACT adjectives, they go in the following order:
size age shape colour origin material noun
This is a large old rectangular brown french wooden bed

ORDER OF ADVERBS.
Adverbs of frequency (often, usually, etc.) go after auxiliary verbs but
before main verbs.
She is never late. He never comes late.
When there are more than two adverbs, they go in the following order:
Manner Place Time
She sat lazily by the pool all day.
When there is a verb of movement, then the order is:
Place Manner Time
He walks home quickly every afternoon.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE.


We use the comparative form to compare two people or
things.
She is taller than the other students.
We use THAN with the comparatives.
We use the superlative form to compare three or more
people or things.
She is the tallest in the class.
We use THE OF/IN with the superlatives (IN when we
refer to places).
Russia is the largest country in the world.
Review - Grammar, page 10
COMPARISON OF SUPERIORITY AND SUPERLATIVES
ADJECTIVES POSITI COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
VE
One syllable long longer tan the longest of/in
Two syllables ending in y, -er, -le, happy happier than the happiest of/in
-ow
Two (except in y, -er, -le, -ow) or beautif more beautiful the most beautiful
more syllables ul than of/in

SPELLING RULES ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE


One-syllable adjectives ending in e take r in the comparative nice niceer nicer
and st in the superlative form. large largeer larger
Adjectives ending in a stressed vowel between two consonants thin thiner thinner
double the final consonant and then take er/-est fat fater fatter
Two-syllable adjectives ending in y turn the y into i and then easy easyer easier
take er/-est trendy trendyer trendier

AS AS / NOT AS AS.
When we want to say that two people or things are the same, we use as as.
Helen is as tall as Kate.
In negations we use not as as.
Mary is not as clever as Julie.

THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE OF ADVERBS.


Adverbs form the comparative and superlative in the same way as adjectives. Adverbs of one or two syllables take er in
the comparative and est in the superlative.
Hard > harder / hardest.
The adverbs which are formed by adding ly to the adjective (adverbs of manner), take more in the comparative and most in
the superlative.
Carefully > more carefully / most carefully.

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND


SUPERLATIVES
good/well Better the best
bad/badly worse the worst
much/many/a more the most
lot of
little Less the least
far further/fart the
her furthest/farthest

FORMATION OF ADVERBS.
a) We usually form an adverb by adding ly to the adjective. slow > slowly.
b) Adjectives ending in le drop the e and take y. simple > simply.
c) Adjectives ending in consonant + y drop the y and take -ily. angry > angrily.
d) Adjectives ending in l take ly. careful > carefully.

LOOK, SMELL, SOUND, FEEL, TASTE + ADJECTIVE.


The verbs look, smell, sound, feel, taste take an adjective, not an adverb.
They look happy. (They look happily)

BOTH / NEITHER / NONE / ALL


BOTH refers to two people or things. It has a positive NEITHER refers to two people or things. It has a negative
meaning and takes a verb in the plural. meaning and takes a verb either in the singular or the
Tom is rich. Laura is rich too. plural.
> Both of them are rich / They are both rich. Tom is poor. Laura isnt poor either.
> Neither of them is / are poor.
ALL refers to more than two people or things. It has a NONE refers to more than two people or things. It has a
positive meaning and takes a verb in the plural. negative meaning and takes a verb either in the singular
John, Mary and Kevin are students. or the plural.
> All of them are students / They are all students. John, Mary and Kevin havent got a car.
> None of them has / have a car.

TOO / ENOUGH
TOO + ADJECTIVE / ADVERB means more than is wanted. The implication is
always negative.
Hes too young to travel alone. (He cant travel alone)
He drove too slowly to win the race. (He didnt drive fast enough to
win the race)
ADJECTIVE / ADVERB + ENOUGH means as much as is wanted.
Shes old enough to drive a car. (She can drive a car)
He left early enough to catch the train. (He left early so he was
able to catch the train)
ENOUGH + NOUN
Hes got enough money to buy a car.

