Continuum Mechanics

lecture-1
Introduction
By
M. G. Gadgil

Primary objective of structural

engg activity
To plan, design and detail a structural system which will carry safely the
loads coming on it.
i. We have a structural system
ii. It has to carry loads
iii. The loads be carried safely and efficiently

Structures
Structures as understood by layman
i. Buildings
ii. Bridges
iii. Fluid container tanks
iv. Retaining walls
v. Dams
vi. Aircrafts
vii. Ships
viii. Automobiles
ix. Tunnels
x. Jetty
xi. Cranes
xii. Balloon

Classification of structures
from Engineers point of view
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.

Beam
Column
Arch
Cable
Truss--- plane/space
Frame plane/space
Floor grid
Slab
Shell
Folded plate
3-d solid
Plane stress
Plane strain

We have a structure
Def. Structure is an assemblage of members suitably
connected to each other and supported so that it
carries loads coming on it safely to the
support/foundation
Thus the basic building blocks of any structure is a
member or an element which may be one two or
three dimensional

Basic building blocks of structures

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Truss element--- AF
Beam element --- SF and BM
Frame element 2-3 d--- AF, SF, BM
Slab element--- BM, TM, SF
x x xy
Plane stress element inPlane strain element in plane stresses and out of plane stress

vii. Membrane element--viii.Shell element --

x y

x y z xy

N x N y N xy QxQy M x M y M xy

x , y , z , xy , yz , zx

ix. Solid element

Internal forces in members of

a structure
i. Axial force
ii. Shear force
iii.Bending moment
iv.Torsion

Internal stresses in any members

i. Normal stress tensile
ii. Normal stress compressive
iii.Shear stress

Materials of structure
I. Natural materials
II. Man made materials
III. Combination materials
IV. Structural materials
V. Aesthetic materials
VI. Functional materials

Natural materials
1. Soil
2. Stones
3. Sand
4. Timbers
5. Natural fibres
6. Hair
7. Water
8. Air

Man made materials

i. Bricks
ii. Concrete
iii. Metals
iv. Non metals
v. Polymers
vi. Man made fibres

Historical background
17 th and 18 th century saw investigation into problem of bending of
elastic bars by Galileo Galilei, E Mariotte, Robert Hook, J bernaulli, L
Euler, CA Coulomb and others
Due to need for construction of rail roads, necessity was felt for
developing deeper understanding of behaviour of solids subjected to
different loads

Content
Introduction- need to study beyond elementary theory of strength of
materials
Local stresses near point load, near supports difficult to determine
Stresses in beams whose depth is comparable to its span (deep beam)
Stresses in rollers and balls of bearings
Stresses at locations where sharp variation occurs in dimension of beams
and shaft
Concept of semi infinite medium and infinite medium

Isotropy and homogeneity

Isotropy --- property same in all directions
Orthotropy properties different in different orthogonal directions
Un-isotropic-Anisotropic properties different in different directions

Stress at a point in a body

Notation of Forces and stresses

Reduction of shear stresses

xy dxdydz yx dxdydz
giving

xy yx , similarly
yz zy , and xz zx

Strain at a point

Strain at a Point------ 2
Under deformed state, at O, deformation of body are u, v, w in x , y
and z direction
At adjacent point A, the deformations are
in x direction

u
u
dx
x

In y direction

v
v dy
y

Strain at a Point ---3

In z direction

w
w
dz
z

Strain at a Point------ 4
At adjacent point A, the strains are

in x direction
In y direction
In z direction

u
x
x

v
y
y
w
z
z

Strain at a Point ---5

In z direction

Shear strains are

w
w
dz
z
xy
yz

u v

y x
v w

z y

zx

w u

x z

Lecture 2

Hookes law
Experiment shows that normal stresses do not produce distortion for
isotropic material. Thus

x
E

where E is the modulus of Elasticity in tension

Extension of element in x direction is accompanied by Lateral contraction

x
E

where is the poisson's ratio

x
E

Strains in Element carrying normal stresses

z

y
x

x
y

Strains in elements ----2

1
x x y z
E

1
y y z x
E

1
z z x y
E

Pure shear stress and shear strain

Pure shear stress and shear strain--2

Resolving forces normal to plane bc
stress on plane bc as

( y z ) we get normal

yOB cos 45 - zOC cos 45 0

Resolving forces along the plane bc we get shear stress on plane bc as

yOB SIN45 /OC - zOA SIN45 /OC 1/ 2( y z )

