MEKELLE UNIVERSITY

ETHIOPIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY-MEKELLE

ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
BY: SBHATLEAB H.
CHAPTER ONE
ELECTROMAGNETIC PRINCIPLES
INTRODUCTION

Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used today in industry,
research, or the home. Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, televisions, computers,
tape recorders, and telephones all employ magnetic effects to perform a variety of important
tasks.
All electromagnetic devices make use of magnetic fields in their operation. These magnetic
fields may be produced by permanent magnets or electromagnets. Magnetic fields are created by
alternating- and direct-current sources to provide the necessary medium for developing generator
action and motor action. Throughout this book we will be studying the application of magnetic
fields to electromechanical energy conversion processes as demonstrated in rotating electric machinery. Also, transformers provide energy transfer from one electric circuit to another via the
changing magnetic field. It will become apparent that there is both transfer and storage of energy
in the magnetic fields of the various electromagnetic devices. Hence all electromagnetic devices
are constructed with appropriate magnetic circuits.

1.1.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RELATIONSHIPS
A. Magnetic Lines of Force

The "quantity of magnetism" which exists in a magnetic field is the magnetic line of force, or
more simply, the magnetic flux. In the SI system magnetic flux is measured in units called
webers, abbreviated Wb, and its symbol is ( (the Greek lowercase letter phi). The weber is
defined in terms of an induced voltage, so that the definition of the unit will be postponed until
we study electromagnetic induction. Although there is no actual flow of magnetic flux, we will
consider flux to be analogous to current in electric circuits.
B. Magnetic Flux Density
The total magnetic flux that comes out of the magnet is not uniformly distributed, as can be seen
in Figure 1.2. A more useful measure of the magnetic effect is the magnetic flux density, which
is the magnetic flux per unit cross-sectional area. We will consider two equal areas through
which the magnetic flux penetrates at right angles near one end of the permanent magnet along
its centerline. From the illustration it becomes apparent that there is a greater amount of magnetic
flux passing through an area that is nearer the magnet pole. In other words, the magnetic flux
density increases as we approach closer to the end of the magnet. However, it must be noted that
the magnetic flux density inside the magnet is uniformly constant. Magnetic flux density is
measured in units of tesla (T) and is given the symbol B. One tesla is equal to 1 weber of
magnetic flux per square meter of area.We can state that

1.1

where B = magnetic flux density, T

= magnetic flux, Wb
A = area through which penetrates perpendirularly, m2
Example 1.1 The total magnetic flux out of a cylindrical permanent magnet is found to be
0.032 mWb. If the magnet has a circular cross section and a diameter of 1 cm, what is the
magnetic flux density at the end of the magnet?
Solution
The total flux = 0.032 x 10 -3 Wb, cross-sectional area of magnet:

D2 (0.01)2
A

78.53 106 m2
4
4
B

0.032 103

0.407 T
A 78.53 106

Note that this magnetic flux density exists only at the immediate end of the magnet. As we move
away from the end of the magnet, the magnetic flux spreads out, and therefore the magnet flux
density decreases.
C. Magnetomotive Force
We have seen that an increase in the magnitude of current in a coil or a single conductor results
in an increase in the magnetic flux. If the number of turns in a coil are increased (with the current
remaining constant), there is an increase in magnetic flux. Therefore, the magnetic flux is
proportional to the products of amperes and turns. This ability of a coil to produce magnetic flux
is called the magnetomotive force. Magnetomotive force is abbreviated MMF and has the units
of ampere-turns (At). The magnetomotive force is given the symbol F m. Strictly speaking, the
units of MMF are amperes because turns are dimensionless quantities. However, from a
pedagogical standpoint, we prefer and shall use throughout this book the units of ampere-turns
(At) for MMF. We may write

Fm NI

1.2

where Fm = magnetomotive force (MMF), At

N = number of turns of coil
I = excitation current in coil, A
Magnetomotive force in the magnetic circuit is analogous to electromotive force in an electric
circuit.
Example 1.2 The coil in Figure 1.7 has 1000 turns wound on a cardboard toroid. The mean (or
average) diameter D of the toroid is 10 cm, and the cross section is 1 cm. The total magnetic flux
in the toroid is 3Wb when there is an excitation current of 10 mA in the coil.

(a) What is the magnetic flux when the current is increased to 20 mA?
(b) What is the magnetic flux density within the coil when the current is 20 mA?
Solution
(a) If we double the current to 20 mA. then

Fm NI 1000 20 103 20At

and must double to 6 Wb.
(b) For a toroid. the magnetic flux is assumed to be uniform across the interior crosssectional area of the coil. From Eq. (1.1),

6 10 6

76 mT
A ( / 4)(1 10 2 )2

Figure 1.7 Toroid coil.

D. Magnetic Reluctance
In Example 1.2 we have seen that doubling the driving force (MMF) in the circuit results in a
doubling of the output quantity (magnetic flux). We consider this ratio of MMF to magnetic flux:
Fm
m
1.3

where Fm NI , the MMF, At

= magnetic flux, Wb
m= reluctance of the magnetic circuit. At/Wb
Transposing, we have

Fm m
which shows us that the magnetic flux is directlv proportional m the magnetomotive force. This
equation represents Ohm's law of magnetic circuits. The proportionality factor m, is called the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit and is obviouslv, analogous to resistance in an electric circuit.
Assuming that a coil has fixed turns and a constant excitation current, the amount of magnetic
flux produced will depend on the material used in the core of the coil. A much larger amount of
3

flux can be produced in an iron-core coil than in an air-core coil. Thus we see that the reluctance
of the magnetic circuit depends on the material properties of the magnetic circuit. For our
purposes, the materials are classified as either magnetic or nonmagnetic. Only the
ferrous
(irons and steels) group of metals, including cobalt and nickel, are magnetic materials. All other
materials, such as air, insulators, wood, paper, plastic, brass, and bronze, including vacuum, are
nonmagnetic materials.
The strength and pattern of the magnetic field in nonmagnetic
materials would be identical to that of air or vacuum (free space). In our discussions we will
assume that the magnetic properties of air and vacuum are the same. We consider some of the
peculiar characteristics of magnetic materials in subsequent sections.
The reluctance of a homogeneous magnetic circuit may be expressed in terms of its physical
dimensions and magnetic property as follows:
m

l
A

1.4

where m = reluctance of the magnetic circuit, At/Wb

l = average or mean length of the magnetic path, m
A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic path, m2
= 0 r , absolute (or total) permeability of the magnetic path, H/m
Reluctance is in essence magnetic resistance, that is, the property of a magnetic circuit which is
reluctant or unwilling to set up magnetic flux. The reciprocal of reluctance is termed as
permeance, which is anologous to conductance in electric circuits.
E. Permeability
Permeability is the magnetic property that determines the characteristics of magnetic materials
and nonmagnetic materials. The permeability of free space and nonmagnetic materials has the
following symbol and constant value in SI units:
0 4 107 H / m

