Percept Mot Skills 1972 Shoenberger 127 60

Perceptual and Motor Shills, 1972,34, 127-160.
@ Perceptual and Motor Skills 1972

Monograph Supplement 1-V34
HUMAN RESPONSE T O WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION1

RICHARD W. SHOENBERGER
Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Summary.-Research concerning several types of human response to wholebodg vibration is reviewed and evaluated. Major emphasis is on two categories
of behavioral research, subjective judgments of vibration intensity and the effects of vibration on human performance. Discussion of the biodynamic response of the human body to vibration provides background information to aid
the reader in understanding and interpreting vibration parameters and results of
behavioral studies. Also included are considerations of the mechanisms through
which vibration affects behavioral response, and some problems and shortcomings in human vibration research.
CONTENTS
Man as a Receiver of Vibrational Energy
129
Judgments of Vibration Intensity .................... ..............................................................
131
Performance Studies
. 140
Mechanisms of Vibration Effects ....................... . .
.............................................. 150
. 154
Problems and Shortcomings of Vibration Research
References
156
Locomotion of any kind, from walking or running to space flight, subjects

man to whole-body vibration. Whole-body vibration also results from agricultural and road construction machinery, such as harvescers, tractors and earth
movers, and from heavy machinery in factories and other buildings. Some of the
earliest human vibration experiments were related to vibrations transmitted to
workers and residents as a result of manufacturing and other industrial activity
(Reiher & Meister, 1931).
Vehicles of all types, regardless of whecher they move on land, in the water,
or in the air, transmit vibrations to their operators and passengers. These vibrations are produced both by the power plant of the vehicle and'by interaction of
che vehicle with its supporting medium. The latter factor is most often the primary one in causing the large-amplitude, low-freqoency movements which produce whole-body vibration; but both factors may operate simultaneously and interact (as during blastoff of space vehicles) or be highly correlated (as are
engine rpm and blade passage frequency in helicopters). Increases in the speed
of transportation vehicles often bring about increases in the vibration level that
occupants of these vehicles must endure. Similarly, increases in the size of the
vehicle and its power plant produce changes in the frequency and amplitude of
vibratory movement, both of which are important factors in the effects of vibration on human beings. The continual development of new technology con'This paper has been identified by Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory as AMRL-TR71-68. Further reproduction is authorized to satisfy needs of the U. S. government.
stantly creates new and greater vibration-related problems and amplifies the requirement for increased understanding of the effecrs of vibrarion on man.
Much vibrarion research has been directed toward problems related to military aircraft, bur there are other areas of concern, and their number and diversity
have been expanding recently. Military vehicles ~ r o d u c i n gconsiderable wholebody vibrarion include: jeeps, trucks, ranks, and other vehicles which operate o n
rough terrain; ships, small boars, high-speed landing craft and hover craft; as well
as flight vehicles (especially rhose intended for high-speed, low-altimde operation). As already mentioned, space vehicles produce whole-body vibration, primarily during boost and reentry phases. Vibration in commercial aviation is related to the older ~ r o b l e mo f r o ~ ~ gair
h encountered during bad weather and the
newer problem o f clear air turbulence engendered by increased operating alritildes and speeds. Vibrarion in railroad cars has long been a source of passenger
discomfort and annoyance, and i t is becoming a n increased problem for new
high-speed express trains. A major component o f the motion i n these trains is
in the side-to-side direction, which has received little attention in most vibration
research. Finally, automobile manufacn~rershave become increasingly aware o f
ride-quality problems, and some of them have fairly extensive research programs
in rhis area.
This review emphasizes research in which the whole body was vibrated
rhrough direct contact with a vibrating structure, such as a floor, seat, or other
supporting surface. Investigators using this rype of vibration exposure have
been interested in a wide variety of vibrarion effects. The major empirical sections of rhis paper review behavioral studies of two general types: those in