Pure shear stress and shear strain--3

This is a state of pure shear
Elongation of vertical element ob = shortening of horizontal element oa and oc
Lengths ab and bc do not change

Angle between ab and bc changes

After deformation of ab and bc we have

Pure shear stress and shear strain--4

Oc

1 z
tan( )
Ob
4 2 1 y
Linear strains y z are given as
1
1
y y z
y and
E
E
1
1
z z y
z
E
E

Pure shear stress and shear strain--5

(1 ) y
E

(1 ) z
1
E

Pure shear stress and shear strain--6

This gives

(1 ) z (1 )

giving
2
E
E

2(1 )

thus we have
E
E
G shear modulus
2(1 )

Pure shear stress and shear strain--7

xy

1
1
1
xy , yz yz , zx zx ,
G
G
G

Linear strains and shear strains are independent of each other

Volumetric stress and strain

If we use the following notations

e x y z
and

x y z
adding the three strains we get
1 2
e

Volumetric stress-strain
In case of uniform hydrostatic pressure p we have

x y z p
we have
3(1- 2 )
e
p
E
this represents relationship between vo lumetric
strain e and hydrostatic pressure p

3(1- 2 )
K bulk modulus
E

Stress in terms of strain

If following equations are solved for stresses

Stress in terms of strain

Stress in terms of strain

PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN PROBLEMS

Plane stress If a thin plate is loaded by
a. forces applied at boundary
b. parallel to the plane of plate
c. distributed uniformly over thickness of plate

PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN PROBLEMS

Stress components
are zero on both faces of
z , yz , xz
plates and we assume them to be zero through thickness also. The
state of stress is then defined by only , ,
x

xy

It is presumed that these stress do not vary through thickness

and are functions of x and y only.

PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN PROBLEMS

Plane strain problem
If a body is very long such as a long cylinder, or a dam or a
retaining wall, or a tunnel and is
a. loaded by forces normal to the length of the body
b. and these forces do not vary with length
c. We can assume all sections will behave identically
d. It is presumed that ends are restrained in length direction

Long Dam or Retaining wall

Long Tunnel

Long under ground or under water pipeline

Plane strain contd

Strains and stresses must satisfy following conditions
As the longitudinal displacement w is zero we must have all strains in
z direction as zero, thus

v w
yz
0
z y
u w
xz
0
z x
w
z
0
z

Plane strain contd.

As long strain is zero we must have

1
z 0 z x y
E
giving

z x y

These stresses act as interacting forces between adjacent sections, over the
entire cross section. State of stress is therefore represented by

x , y , xy only
and z can be determined from x and y

Stress at a point in 2-D problem

Knowing atate of stress at a point ( x , y , xy ) it is possible to
determine state of stress in a plane at angle to this plane using
equations of equilibrium

Stress at a point in 2-D problem

In discussing conditions of equilibrium of small triangular prism, body
forces are neglected
Also variation of stresses across element is neglected.
Cosines of angle between normal N and x and y axes are denoted as
Cos Nx = l and Cos Ny = m
If A is area of BC then area of other two sides are Al and Am

Stress at a point in 2-D problem

Equations of equilibrium of prismatical element are

X l x m xy

Y m y l xy

Stress at a point in 2-D problem

Knowing atate of stress at a point ( x , y , xy ) it is possible to
determine state of stress in a plane at angle to this plane using
equations of equilibrium

Calculating stress on an inclined plane

Let be the angle between x axis and normal to the plane
so that cos l and sin m
the normal and shear stresseson plane BC are given by