As we can see, the reluctance of magnetic materials r is much lower than that of air or
nonmagnetic materials 0 . From the inverse relationship of reluctance and permeability, we
determine that the total permeability of magnetic materials is much greater than that of air.
However, the value of permeability varies with the degree of magnetization of the magnetic
material and, of course, the type of material. Since the permeability of magnetic materials r is
variable, we must employ magnetic saturation (B-H) curves to perform magnetic circuit
calculations. Permeability in magnetic circuits is somewhat analogous to conductivity in electric
circuits.
Example 1.3 In Figure 1.7 we assume that the magnetic flux is practically uniform in the crosssectional area of the toroid. The mean path length is 0.314 m and the cross-sectional area through
which the flux exists is 78.5 x 10 -6 m2. Calculate the number of ampere-turns required to set up
magnetic flux of 1 Wb.
Solution
The reluctance of the homogeneous magnetic circuit is
4

l
0.314

3.18 109 At / Wb

7
A 4 10 78.5 106

F = m = 3.18 109 1.0 = 3.18 109 At

This is obviously a very large number and we may conclude that the path reluctance is very high.
This means that it is comparatively difficult to establish a large magnetic flux in air. For
this reason, when we need high flux densities, it becomes necessary to use materials having high
values of permeability (such as iron or steel) for large portions of the magnetic paths.
F. Magnetic Field Intensity
One other important magnetic quantity is the magnetomotive force gradient per unit length of
magnetic circuit, or more commonly, the magnetic field intensity. Its symbol is H and from the
definition,
F
H= m
l

1.5

the unit is ampere-turns per meter (At/m). The former name for magnetic field intensity was
magnetizing force. We have seen that more ampere-turns (MMF) are required to set up the same
magnetic flux in magnetic circuits of air than in iron of similar configuration. Hence the
magnetic field intensity for the air path is much larger than for the iron path. In the toroid of
Figure 1.7, a magnetomotive force of 10 At acts along the mean path of 0.314 m. The magnetic
field intensity is
H=

NI
10
=
= 31.8At / m
l
0.314

Equation (1.5) transposed, Hl = NI is one form of Ampere's circuital law applied to a simple
magnetic circuit. Magnetic field intensity in maonetic circuits is analogous to potential or voltage
gradient in electric circuits.
We can derive a useful relationship for magnetic circuits by summarizing the equations
developed so far.

B
A
Fm NI

Fm
m

H=

l
A

Fm
l

Thus

F
HlA
m
H
A m A
lA
5

B H

or

1.6

Equation (1.6) shows that the magnetic flux density is directly dependent on both permeability
and magnetic field intensity. Only in air or free space is the permeability ( 0) constant, and thus a
linear relationship between B and H exists. In the next section we consider ferromagnetic
materials in which the absolute permeability is not a constant but depends on the degree of
magnetization.

1.2.

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND CALCULATIONS

1.2.1 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

A toroid of homogeneous magnetic material, such as iron or steel, is wound with a fixed number
of turns of insulated wire as shown in Figure 1.7. The magnetic flux () and the excitation
current (I) are related by Eq. (1.6):

B H

Thus

NI

A
l

that is,

= (constant) I

where the constant is NI / l . At the outset, the sample of ferromagnetic material in the toroid was
totally demagnetized. In experimental measurements, the excitation current is varied and the
corresponding values of magnetic flux recorded. Then the calculated values of B and H are
plotted on linear scales as illustrated in Figure 1.8.
A. Magnetization (B-H) Curve
Typical magnetization or B-H curves for sheet steel, cast steel, and cast iron are plotted in Figure
1.8. The nonlinear relationship between magnetic flux density B (teslas) and magnetic field
intensity H (ampere-turns per meter) is illustrated. It is observed that the magnetic flux density
increases almost linearly with an increase in the magnetic field intensity up to the knee of the
magnetization curve. Beyond the knee, a continued increase in the magnetic field intensity
results in a relatively small increase in the magnetic flux density. When ferromagnetic materials
experience only a slight increase in magnetic flux density for a relatively large increase in
magnetic field intensity, the materials are said to be saturated. Magnetic saturation occurs
beyond the knee of the magnetization curve.

Figure 1.8 Typical Magnitizations curves.

B. Hysteresis
Hysteresis in magnetic materials results in dissipation of energy, which is proportional to the area
of the hysteresis loop. Hence the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Flux density B always lags with respect to the magnetizing force H.
2. An expenditure of energy is essential to carry the specimen through a complete
cycle of magnetization.
3. Energy loss is proportional to the area of hysteresis loop and depends upon the
quality of the magnetic material.
B
C

D
A

Br
L

K
E

Figure 1.9 Hysteresis loop

C. Relative Permeability
Transposition of Eq. (1.6) gives the absolute permeability as the ratio of the magnetic flux
density to the corresponding magnetic field intensity:
7

B
H
If we wish to compare the permeability of magnetic materials with that of air, we may use the
relative permeability r, which is defined by the equation

r
0

Where = absolute permeability of the material. H/m

0 = 410-7H/m = permeability of free space
r = relative permeability
From the typical magnetization curves of Figure 1.8, we can calculate the value of absolute and
relative permeabilities for any magnetic operating condition. When we do this we observe that
the value of relative permeability is not a constant but obtains a maximum value at about the
knee of the B-H curve.
Example 1.4 Calculate the absolute and relative permeabilities of cast steel operating at
magnetic flux densities of 0.7 T and 1.0 T.
Solution
From the saturation curve for cast steel, the values of H are 400 At/m and 800 At/m.
respectively. The absolute permeabilities are:
For 0.7 T:

B 0.7

1.75 103 H / m or T / At / m
H 400

For 1.0 T:

B 1.0

1.25 103 H / m
H 800

The relative permeabilities are

For 0.7 T:

1.75 103

1392.61
0 4 107

1.25 103

994.72
0 4 107

For 1.0 T:

Thus we see that cast steel has at least 1000 times more ability to set up magnetic
flux lines than do nonmagnetic materials.