Review - Grammar, page 11


RELATIVES
Relative Pronouns (WHO, WHOSE, WHOM, WHICH, THAT) introduce relative clauses.
Subject of the verb of the relative Object of the verb of the Possession (cant be omitted)
clause (cant be omitted) relative clause (can be
omitted)
Used for people WHO / THAT WHO / WHOM / THAT WHOSE
She is the girl who/that studies This is the man Thats the boy whose
English (whom/that) we hired last brother won the prize.
Ella es la chica que estudia ingls Monday. ste es el chico cuyo
ste es el hombre que hermano gan el premio.
alquilamos el pasado lunes.
Used for things / WHICH / THAT WHICH / THAT WHOSE / OF WHICH
animals This is the house which/that belongs Heres the bag Thats the bag whose
to my friend. (which/that) you left on handle got broken.
my desk. Esa es la maleta cuya asa se
Aqu est la bolsa que rompi.
dejaste en mi escritorio.
WHO, WHOM, WHICH, THAT can be omitted when there is a noun or a pronoun (I, you, etc) between the relative
pronoun and the verb, that is, when they are the objects of the relative clause.
The clock (which/that) I bought yesterday does not work. (which/that can be omitted)
Where is the ring (which/that) George gave you? (which/that can be omitted)
A person who repairs cars is a mechanic. (who cant be omitted)
THAT replaces WHO or WHICH but is never used after commas or prepositions. THAT usually follows superlatives and words
like something, nothing, anything, all, none, many, few.
Theres something that you dont know.
Shes the tallest girl that Ive ever seen.
PREPOSITIONS IN RELATIVE CLAUSES.
We avoid using prepositions before relative pronouns.
Thats the girl with whom I went to the party. (very formal)
Shes the tallest girl that Ive ever seen.
WHO, WHOM, WHICH, THAT can be omitted when there is a noun or a pronoun (I, you, etc.) between the relative
pronoun and the verb, that is, when they are the objects of the relative clause.
The clock (which/that) I bought yesterday does not work. (which/that can be omitted)
Where is the ring (which/that) George gave you? (which/that can be omitted)
A person who repairs cars is a mechanic. (who cant be omitted)
RELATIVE ADVERBS.
TIME = WHEN (= in/on which).
That was the summer (when) it rained every day.
PLACE = WHERE (= in/on/at/to which).
Thats the hotel where we stayed.
REASON = WHY (= for which).
Can you tell me the reason (why) he lied to me?
OTHER RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
Relative pronouns such as WHAT, WHATEVER and WHOEVER are normally used without antecedents.
WHAT has the meaning the thing or things that (lo que, las cosas que, lo cual) when used as a relative pronoun.
What you say is true.
What he did was wrong.
In these examples, the relative pronoun what introduces the clauses what you say and what he did. Such clauses are often
referred to as NOUN CLAUSES, since they can serve some of the functions of a noun. For instance, in the preceding
sentences, the clause what you say acts as the subject of the verb is, and the clause what he did acts as the subject of the
verb was.

WHATEVER has the meaning no matter what, or anything which.


You can tell me whatever you like.

WHOEVER has the meaning no matter who, or anyone who.


Let in whoever comes to the door.
In these examples, the noun clauses whatever you like and whoever comes to the door act as the objects of the verbs in
the main clauses.

PHRASAL VERBS
A Phrasal Verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the original verb. When you see
a phrasal verb for the first time you should study the context of use, and check the meaning in a dictionary. They are
particularly common in informal writing and speech.
I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. run + into = meet
He ran away when he was 15. run + away = leave home
Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be followed by an object.
He suddenly showed up. "show up" cannot take an object
Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an object.
I made up the story. "story" is the object of "make up"
Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between the verb and the preposition.
I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. talk into = persuade
She looked the phone number up. look up = find out by looking in something such as a reference book or a list
Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the preposition.
I ran into an old friend yesterday. run + into = meet
They are looking into the problem. look into = find out about it and examine the facts relating to it
Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.
I looked the number up in the phone book. look up = find out by looking in something such as a reference book
or a list
Review - Grammar, page 12
I looked up the number in the phone book. look up = find out by looking in something such as a reference book
or a list
WARNING! Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both places, you must put the object between the verb and the
preposition if the object is a pronoun.
I looked the number up in the phone book.
I looked up the number in the phone book.
I looked it up in the phone book. correct
I looked up it in the phone book. Incorrect