X cos Y sin x cos y sin 2 xy sin cos

Y cos X sin xy (cos sin ) ( y x ) sin cos

2

Principal stresses

Angle may be chosen such that shear stress becomes zero

Principle stresses continued

xy (cos sin ) ( y x ) sin cos 0
2

xy
sin cos
1

tan 2
2
2
x y (cos sin ) 2
From this equation, two directions could be found out for which
shear stress is zero. These directions are the Principal
directions and the corresponding normal stressesare the
Principal stresses

Principal stresses contd

If principal directions are taken as x and y then normal
and shear stresseson any plane at angle are given as

x cos2 y sin 2
( y x ) sin cos
variation of these stressesis given by graphical representation

Principal stresses- Mohrs circle

Mohrs circle contd

OF OC CF

x
2

(1 cos 2 )

x y

y
2

x y
2

(1 cos 2 )

x cos y sin
2

DF CD sin 2

x y
2

sin 2

cos 2

Mohrs circle

Maximum shear stress is given by

max

x y
2

at angle 2 /2 or /4

Principal stresses another graphical

representation

Strain at a point
When strain components x , y and xy are known at a point
the strains (normal and shear ) in any direction can be determined
If a line PQ is translated, stretchedand rotated into line P' Q' when
the deformations occur

Strains at a point --- contd

The displacements of P are u and v and those of Q are
u
u
v
v
u dx dy and v dx dy
x
y
x
y

Strains at a point contd.

QR and RQ represent the components of displacement

of Q relative to P

Strains at a point contd.

u
u
QR
dx dy
x
y
v
v
RQ' ' dx dy
x
y
QR and RQ represent the components of
displacement of Q relative to P

Strains at a point contd

Component of these relative displacements QS and SQ' '
along and normal to PQ' ' are
QS QRsin RQ' ' cos
SQ' ' QRcos RQ' ' sin

Strains at a point contd

Strain (unit elongation) of P' Q' is given by
1
QR cos RQ' ' sin
SQ' ' / PQ
PQ

1 u
u
v
v

( dx dy) cos sin ( dx dy)

PQ x
y
x
y

Strains at a point contd

u dx u dy
v dx v dy
(

) cos sin (

)
x PQ y PQ
x PQ y PQ
u

u
v
v
( cos sin ) cos sin ( cos sin )
y
x
y
x

u v
u
v 2
2

cos sin cos sin

x
y
y x

x cos xy sin cos y sin

2

Strain at a point contd

The angle through w hich PQ is rotated is QS/PQ
1
QR sin RQ ' ' cos

PQ
v
1
u
u
v

dy) cos dx dy
sin ( dx
PQ
x
y
y
x

v dx v dy
u dx u dy

sin (

) cos

x ds y ds
x ds y ds

Strain at a point contd

v u
v
u 2
2
cos sin cos sin
x
y
y x

Shear strain at a point contd

Thus angle through which PQ has rotated is

v u
v
u 2
2
cos sin cos sin
x
y
y x

Shear strain at a point contd.

Line element PT at right angles to PQ makes an

angle

with x axis and its rotation is given by

after substituting

for

Shear strain at a point contd

Thus angle through which PT has rotated is

/ 2

v u
v
2
cos ( / 2) sin( / 2) cos( / 2)
x
y x

u 2
sin ( / 2)
y

/ 2

v u
v 2
u
sin sin cos cos2
x
y
y x

Shear strain at a point contd

The shear strain for directions PT and PQ is / 2 hence
v u
v u
2
2
( )(cos sin ) 2 sin cos
x y
y x
or
1
1
2
2
xy (cos sin ) y x sin cos
2
2

Differential equation of equilibrium

equations of equilibrium contd.

Adding forcesin X direction

x1h x3h x2 k x4 k Xhk 0

Dividing throughout by hk we have

x1 x3 x2 x4

X 0

k
h
taking element very small so that h 0 and k 0
x xy

X 0
x
y

Equations of equilibrium contd

Similarly Adding forcesin Y direction

y
y

xy
x

Y 0