D. Series and Parallel Magnet Circuits

By definition, a series magnetic circuit contains magnetic flux, which is common throughout the
series magnetic elements. These series magnetic elements may consist of composite sectors of
ferromagnetic materials of different lengths and cross-sectional areas, and of air gaps. The
simplest series magnetic circuit would be of a toroid of homogeneous material and the steel core
of a transformer. More complex series circuits which contain air gaps are illustrated in Figure
1.6.
Parallel magnetic circuits are defined by the number of paths that the magnetic flux may follow.
Any of these paths or branches may consist of composite sectors of magnetic materials,
including air gaps. A detailed calculation for a typical parallel magnet circuit is demonstrated in
Section 1.5.
Electric Circuit Analogs
In our discussion so far, we note the following analogous relationships between magnetic
quantities and electric quantities:
Electric circuit
E (volts)
I (amperes)
R (ohms)
1
(conductvity)

Magnetic circuit
Fm (NI ampere-turns)
(webers)
m (ampere-turns/weber)
(henries/meter)

We can draw useful electrical analogs for the solution of magnetic circuit problems. In an
electrical circuit the driving force is the voltage, the output is the current, and the opposition to
establishing current is the resistance. In the same way, the driving force in the magnetic circuit is
the magnetomotive force, the output is the magnetic flux, and opposition to establishing the flux
is the reluctance.
Thus we have for the magnetic circuit of Figure 1.9a the analogous electric circuit and the
analogous magnetic circuit in Figure 1.9b and c, respectively. The iron and air portions of the
magnetic circuit are analogous to the two series resistors of the electric circuit. Analogous to the
electric circuit, the magnetomotive force must overcome the magnetic potential drops of the two
series reluctances in accordance with Kirchhoff's voltage law applied to magnetic circuits.
Therefore,

Fm miron mag

1.8

is the equivalent magnetic-potential-drop equation. Since the permeability of ferromagnetic

materials (iron) is a variable depending on the state of magnetization, we must use the B-H
curves to obtain the magnetic field intensity if the magnetic flux density is available. Hence we
can calculate the MMF drop for the iron from Eq. (1.5) as follows:
At
1.9
Fmiron H iron l iron
Finally, the general MMF-drop equation for series magnetic circuits is modified for calculation
purposes to the following form:

Fm H iron l iron

l ag

1.10

0 A ag

(a)
I

+
-

Rl
Rag

(b)

+
NI

ag

(c)
Figure 1.9 Iron-core toroid with air gap: (a) Magnetic circuit; (b) analogous electric circuit; (c) analogous
magnetic circuit.

Given the physical parameters of the series magnetic circuit and the value of magnetic flux or
magnetic flux density, the required magnetomotive force can be calculated in a straightforward
manner using Eq. (1.10).
The general principles of electric circuits embodied in Ohm's and Kirchhotf's laws are applied as
analogous equivalents to parallel magnetic circuits. With the presence of air gaps, most complex
magnetic circuits are solved using the seriesparallel equivalent analogs.In analogous equivalents,
Kirchhoff's current law for magnetic circuits states that the sum of magnetic fluxes entering a
junction or node is equal to the sum of magnetic fluxes leaving the junction or node. Needless to
a say, magnetic flux must not be perceived as flowing.
Fringing and Leakage Flux
In a series magnetic circuit containing an air gap, there is a tendency for the airgap flux to spread
out (i.e., to create a bulge) as shown in Figure 1.10. This spreading effect, termed fringing,
reduces the net flux density in the air gap.

10

Fringing
flux

Useful
flux

Figure 1.10 Fringing flux

Leakage flux is that flux in a magnetic circuit which is not useful or effective. Since a large
amount of leakage flux requires a greater magnetomotive force, the designer of electromagnetic
devices must minimize this ineffective flux.
Magnetic Core (Iron) Losses
It will be shown later that the magnetic flux within the armature of dc machines changes
direction as rotation occurs past the magnetic field poles. This change in direction of the
armature magnetic flux is effectivelv an alternating flux. This results in core losses, which are
treated in more detail in forthcoming chapters . Magnetic core losses consist of hysteresis losses
and eddy-current losses.
1.2.2 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
We have seen that magnetic circuits may be represented by electric circuit analogs. Thus the
methods of solution for series and parallel electric circuits may be applied to magnetic circuit
problems. Typically, we will be required to calculate the magnetomotive force, flux, or
permeability for some given conditions. The major difference between the two types of circuits
is the nonlinear characteristics of ferrous magnetic materials. Thus it is necessary to make use of
B-H curves and graphical methods.
A. Calculation of Ampere Turns
Ampere turns for various parts of the magnetic circuit will be calculated separately. To calculate
the ampere turns for a particular part, the following procedure is followed in general:
1. The reluctance of the part is calculated using Eq. (1.4) as the case may be.
2. The magnetic flux established in that part is calculated using Eq. (5.10).
3. Cross-sectional area of the part is calculated from the given dimensions.
4. Magnetic flux density is found by dividing the flux by the cross-sectional area, i.e.

B
A
5. Ampere turns per meter of the magnetic flux path length in that part at the flux density
calculated above is found by using the magnetization curve for the magnetic material of
that part.
6. Length of the magnetic flux path in that part is estimated from the given dimensions.
7. Total ampere turns for the part are obtained by multiplying ampere turns per meter by the
length of the flux path.
8. General procedure is now applied to various parts of the magnetic circuit.

11

9.

Total ampere turns for the complete magnetic circuit can now be found by adding
algebraically the ampere turns needed by the various parts of the magnetic circuit.

B. Calculation of Ampere Turns for the Air Gap

Total ampere turns for the air gap is given by,

Fag = (Flux) ag (reluctance)

Reluctance for air gap, ag (for which r=1)

Thus

Fag

lg
0 A g

lg
0 Ag

lg

A g 0
1

Bg l g
0
1

Bg l g
4 10 7

(1.11)

Hence to calculate the ampere turns for the air gap, the following general procedure may be
followed:
1.
2.
3.

calculate the magnetic flux in the air gap,

calculate the gap area from the given data.

calculate gap density, Bg

, and
Ag
using Eq. (1.11), calculate the ampere turns needed for the air gap.