which some sort of subjective judgment of vibration intensity was made, and
rhose in which the primary dependent variable was some kind of htunan performance. Orher rerearcherr have investigated the mechanical response o f the
human body, particularly with respect to differences in response as a function o f
freql~encyof vibrarion. These studies are discussed i n a section on man as a
receiver of vibrational energy, which provides useful background for undersranding the choices of certain vibration parameters used in behavioral sn~dies,and
for interpreting many of the behavioral results. A number of investigators have
been concerned with physiological effects o f vibration, such as changes in respiration rare, heart rare, oxygen consumption, blood pressure, and blood chemistry
(Ashe, 1960; Gaeuman, Hoover, 81 Ashe, 1962; Guignard, 1964; Guillemin &
Wechsberg, 1953; Hoover & Ashe, 1962; Nadel, 1 9 6 3 ) . Physiological studies
will not be covered in detail in this review; however, in general, the effects on
these variables, as a result o f moderate levels of whole-body vibration, appear
quire similar to rhose associated with mild physical exercise ("on Gierke, 1965).
T h e mechanisms through which vibrarion has irs effecrs on human behavior
are considered in a further section of this paper. A final section includes a discussion o f some o f the problems and shortcomings o f vibration research and
some o f the difficulties o f interpretation and generality associated with them.
HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION
129
MAN AS A RECEIVER
OF VIBRATIONAL ENERGY
Whole-body vibration is a rather diffuse stimulus which is not appreciated
through any specific receptor or perceptual system, as are light and sound for
example. O n the contrary, vibration stimulates many different kinds of receptors, including those for touch, pressure, body position and spatial orientation,
and pain. Although somewhat unconventional, vibration may even be considered a visual stimulus in the sense that it sometimes produces relative movement between the eye and a visual array, and under some circumstances may
cause deformation of the eyeball and/or movement of the lens. Just how widespread and diverse a receptor involvement accompanies a particular vibration exposure depends o n the nature and extent of the propagation of vibration to
various body parts. This in turn is dependent on a number of factors, including
the mode of application of the vibration, the direction of the vibratory motion in
relation to body orientation, and the response of the body considered purely as a
mechanical system.
Mode of Application
There are basically three ways in which humans may be exposed to vibration (International Organization for Standardization, 1970). First, vibration
may be applied to the entire body surface through a vibrating medium in which
the body is immersed. A n example of this is vibration caused by high intensity
sound ( o r infrasound) transmitted through air or water. Second, particular
body parts, such as the hands or feet, may be vibrated through direct contact with
the handles or pedals of vibrating machines, vehicles, or hand-held power tools.
Third, vibrations may be transmitted to the body as a whole through its s u p p r t ing surface (i.e., the feet of a standing man, the buttocks of a seated man, or the
supporting area of a reclining m a n ) as a resuli of direct contact with a vibrating structure. As mentioned in the introduction, it is the third type, structureborne whole-body vibration, with which this review is concerned.
Direction of Motion
The direction of vibratory motion greatly affects the transmission of vibration and the frequency characteristics of body resonance (these are the most imt body, and are disportant factors in the propagation of vibration t h r o ~ ~ g h o uthe
cussed in the following section). Direction of motion is specified in relation to
the physiological axes of the body. T h e head-to-foot (or longitudinal) axis is
designated the Z axis, the chest-to-back (or anteroposterior) axis is designated
the X axis, and the side-to-side (or lateral) axis is designated the Y axis. Translational vibrational accelerations in the direction of each of these axes are noted
as kg,, fgT,and kg,, respectively. In this paper, g will be used to indicate
vibrational accelerations and G will be used to indicate sustained o r bias accelerations. For example, various levels of vertical vibration of a man seated upright
are designated by the general form +lG,f ng,, where +1G, indicates the normal acceleration vector of gravity acting along the longin~dinalaxis, and +ng,
130
R. W. SHOENBERGER
represents any of a number of possible levels of vibration acting in rhe same