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
TYPE OF CONDITION EXAMPLE
MAIN CLAUSE
SENTENCES AL CLAUSE
Future simple (will) If you marry me, you will be happy.
Real or possible Present Present simple If you marry me, you are very sensible.
sentences simple Imperative (Infinitive without To) If you marry me, get ready for adventure!
Modal (can, may, etc.) in present If you marry me, you can be happy.
Hypothetical or Conditional simple (would speak) If you lived in Tenerife, you would love it.
improbable Past simple Modal in past simple (would, could, might, If you lived in Tenerife, you could visit me.
sentences etc.)
Impossible Past Conditional perfect (would have spoken) If I had seen the mistake, I would have
sentences perfect Modal with infinitive perfect (could have corrected it.
spoken,etc.) If I had seen the mistake, I could have
corrected it.

whether can be used instead of if when we want to express two different options:
Whether you come with me or not, ill have a great time.
was/were when be is the verb used in the conditional clause, we use the form were for all persons of the verb,
although we can use was for the first and third person singular in spoken language:
If i were a rich man, i would buy an airplane.
unless if the condition is negative, we use the conjunction unless instead of if not:
If i dont have breakfast, im hungry all day.
Unless i have breakfast, im hungry all day.
even if is used instead of if to give emphasis to the condition:
Please come to my party, even if its only for a little while.
as long as, these expressions mean only if a given condition is fulfilled:
providing/provided You can borrow it as long as you look after it.
(that) I have a place at university provided i pass my exams.
wish/ if only to refer to present situations > wish/if only + subject + past simple:
I wish he were there.
to refer to past situations > wish/if only + subject + past perfect:
If only he had been here.
to refer to future situations > wish/if only + subject + would/could + infinitive:
I wish he could be here tomorrow.
these sentences express wishes:
I wish he were there. / if only he were there.
when we use the form would / wouldnt, we express criticism about someones behaviour:
If only he would shut up!

PASSIVE VOICE
It is formed with the verb TO BE and the past participle of the main verb. The object (direct or/and indirect) of the verb in the
active sentence becomes the subject of the verb in the passive sentence:
They gave Ms Roberts all the information she needed.
Ms Roberts was given all the information she needed.
To specify who or what did the action we include the preposition by before the agent:
The new library was opened by the mayor.
This book was published by Macmillan.
The passive voice is used more frequently in English than in Spanish, where the tendency is to use the active voice or the
impersonal structure with se:
The children were picked up at four.
Smoking isnt allowed.
To change an active sentence into a passive one, the trick is to write the same tense of the verb TO BE + Past
participle of the main verb.

We use it when the action is more important then the person or persons who did it or when we do not know who did the
action or when it is obvious who did it.
She was prescribed antibiotics. (It is obvious that the doctor prescribed them)
HAVE/GET SOMETHING DONE is used to express things that other people do for us:
I got my hair cut at the salon near school.
They had their house painted last year.
We use IT IS + PARTICIPLE + THAT + CLAUSE when the subject is unknown or generic:
It is said that travelling broadens ones mind.
We use SUBJECT + BE + PARTICIPLE + TO + INFINITIVE when there is a specific subject:
Four leaf clovers are believed to bring good luck.

sends
ACTIVE John the money
Verb
SENTENCE Subject Direct Object
(active)

Review - Grammar, page 13


The money is sent by John
PASSIVE
Subject Verb Agent
SENTENCE
(patient) (passive) (complement)

REPORTED SPEECH
STATEMENTS
reporting verb + (that)
They admitted that they had
seen her.
reporting verb + object (+that)
She told him you were in
Madrid.
reporting verb + (not) to + infinitive
We promised not to make a
noise.
reporting verb + object + (not) to + infinitive
They reminded us to send her a
card.
ORDERS, REQUESTS
reporting verb + object + (not) to + infinitive
He told him not to do it again.
reporting verb + (that) + subject + base
form of the verb
I demanded that they
apologize.
QUESTIONS
reporting verb + if/whether + subject + verb
Sue asked if we wanted a drink.
reporting verb + wh- + subject + verb
She wondered what the
problem was.
SUGGESTIONS
reporting verb + -ing
They suggested meeting up.
reporting verb (+that) + subject + base form
of the verb
I suggested that she speak to
him.

Review - Grammar, page 14

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