12

C. Series Magnetic Circuits

Example 1.5 Illustrates the method of solution for a simple one-material series circuit.
The circuit of Figure 1.11 is a magnetic core made of cast steel. A coil of N turns is wound on it.
For a flux of 560 Wb, calculate the necessary current, neglecting any fringing effects.The crosssectional area A is constant.
Solution
N = 550 turns
l1 = 20 cm = 20 10-2 m
l2 = 12 cm = 12 10-2 m
A = 4 cm2 = 4 10-4 m2
=560 10-6 Wb
B

560 106
4 10

140 10 2 1.4T

For B = 1.4 T, H = 2200 At/m (from the B-H curve of Figure 1.7). The average or mean length
of the magnetic path is 20 + 12 + 20 + 12 cm = 64 = 0.64 m. Therefore,
Hl=NI=20000.64 At

2200 0.64
2.56 A
550

Figure 1.11 Magnetic circuit for Example 1.5

Example 1.6 The magnetic frame shown in Figure 1.12 is built up of iron of square crosssection, 3 cm side. Each air gap is 2 mm wide. Each of the coils is wound with 1000 turns and the
exciting current is 1.0 A. The relative permeability of part A and part B may be taken as 1000
and 1200 respectively. Calculate the following: (i) reluctance of part A, (ii) reluctance of part B,(iii) reluctance of two air gaps, (iv) total reluctance of the complete magnetic circuit, (v) the
mmf, (vi) total flux, and (vii) flux density. Leakage and fringing may be neglected.

13

17 cm

PART A

2 mm

N
10 cm

PART B

20 cm

Figure 1.12 magnetic circuit of example

Solution
Figure 1.12 shows the given magnetic frame consisting of two iron parts A and B separated by
two air gaps of 2 mm each. Dotted line shows the mean magnetic circuit set up in this frame,
when the coils wound over it carries current. The magnetic circuit consists of four portions
connected in aeries, i.e. (i) magnetic flux path in part B, (ii) magnetic flux path in air gap, (iii)
magnetic flux path in part A and (iv) flux path in air gap. Hence the total reluctance of this
magnetic circuit will be equal to the sum of the reluctances of these four parts calculated
separately.
i)

Reluctance offered by a magnetic path is given by,

lg

0 r A

Reluctance for part A,

lA
0 r A

Cross-sectional area of part A, whose cross-section is a square with 3 cm side, AA = 3 3 = 9

cm2 = 9 10-4 m2.
Length of mean path of flux in part A, lA = 20 (1.5+1.5) = 17 cm = 0.17m
Permeability, 0 4 107
Relative permeability r for part A = 1000
Thus reluctance of part A,
A

0.17

4 10 1000 9 10 4
15.03 104 At / Wb

ii)

Reluctance of part B, B

lB
0 r A B

Cross-sectional area of part B, AB = 9 10-4 m2 .

Relative permeability r , of part B = 1200
Length of mean path of flux in part B, l B = 17 + 8.5 + 8.5 = 34 cm = 0.34 m

14

Thus reluctance of part B,

B

0.34

4 10 1200 9 10 4
25.04 104 At / Wb

iii)

Reluctance of air gaps, ag

lg
0 A

Length of mean path of flux in the two air gaps, lg = 2 + 2 = 4 mm = 0.004 m.

0.004
ag
Hence reluctance of two air gaps,
4 10 7 9 10 4
iv)

353.5 104 At / Wb
Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
A B ag

15.03 25.04 353.5 104

393.57 104 At / Wb
v)

The magnetomotive force produced by two coils on iron part B, each having 1000 turns
and carrying a current of 1 A
= (2 1000) 1
(mmf = NI)
= 2000 At.
vi)
As per Ohm's law for magnetic circuits, mmf = Flux Reluctance
NI

2000

393.57 10 4
5.08 10 4 Wb
vii)
Flux density,

B
A
5.08 10 4

0.564 Wb / m 2 [Tesla ]
4
9 10
Example 1.7 An electromagnet is of the form and dimensions as shown in Figure 1.13. It is
made of iron of square section 4 cm side. A flux of 1.1 mWb is required in the air gap.
Neglecting leakage and fringing, calculate the number of ampere turns required. Take the
relative permeability to be 2000 at this flux density.
Portion D

30 cm

2 mm
Portion C

25 cm

Figure 1.13 magnetic circuit of example

Solution
15

The magnetic circuit of the electromagnet shown in Figure 1.13 is completed by four parts
connected in series, viz. (i) iron portion C (ii) air gap, (iii) iron portion D, and (iv) air gap.
Total ampere turns required for this magnetic circuit, F T = ampere turns required for iron portion
C , F C + ampere turns required for air gap, F ag + ampere turns for iron portion D, F D + ampere
turns of air gap, F ag.
Or

FT FC Fag FD Fag

Or

FT FC FD 2Fag

i)

Ampere turns required for iron portion C

Flux, = 1.1 10-3 Wb
Cross-sectional area, = 4 4 = 16 cm2
= 1610-4 m2
Flux density,

A
1.1 10 3
16 10

0.6875 Wb / m 2

Relative permeability of iron = 2000

Thus ampere turns per meter of flux path length, H

Or

HC

B
0 r

0.6875

2 10 7 2000
272 At / m

Length of mean flux path in the iron portion C, lC = 25 cm = 0.25 m

Ampere turns required for iron portion C, FC = HC lC = 272 0.25 = 68 At.
ii)

The materials for portions C and D are the same. Section is also the same. Thus
ampere turns per meter of flux path length, HD = HC = H = 272 At/m.
Length of mean flux path in iron portion D, lD = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Thus, Ampere turns required for iron portion D, FD = H lD = 272 0.3 = 82 At.

iii)

Ampere turns required for air gap,

1
Fag
Bg l g
0
1

0.6875 0.002
4 10 7
1094 At
16

Ampere turns required for two air gaps = 2 1094 = 2188 At

Total ampere turns required, F T = 68+ 82+ 2188 = 2318 At
D. Parallel Magnetic Circuits
Figure 1.14a shows a parallel magnetic circuit.There are NI ampere-turns on the center leg.The
flux that is produced by the MMF in the center leg exists in the center leg and then divides into
two parts, one going in the path afe and the other in the path bcd. If we assume for simplicitv that
afe = bcd, the flux is distributed evenly between the two paths. Now
g = afe + bcd
Where

1.11

g = flux in portion g
afe = flux in portion afe
bcd = flux in portion bcd

Equation (1.11) is actually the analog of Kirchhoff's current law, but now we can say that the
amount of flux entering a junction is equal to the amount of flux leaving the junction.
Another observation that we may make on this circuit is that the MMF drops around a circuit are
the same no matter what path we take. Thus the MMF drop around afe must be equal to the
MMF drop around bcd. This can be stated more precisely as
Hala + Hflf + Hele = Hblb + Hclc + Hd ld

1.12

(a)

ma

afe

bcd

mb

ag

mf

mc

+
g

me

md

(b)

17

Iafe

Ibcd

Rg
Rf

Rc

+
Re

Ig

Rd

(c)
Figure 1-14 Magnetic circuit with center leg: (a) Magnetic circuit; (b) equivalent magnetic circuit; (c)
analogous electric circuit.