axis as graviry. The accelerarion of graviry is almosr always presenr, and irs directional relationships to the man and to vibrational accelerations must be included for an adequate description of any vibrarion environment.
Vibration may also consist of angular oscillatory motion about a center o f
rotation, rather rhan srraighr line rranslational motion. For example, in land
vehicles going over rough terrain, or in aircraft flying rhrough rurbulenr air, the
pirching, rolling, or yawing morions may be more significant than the linear
vibrarion components. Very little research has been done on the effecrs of angular vibration. However, in many pracrical simarions the center o f vibratory
[oration (with respecr to the physical system generating rhe motion) is far
enough from rhe locarion of the man for rhc resulting motion to be [reared as
essentially translational vibration.
Whole-body TranrmFrsion and Reronatlce

Any physical srructure, when excited by vibration, will amplify rhe input
motion at certain frequencies and artenuate i t at arhers. These effccrs take place
as a resulr of the dynamic characteristics of the form and materials of the object
being vibrated. Transmissibility is defined as the rario of the output vibrarion
amplimde, measured at some poinr on the objecr, to the input vibrarion amplitude, measured ar the p i n t of application. Transmissibilities greater rhan one
indicate amplificarion, while ratios less rhan one indicate attenuation. A transmissibility curve is a plot of transmissibility as a function of rhe frequency of the
input vibration. The highest poinr on the curve denotes the frequency that has
the grearest rransmissibiliry, which is called the resonanr frequency.
The human body is a very complex strucrure, and different body parts have
differenr resonances. However, it is possible n, obtain estimates of whole-body
resonance from measures of rransmissibiliry taken ar various positions on the
body. Resonant frequencies, for rhe body as a whole, can also be determined
from measures of mechanical impedance. Mechanical impedance is defined as
rhe rario of rhe transmitted force to the resulting velocity (Coermann, 1961;
Goldrnnn & von Gierke, 1960; Edwards & Lange, 1964). Whole-body impedance measuremenrs are obtained by exposing human Ss ro vibration on a
rigid platform mounred on the vibrarion excirer by means of force transducers
(Coermann, 1961; Edwards & Lange, 1964). Impedance is rhen plotted as a
function of frequency and, as in rransmissibiliry plots, resonanr frequencies
are indicared by peaks in rhe curve. For verrical vibration of a seated man
(+lG,-Cng,), there is good agreement of results from both rransmissibiliry and
impedance determinarions of whole-body resonance (cf. Coermann, 1961; Guignard & Irving. 1960; Woods, 1967). In this configuration primary resonance
occurs between 3 and 7 Hz (wirh variarions due to posture and body build), and
5 H z may be raken as n represenrarive valr~e The following description by Cope
HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODYVIBRATION
131
(1959) provides an adequate summary statement of seat-to-head transmissibility,

for vertical vibration:
In general, at a frequency of 0-1 cps, the head vibrates at somewhere near the amplitude
of the seat, but, as frequency increases, the amplitude of head vibration increases and
reaches a peak amplitude somewhere between 3-6 cps. At this frequency . . . the head
vibrates at an amplitude equal to 150--300% of the seat amplitude. . . . Seat-head transmission decreases progressively at higher frequencies, so that when one has reached 70 cps,
only about 10% of the amplitude of seat vibration may be expected to reach the head
(P 2).
The majority of studies investigating the mechanical response of the body

have employed Z-axis vibration (Coermann, 1961; Guignard, 1959, 1964; Guignard & Irving, 1960). Some transmissibility measurements have been made for
other directions of vibration, however; and Woods (1967) reports 1.5 Hz as the
primary Y-axis resonance, for a seated man (+lG,+lzg,).
His measurements
taken at the head, hip, and knee show the greatest transmissibility for all three
locations at 1.5 Hz. Transmission data for the X axis (+lG,f ng,) are given
by Goldman and von Gierke (1960). For seated Ss there are resonances at 1.5
Hz (hip) and 2 Hz (head), and the authors state that all critical resonant frequencies appear to be becween 1and 3 Hz.
JUDGMENTS OF VIBRATION INTENSITY
Experiments in which Ss are required to make judgments of the intensity or

magnitude of vibration constitute a major segment of studies involving behavioral responses to vibration. They will be considered in three categories, according to the type of criteria used as bases for the judgments.
Volzcnrary Tolerance Levels

An important consideration in the exposure of humans to vibration is the
definition of levels of vibration which may be hazardous for physical well being.
Obviously, human Ss cannot be tested to the point of tissue damage, and extrapolations from animal studies are risky, due to the large biomechanical differences associated with size, weight, and other gross anatomical characteristics.
The approach to this problem has been through studies of the limits of voluntary
subjective tolerance, as indicated by severe discomfort, pain, and feelings of imminent bodily harm.
An extensive series of studies of this type was conducted by the U. S. Air
Force, and included, in addition to the basic vibration variables of frequency and
intensity, the investigation of such parameters as duration of exposure (Magid,
Coermann, & Ziegenruecker, 1960; Mandel & Lowry, 1962; Ziegemuecker &
Magid, 1959), adaptive breathing techniques (Mandel & Lowry, 1962), variations in support and restraint systems (Temple, Clarke, Brinkley, & Mandel,
1964), and body orientation and axis of motion (Temple, et al., 1964).
The earliest of the studies in this series was an investigation of Z-axis toler-
132
R. W. SHOENBERGER
ance by Ziegenruecker and Magid ( 1 9 5 9 ) . Their Ss were seated in a modified