The drop in MMF around either path afe or bcd must also be equal to the MMF drop along path
g. But g also has an "active source," the NI ampere-turns of the coil. The actual MMF existing
between X and Y is the driving force NI minus the drop H glg in path g. Then we can write
(NI - H glg) = Hala + Hflf + Hele

1.13

= Hblb + Hclc + Hdld

Again we can draw analogous magnetic and electrical circuits as in Figure 1.14b and c. For
Figure 1.l4b we may write
NI - mgg = bcd (mb + mc + md )

1.14

= afe (ma + mf + me )
and in Figure 1.l0c we may write
E - RgI g = Ibcd (Rb + Rc + Rd )

1.15

= Iafe (Ra + Rf + Re )
In the analogous magnetic circuit, note that NI is drawn in series with R mg , although physically
the coil surrounds the central magnetic path.

18

Example 1.8 In Figure 1-14a, the following dimensions apply:

lg = lf = lc = 12 cm
la = lb = le = ld = 14 cm
Aa = Ab = Ac = Ad = Ae = A = 1 cm2
Ag = 3 cm2
The material is sheet steel. The flux densitv in the center leg is 0.9 T. Calculate the MMF
required to produce this flux density.
Solution
The total flux in the center leg is 0.9 3 10-4 = 2.7 10-4 Wb. The flux divides into two parts,
the left-hand path through afe and the right-hand path through bcd. The flux density in path g is
Bg = 0.9 T and therefore H g = 320 At/m. The flux density in section a is
Ba

2.7 104
2 1 10 4

1.35T

and therefore
Ha = 950 At/rn
Ha = Hb = Hc =Hd =He= Hf
Therefore,
NI = H glg + Ha (la + lf + le )
= 320 12 10-2 + 950 ( 14 + 12 + 14 ) 10-2
= 38.4 + 380 = 418.4 At
Example 1.9 We can add one more degree of complexity to the circuit of Figure 1.14a. In Figure
1.15 we cut an air gap in the center leg, and the air gap is 1.5 mm wide. All other dimensions
remain unchanged and the flux density in the center leg is still 0.9 T. Find the number of ampereturns on the center leg required to produce this flux density.
Solution
We can still use the equivalent-circuit concept as shown in Figure 1.14b, the only difference
being that NI is now in series with two reluctances in the center path, the air gap and the steel in
leg g.
(NI) - (MMF drop in air gap) - (MMF drop in section g )
= MMF drop in section b + c + d
= MMF drop in section a + f + e
In the center leg, the flux density is still fixed at 0.9 T. Therefore.
Bg = 0.9 T
The MMF drop per unit length in the center steel section is still H g = 320 At/m, as before.
Therefore,
MMF drop in leg g = 320 (12 - 0.15) 10 -2 = 37.92 At
The MMF drop across the air gap is found from
19

F mgap = H gaplgap
For air
= 0 = 410-7 Wb/(At/m) or H/m
Therefore,

H gap

0.9
4 10

7.16 105 At / m

Figure 1.15 Parallel magnetic circuit with air gap.

The MMF drop across the gap

Hgap lgap= 7.16 105 1. 5 10-3 = 1.074103 At
Noting that the MMF drop across the path afe is still 380 At, as before,
NI (37.92 + 1074) = 380 At
NI = 1491.91 At
By adding a very small air gap, the MMF required has increased by a factor of 3.57. This is
because the reluctance of the air is so high and the reluctance of unsaturated steel is very low.
This. in turn, is the reason why the largest part of a magnetic circuit is usually in iron and only a
small portion is in air.

1.3.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Oersted at Copenhagen in 1820 discovered a very important phenomenon giving the relationship
between magnetism and
electricity. As per this relationship, a conductor carrying a current I
is surrounded all along its length by a magnetic field, the lines of magnetic flux being concentric
circles in planes at right angles to the conductor. This phenomenon of a magnetic field being
associated with a current carrying conductor lead to the question whether the converse of the
above is possible, i.e. can a magnetic field generate a current? Michael Faraday, on 29 Aug.
1831, succeeded in generating an electric current with the aid of magnetic flux.
From his experiments, Faraday concluded that a current was generated in a coil so long as the
lines of force bearing through the conductor changed. The current thus generated is called the
induced current and the emf that gives rise to this induced current is called the induced emf. This
phenomenon of generating an induced current in a closed circuit by changing the magnetic field
20

through it, is called electromagnetic induction. The operation of electrical equipments

like
motors, generators, transformers, etc. is mainly based upon the laws formulated by
Faraday.
A. Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday conducted the following experiment to obtain an electric current with the aid of
magnetic flux.
S

S
G

(b)

(a)

(c)

Figure1.16 Faraday's experiment

B. Direction of Induced emf

The direction of induced emf can be determined by two methods namely (a) Fleming's right hand
rule and (b) Lenz's law. In case of dynamically induced emf, Fleming's right hand rule is used to
obtain the direction of induced emf , whereas Lenz's law is normally used to fix the direction of
statically induced emf.
(a) Fleming's Right Hand Rule: Stretch the forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the
right hand in three mutually perpendicular directions as shown in Figure 1.17. If the forefinger
points in the direction of the magnetic flux, the thumb points in the direction of motion of the
conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the middle finger represents the direction of the
induced emf.
(b) Lenz's Law: The direction of statically induced emf can be obtained with the help of Lenz's
law which states: "the direction of the
induced emf is always such that it tends to set up a
current opposing the change of flux responsible for producing that emf.
Lenzs law is further clarified by using it with reference to Figure 1.16. When the north pole of
the magnet is inserted in the coil, an emf is induced in it due to the motion of the magnet, thereby
generating induced current.

N
Motion
Motion

Flux

Flux
EMF

emf

Figure 1.17 direction of induced emf

21

C. Magnitude of Induced Emf in a Coil

Let a coil consist of N number of turns over it. Assume that the flux through the coil changes
from its initial value 1 to 2 in an interval t second.
Initial value of' flux linkages = N1
Value of flux linkages after t s = N2
Change of flux linkages in time t s == N1 N2
The term flux linkages used over here simply means the product of flux in Weber and the
number of turns with which the flux is linked. Now as per Faraday's laws of electromagnetic
induction, induced emf in the above coil due to a change of flux is given by,

N 1 2
V
t

Induced emf

Based on the above, the instantaneous value of emf induced in the coil can be represented as,

e
Or

d
( N)
dt

e N

d
dt

1.16

The negative sign in the Eq. (1.16) above equation signifies that the induced emf generates a current tending to oppose the increase of flux through the coil. The relation expressed by the above
equation can be called Faraday's law.
D. Dynamically Induced emf
Dynamically induced emf is produced by the movement of the conductor in a magnetic field.
Figure 1.18 shows a uniform magnetic field of flux density B tesla, in which the conductor is
moving in the direction shown and cuts the flux at right angles.
If

l = length of the conductor in meter cutting the field

v = velocity of motion of conductor in m/s
dx = distance moved by the conductor in time dt
B

Figure 1.18 Dynamically induced emf

Then area swept by the moving conductor = l dx

Hence change in flux, when the conductor moves a distance
dx in time dt, d = B l dx Wb
22

The dynamically induced emf is the rate of change of flux linkages, i.e.
Dynamically induced emf

Bldx
dt

Bl
As

dx
dt

dx
(velocity)
dt
= Bl V

Thus dynamically induced emf

1.17

E. Statically Induced emf

When the conductor or coil remains stationary and the flux linking with these conductors or coil
undergo a change, an emf is induced in the conductors.
Such an induced emf is termed as
statically induced emf. Statically induced emf can be further classified as (i) self-induced emf
and (ii) mutual induced emf.
Self-induced emf
Any electrical circuit in which the change of current is accompanied by the change of flux, and
therefore by an induced emf, is said to be inductive or to possess self inductance. Thus the
property of the coil which enables to induce an emf in it whenever the current changes is called
self-induction.

Figure 1.19 Self-induced emf

As per Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, this induced emf is given by,

e N

d
,
dt

1.18

The coil in question is wound on an iron core, whose permeability is constant. Thus flux is
proportional to the currcut through the coil, i.e.

I
Or

cons tan t
I

Now flux can also be written as,

Flux

Flux
current
current

23

i.e.

I
I

Now if current is changed at a certain rate, the flux also changes at the same rate. Thus, the rate

of change of flux = rate of change of current cons tan t . Substituting this in Eq.
I
I

(1.18),

e N rate of change of current
I
Or

N di

I
dt

1.19

N
i.e. flux linkages/ampere is generally called the self-inductance of the coil or the
I
coefficient of self-induction and is denoted by a symbol L. With this replacement, Eq, (1.19)
becomes,
The term

e L
Where

di
dt

1.20

N
henry
I

Mutually Induced emf

The phenomenon of generation of induced emf in a circuit by changing the current in a
neighbouring circuit is called mutual induction. Consider two coils P and S such that P is
connected to a cell through switch K and S to a galvanometer as shown in Figure 1.20. When the
switch K is closed suddenly to start current in the coil P, the galvanometer gives a sudden "kick"
in one direction. Now when K is opened, the galvanometer again shows a deflection but in the
oppoaite direction. The above cbservations indicate clearly that an induced current is set up in
the coil S when the current is changed in the coil P, though the coil S is not connected physically
to coil P. Two coils possessing this property are said to have mutual inductance. The unit
of mutual inductance is also henry. It is denoted by M. Two coils are said to possess a mutual
inductance of 1 henry when current changing at the rate of l ampere per second in one coil
induces an emf of 1 volt in the other.

Figure 1.20 Mutually induced emf

Let 1 be the flux in coil P due to curent I flowing in it and 2 the flux induce in S due to flux 1

in coil P. The ratio 2 is denoted by K. Thus

1
24

2
K
1
Or

2 K1

Also

Or

cons tan t
I

Now

2 2 I
I

Or

K1
current
I

When current is changed at a certain rate, 2 also changes at the same rate. Thus,
Rate of change of 2

K1
rate of change of current
I

1.21

According to Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction the emf induced in S is given by,
eS N 2 rate of change of flux 2

1.22

where N2 is the number of turns in coil S

Combining Eqs (1.21) and (1.22),

K1
rate of change of current
I
K di
eS N 2 1
I
dt
di
M
dt
N K
N
M 2 1 2 2
I
I
flux linkage of coil S

current in coil P

eS N 2
Or

Where

The constant M in the above equation , which is equal to the flux linkages of coil S per ampere
of current in coil P, is called the coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance.
Hence the coeffiaicnt of mutual induction is defined as the number of lines of force passing
through the secondary coil S when unit current changes in the primary coil P. It is also
numerically equal to the induced emf in one circuit due to a unit rate of change of current in the
other circuit.

25

F. Inductance
Having introduced the necessary electromagnetic background, we can now address inductance.
Inductance is, in some sense, a mirror image of capacitance. While capacitors store energy in an
electric field, inductors store energy in a magnetic field. While capacitors prevent voltage from
changing instantaneously, inductors, as we shall see, prevent current from changing
instantaneously.
Consider a coil of wire carrying some current creating a magnetic field within the coil. As shown
in Figure 1.21, if the coil has an air core, the flux can pretty much go where it wants to, which
leads to the possibility that much of the flux will not link all of the turns of the coil. To help
guide the flux through the coil, so that flux leakage is minimized, the coil might be wrapped
around a ferromagnetic bar or ferromagnetic core as shown in Figure 1.22. The lower reluctance
path provided by the ferromagnetic material also greatly increases the flux . We can easily
analyze the magnetic circuit in which the coil is wrapped around the ferromagnetic core in
Figure 1.22(a). Assume that all of the flux stays within the low-reluctance pathway provided by
the core, and apply (1.3):

F Ni

1.23

Figure 1.21 A coil with an air core will have considerable leakage flux.

i
+
(a)

(b)

Figure 1.22 Flux can be increased and leakage reduced by wrapping the coils around a ferromagnetic
material that provides a lower reluctance path. The flux will be much higher using the core (a) rather
than the rod (b).

26

From Faradays law, changes in magnetic flux create a voltage e, called the electromotive force
(emf), across the coil equal to

eN

d
dt

1.24

Substituting (1.23) into (1.24) gives

eN

d Ni N 2 di
di
L

dt dt
dt

where inductance L has been introduced and defined as

Inductance,

N2
heneries

1.25

Notice in Figure 1.22 (a) that a distinction has been made between e, the emf voltage induced
across the coil, and V, a voltage that may have been applied to the circuit to cause the flux in the
first place. If there are no losses in the connecting wires between the source voltage and the coil,
then e = v and we have the final defining relationship for an inductor:

vL

di
dt

As given in (1.25), inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance . Recall that the

reluctance of a flux path through air is much greater than the reluctance if it passes through a
ferromagnetic material. That tells us if we want a large inductance, the flux needs to pass through
materials with high permeability (not air).
Example 1.10
Inductance of a Core-and-Coil. Find the inductance of a core with
effective length l = 0.1 m, cross-sectional area A = 0.001 m2, and relative permeability r
somewhere between 15,000 and 25,000. It is wrapped with N = 10 turns of wire. What is the
range of inductance for the core?
Solution
When the cores permeability is 15,000 times that of free space, it is