aircrafr sear withour cushioning and restrained w ~ t ha lap belr and shoulder harness. They were vibrared at discrete sinusoidal frequencies ranging from 1 H z
to 15 Hz. T h e intensiry o f vibrarion was increased until S felr that acrual bodily
harm might occur, and terminated rhe run. Their resulrs are shown in Fig. 1 as
rhe "shorr-time" curve. Shorr rime refers ro rhe fact rhar the level shown is the
m a x i m ~ l macceleration arrained (averaged over Ss) ar rhe rermination of rhe run,
and rhus exposure ar char level war nor for any appreciable length of rime.
Magid, er al. (1960) exrended chis work, and their resulrs for l.min. and 3 - ~ n i n .
durarions are also shown i n Fig. 1. T h e absolute levels of rhese curves are open
to question, since the acrr~alaccelerarions used were prederermined in a preliminary invesrigarion, and rhe resulrs shown are based on esrimares of how much
more accelerarion Ss felr rhey could have wirhsrood for each rime period. However, h e i r general shape is similar to rhar of rhe shorr-time curve, 11p ro 10 Hz,
and orher srildies have verified rhe lower rolerance evidenced in rhe 4 to 8 Hz
range. T h e very sharp rise in rhe short-time curve above 10 H z may b e parrially
arrifacnlal, since rhe displacement o f rhe vibrator had ro be increased ar a consranr rare for all frequencies. This means char rhe rare of accelerarion increase
was proporrionel ro rhe square o f the frequency; consequently, ir rook approxi-
PERCEPTIBLE
DOLOMDN 119481
HAGID .I .r 119601
I5
FREOUENCY
20
25
30
lHZl
FIG. I . Goldman's composire subjective rerponrc curvcr, and Z-axis voluntary tolerof Magid, er 01. (afrcr Chancy. 1964)
ance mmer
133
mately the same length of time to attain *2.5g, at 10 Hz as i t did to reach

+6.5g, at 15 Hz.
Mandel and Lowry (1962) investigated tolerance for a true 1-min. duration, in the frequency range from 4 to 10 Hz, by exposing 3s to repeated 1-min.
vibration runs at increasing levels of acceleration until tolerance was reached.
They used essentially the same experimental setup as Magid, et al., but required
their Ss to breathe through a mouthpiece. Respiratory difficulties were among
the symptoms reported as contributing to the limits of tolerance by Magid, et al.
(1960), and Mandel and Lowry observed erratic respiration and aerophagia in
all their Ss during preliminary tests. The mouthpiece was used primarily as a
reminder for regular breathing. With this modification Mandel and Lowry report 1-min. tolerance levels considerably higher than those of Magid, et al. In
the 4- to 10-Hz range their results are quite comparable to the short-time curve
of Fig. 1.
All of the studies discussed above used Z-axis vibration with the subject
seated upright ( + l G , f ngz). Temple, et al. (1964) studied short-time tolerance with vibration in the X, Y, or Z axes, and with their Ss semi-supine, in
astronaut couches ( +lG,-lng,, +lG,&ng,, + l G , f ng,). I n addition to
axis of motion, the type of couch was also a variable. A contoured fiberglass
couch, without a helmet or head restraint, and an adjustable aluminum couch,
with a helmet that was restrained, were used. The two couches also had somewhat different body-restraint straps and thus represented two completely different support and restraint systems, rather than a parametric variation of body
constraint. Short-time tolerance runs, using the method of Ziegenruecker and
Magid (1959),were made in the frequency range of 3 to 20 Hz. Statistical tests
of acceleration tolerance for the different variables were not made, but the
graphic presentation of their results suggests a three-way interaction of type of
couch, axis of vibration, and frequency. The lowest tolerance obtained for any
condition was about +1.5g at G Hz for vibration in the Z axis. In general,
tolerance was least around 5 or G Hz and increased with increasing frequency for
all three axes. In this respect the over-all results are similar to the previous
studies. The amount of increase at the higher frequencies was greater for the
contoured couch in all axes, but tolerance in the low-frequency range in the X
and Y axes was higher for the adjustable couch. This interaction between frequency and type of couch is attributed by the authors to the fact that the body
and head were more closely coupled to the adjustable couch. This increased tolerance at the low frequencies, where large amplitude jostling motions occur. The
smaller displacements characteristic of higher frequencies tend to be naturally
attenuated by the soft tissues of the body, and thus at these frequencies closer
coupling between the man and the vibration source tends to be detrimental
rather than beneficial. A similar interaction between frequency and degree of
head restraint has been reported by Taub (1964) and Shoenberger (1968) in
studies of visual performance ( X and Y axes; semi-supine orientation).
134
R. W. SHOFNBERGER
A number of other wrirers have defined limits of vibrarion exposure which