core = r0 = 15,000 4 107 = 0.01885 Wb/At-m

So its reluctance is

l
core A

0.1
5305 At / Wb
0.01885 0.001

and its inductance is

N2
102

0.0188 H 18.8 mH

5305

Similarly, when the relative permeability is 25,000 the inductance is

27

N 2 N 2 r 0 A 102 25,000 4 10 7 0.001

l
0.1
0.0314 H 31.4 mH

The point of Example 1.9 is that the inductance of a coil of wire wrapped around a solid core can
be quite variable given the imprecise value of the cores permeability. Its permeability depends
on how hard the coil is driven by mmf so you cant just pick up an off-the-shelf inductor like this
and know what its inductance is likely to be. The trick to getting a more precise value of
inductance given the uncertainty in permeability is to sacrifice some amount of inductance by
building into the core a small air gap. Another approach is to get the equivalent of an air gap by
using a powdered ferromagnetic material in which the spaces between particles of material act as
the air gap. The air gap reluctance, which is determined strictly by geometry, is large compared
to the core reluctance so the impact of core permeability changes is minimized.
The following example illustrates the advantage of using an air gap to minimize the uncertainty
in inductance. It also demonstrates something called Amperes circuital law, which is the
magnetic analogy to Kirchhoffs voltage law. That is, the rise in magnetomotive force (mmf)
provided by N turns of wire carrying current i is equal to the sum of the mmf drops R around
the magnetic loop.
Example 1.11 An Air Gap to Minimize Inductance Uncertainty. Suppose the core of Example
1.10 is built with a 0.001 m air gap. Find the range of inductances when the cores relative
permeability varies between 15,000 and 25,000.

Figure 1.23 for Example 1.10

Solution The reluctance of the ferromagnetic portion of the core when its relative permeability is
15,000 is

core

l core
0.099

5252 At / Wb
core A 15,000 4 10 7 0.001

And the air gap reluctance is

ag

l ag
0A

0.001
4 10 7 0.001

795.775 At / Wb

So the total reluctance of the series path consisting or core and air gap is
Total = 5252 + 795,775 = 801,027 At/Wb

28

And the inductance is

N2
102

0.0001248 H 0.1248 mH

801,027

When the cores relative permeability is 25,000, its reluctance is

core

l core
0.099

3151 At / Wb
core A 25,000 4 10 7 0.001

And the new total inductance is

L

N2
102

0.0001251 H 0.1251 mH

3151 795,775

This is an insignificant change in inductance. A very precise inductance has been achieved at the
expense of a sizable decrease in inductance compared to the core without an air gap.
G. Energy Stored In Magnetic Field
Consider a coil having a constant inductance of L Henry, in which the current increases by di in
dt seconds, then induced emf in the coil , e becomes

e L

di
dt

The applied voltage must balance the voltage drop across resistor R and neutralize the above
induced emf, thus,

V iR L

di
dt

1.26

Multiplying Eq.(1.26) throughout by i.dt

V i dt i 2 Rdt L i

di
dt

1.27

where, V i dt is the energy supplied by the source in time dt

i2 R dt the energy dissipated in the form of heat
Li di the energy absorbed by the inductance of the coil in building up the magnetic field.
Thus energy absorbed by the magnetic field during the time dt second

L i dt Joules
Hence total energy absorbed by the magnetic field when the current increases from zero to I
amperes
I

Lidi
0
I

L idi
0

29

Energy stored

1 2
LI
2

1.28

Energy Stored in Magnetic Field in Terms of Volume of Field

Energy stored in Magnetic field
Self inductance of the coil, L
Thus energy

1 2
LI
2

N
I

stored

1 N 2
I
2 I
1
N I
2

Total ampere turns on the coil, NI = Hl

Also flux,

BA

Thus energy stored

1
Hl BA
2
1
BH l A
2

But A 1 = volume of the magnetic field

1
BH volume of the field
2

Hence

energy stored

Or

Energy stored/cubic meter

1
BH
2

1.29

Energy stored/cubic meter

1
0 r H 2
2

1.30

Energy stored/cubic meter

1 B2
2 0 r

Since B 0 r H

Or

1.4.

1.31

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES

By the interaction of magnetic fields produced in electromagnetic devices, mechanical forces are
developed which may do useful work. Electromagnetic forces fall into two general
classifications: (1) the magnetic tractive force, and (2) thc force on a conductor. There are many
examples of forces acting in electromagnetic fields. An electromagnet used to separate ferrou s
from nonferrous material is one, the deflection of an electron beam in a cathode-ray tube is
30

another, and the action of an electric motor is a third. A fourth example is the attraction of an
armature to an electromagnet, such as in relays, contactors, and lift magnets.
A. Lifting Power of Magnet (Magnetic Tractive Force)
We will consider the forces of attraction acting in an air gap between parallel surfaces Referring
to Figure 1.24, let F be the force in Newton between the poles of the magnets and the pole crosssectional area A in square meter having a flux density of B tesla. If the upper pole is pulled
through a small distance x against the force F, then
Work done = Fx J

1.32

Work done as given by above equation is equal to the increase in energy stored in the magnetic
field.
Energy stored per cubic meter of magnetic field
1
BH
2

1 B2
2 0 r

If the field is in air, r = 1

Thus energy stored per cubic meter

1 B2
=
2 0

where B is the flux density of the field

Additional volume of magnetic field = Ax m3
Thus increase in energy stored in the magnetic field

1 B2 A
x
2 0
Now by equating the above to equations

Fx

Or

Pull F

1 B2 A
2 0

1 B2 A
x
2 0
N

Pull in Kg wt

B2 A
F
kg wt
9.81 2 0

Or

B2 A
kg wt
19.62 2 0

1.33

1.34

31

N
x

N
Figure 1.24 lifting power of magnet

Example 1.12 Let us calculate the current required to lift a large cast-iron plate using the
electromagnet of Figure 1.25. We will assume that since the magnet and the plate are both rough
surfaces, we have an equivalent air gap of about 1.5 mm. The plate has a mass of 400 kg.
Solution
The force required to lift the magnet is
Total force = 2 force per pole

B2 A B2 A

20
0

newtons ( N )

The force weight is

F = ma
= 400 x 9.80 = 3920 N
Therefore,
3920

B 2 ( 0.10 0.20 ) A
4 10 7

and

4 107 3920
0.25
0.02
B 0.5

B2

NI Hlcs HlCI

B( 2lag )
0

250 0.6 1950 0.35

150 682.5 119.4
952 At

0.5 3.0 10 3
4 10 7

32

Figure 1.25 Lifting electromagnet for Example 1.8.

Thus if N = 1000 turns, I = 0.95 A.

In general we observe that almost all of the ampere-turns are usually consumed by the relatively
small air gap. In a practical case, since leakage flux and fringing have been neglected, increasing
the value of the current by about 20% would probably yield a satisfactory solution.
Example 1.13 A solenoid 80 cm in length and 8 cm in diameter has 4000 turns uniformly wound
over it. Calculate (i) the inductance and (ii) the energy stored in the magnetic field when a
current of 2 A flows in the solenoid.
Solution
i).

Inductance of the solenoid is given by,

N
L
I
Flux,

d2

4
d2
NI
0

l
4

4000 2 2
4 10 7
8 10 4
0.8
4
0.06322 10 3 Wb

B A 0 H

Inductance,

4000 0.06322 10 3
L
2
0.126 H
ii).

Energy stored in the magnetic field

1 2
LI
2

33

1
0.216 2 2
2
0.252 J

B. Force on a Conductor
Ampere demonstrated in 1820 that there is a magnetic field associated with a conductor carrying
current. When placed in a transverse magnetic field, this conductor experiences a force that is
proportional to
(a)
the strength of the magnetic field,
(b)
the magnitude of current in the conductor, and
(c)
the length of the conductor in, and perpendicular to, the magnetic field.
In SI units, the electromagnetic force developed on the conductor carrying current in a magnetic
field B is given by
F=BlI

newtons

1.35

Much use will be made of this important equation in subsequent chapter.

34

PROBLEMS
1.1.

A coil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden ring having a mean circumference
of 600 mm and a uniform cross sectional area of 500 mm2. If the current through the coil is 4 A,
calculate:
(a) the magnetic field strength,
(b) the flux density, and
(c) the total flux

Ans.: 1333 A/m, 167510 -6 T, 0.8375 Wb

1.2.

A coil of 1000 turns is wound on air-core toroid as shown in Figure 1.26. The current in
the coil is 5A. Do=7 cm, and Di =5 cm. calculate the flux density inside the coil, assuming that it
is uniformly distributed over the coil cross section.

1.3.

A coil of 1000 turns is wound on an air-core toroid as shown in Figure 1.26, where Di=4
cm and Ds= 0.5 cm. If the flux in the cross section is 0.8 Wb, calculate I. Assume that the flux
is confined to the inside of the coil and is uniformly distributed across the cross section.
Ans.: 4.58 A

Figure 1.26 magnetic circuit for problem 1.3.

1.4.

Consider the toroid shown in Figure 1.26, given that Di= 13 cm, and Ds=1.5 cm. the cast
steel material has the magnetic characteristics of the B-H curve shown in Figure 1.7. if the coil
has 150 turns, calculate I so that the magnetic flux density is 1.5 T.

1.5.

The toroid shown in Figure 1.26 has circular cross section and a cast iron core. The inner
diameter is 4 cm, the outer diameter is 6 cm. If the flux in the core is 0.059 mWb, find the
current in coil.
Ans.: 1.38 A

1.6.

A coil having 200 turns is wound on the toroid of Figure 1.26. A 1.5mm air gap is cut in
the cast steel and a current of 2 A is passed through the coil. D i = 13 cm and Ds= 1.5 cm.
Assuming no leakage flux, calculate the flux density in the air gap.

1.7.

An air-gap 1 mm wide is cut in the toroid of Problem 1.4. What is the current now
required to produce flux density of 1.5 T ?
Ans.: 17.0 A

1.8.

Calculate the MMF needed to produce a flux of 5.3 10 -3 Wb in the air gap of Figure
1.27.
Ans.: 1801 At

1.9.

A magnetic circuit has the dimensions shown in Figure 1.28 (all dimensions in
centimeters except as indicated). Find I if the air-gap flux is 645 Wb.Ans.1.82 A

35

Figure 1.28 magnetic circuit for problem 1.9.

Figure 1.27 magnetic circuit for problem
1.8.

1.10.

A magnetic core is made up of two parts, a sheet steel portion plus a cast steel portion
(Figure 1.29). The effective length of the cast steel is 8 cm, and of the sheet steel, 20 cm. The
core has a uniform cross section of 15 cm2. Find the number of ampere-turns of the coil required
to produce a flux of 2.1 mWb in the core.

Figure 1.29 magnetic circuit for problem 1.10.

1.11.

A magnetic circuit made of cast steel has the dimensions shown in Figure 1.30. The crosssectional area is 4 cm2 for all parts in the magnetic path. The air gap is 1.5 mm wide. Find the
number of ampere-turns required on the center leg to produce a flux of 0.52 mWb in the center
leg.
Ans.: 1942 At

Figure 1.30 magnetic circuit for problem 1.11.

1.12.

A magnetic circuit consists of a cast steel yoke which has a cross-sectional area of 2 cm2
and a mean length of 12 cm. There are two air gaps, each 0.2 mm long. Calculate the ampereturns required to produce a magnetic flux of 50 Wb in the air gaps.

1.13.

A cast steel electromagnet has an iron path of mean length 40 cm and an air gap of 2 mm.
it is desired to produce a flux density of 1.0 Wb/m2 in the air gap by putting a coil on
electromagnet. Assuming negligible leakage and fringing, find the total ampere turns required.
B-H curve may be plotted as per the data given below:
Ans.: 1940 At
36

H (At/m)

1.14.

500

1000

2000

3000

4000

B (Wb/m2) 0.6

1.05

1.38

1.5

1.58

The shunt-field winding of a dc two-pole machine has 1200 turns shown in Figure 1.19.
The magnetic flux path has a net cross-sectional area of 200 cm2. The iron portion has a mean
length of 50 cm, and there are two air gaps, each 0.1 cm in length. The magnetization curve for
the iron in the circuit is:
H (At/m)

350

650

1250

B (Wb/m2) 1.0

1.2

1.4

Draw the magnetization curve, for the two-pole machine shown in Figure 1.31, find the shuntfield current required to set up a flux of 0.02 Wb in each air group. Neglect all leakage and
fringing effects.

Figure 1.31 magnetic circuit for problem 1.13.

1.15.

A horse shoe type relay needs an excitation of 2000 ampere turns to raise the armature,
when the equivalent gap is 1.5 mm. Each pole shoe has an area of 3 cm 2 and the length of iron
path is 50 cm. Find (i) the pull on the armature, assuming the relative permeability of iron to be
300. (ii) if the gap closes to 0.2 mm, find the force needed to pull the armature away. the
excitation remaining the same.
Ans.: 150.4 N ; 216.6 N

37