they have characrerized as "intolerable" or "unbearable" ( e g , Goldman, 1948;
Lipperr, 1955). These are based on averaged data from many different sources
and compilations of results from standing, seated, and reclining Ss vibrated horizontally as well as vertically (see Linder, 1962, for a summary). The tolerance
curves defined in these reporrs are somewhat lower than those discussed above,
probably due ro different subjecr ppulntions, different resrraint systems (or
none ar all), and longer exposure rimes. However, rhey show similar trends as
a f~lnctionof frequency as the curves of Fig. 1; namely, lowered acceleration
tolerance at the low frequencies, especially in the body resonance range. Goldman's (1948) Intolerable curve is shown for comparison with the tolerance
curves in Fig. 1, along with curves of two other subjective levels, for larer reference.
Other Subjective Levelr
In addition to judgments of voluntary tolerance, several investigators have
asked Ss to judge the incensirier of Z-axis sinusoidal vibration which rhey feel are
"perceptible," "annoying," "alarming," etc. Often rhese descriprive adjecrives are
used in conjunction with qualifiers, such as "mildly," "extremely," etc. An extensive series of experiments of this rype has been conducted by researchers at
the Boeing Company (Brumaghim, 1967; Chaney, 1964, 1965; Gorrill & Snyder,
1757; Parks, 1962; Parks & Snyder, 1761). In rhe firsr of there srudier (Gorrill
& Snyder, 1957), seated aircrewmen were asked to identify acceleration levels
they considered to be Threshold of Perception. Definitely Perceptible, Annoying,
Maximum Tolerable for Continuous Operation, and Intolerable, in the frequency
range from 3 to 30 Hz. In the second smdy (Parks, 1962; Parks & Snyder,
1961), again with seated Ss, the subjecrive labels used were Perceptible, Mildly
Annoying, Extremely Annoying, and Alarming, ar 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12,
14, 16, 18, 20, 23, and 27 Hz. These same subjective intensity levels and frequencies were employed by Chaney for both seared (Chaney, 1964) and sranding (Chaney, 1965) Ss.
The reslrlts of these experiments are given in the form of curves showing
acceleration as a function of frequency, with descriptive adjectives as qualitative
paramerers. The shapes of these curves, while nor completely congruent, do
show an over-all correspondence in thar they all bear a generally inverse relationship to plors of whole-body impedance or transmissibility, as do the subjective
rolerance curves. In other words, frequencies in the range of whole-body resonance are felt to be annoying, are judged to be alarming, and are regarded as
intolerable at lower accelerations chan frequencies either above or below this
range. An apparent exception ro this generalization was reporred by Parks
(Parks, 1962; Parks & Snyder, 1961), whose curves show dips below 3 Hz and
above 18 Hz, ar well as i n the resonance range (see Fig. 2 ) . These dircrepancier
135
were later attributed to motion artifacts in the vibration table, which produced
jerkiness and distortion of the desired sinusoidal motion (Beaupeurt, Snyder,
Brumaghim, & Knapp, 1969; Chaney, 1964). Chaney (1964) made improvements in the vibration facility which essentially eliminated the motion artifacts
and increased the fidelity of the vibration. His results for seated Ss are also
shown in Fig. 2. Results for standing Ss (Chaney, 1965) were very similar.
The expected correspondence between acceleration and relative severity of the
verbal label, consistently found throughout this series of studies, is evident in
Fig. 2 within each of the two sets of curves. However, the absolute levels of
Chaney's curves are generally higher at all frequencies than the corresponding
curves of Parks and Snyder. This is best understood in terms of procedural differences, probably the most imporcant of which is the fact that Chaney's Ss were
given control of the vibration amplitude and could increase or decrease it at will.
Chaney contends that this eliminated a great deal of apprehension by Ss and contributed significantly to the higher acceleration levels.
In the latest of this group of investigations, Brumaghim (1967) obtained
reactions to dual frequency vibration, using essentially the same experimental
configuration as Chaney ( 1964). His Ss determined Perceptible, Mildly Annoying, and Extremely Annoying levels of vibration at 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10 Hz under
A
8
C
0
- ALARMING
- E X T R E M E L Y ANNOYING
- M I L D L Y ANNOYING
- PERCEPTIBLE
-CHANEY
---- P A R K S
(1964)
8 SNYDER
11961)
FREQUENCY
(HI
FIG. 2. Z-axis subjective response curves of Chaney and Parks and Snyder (after
Chaney, 1964)
136
R. W. SHOENBERGER
rhree background vibration condirions: ( a ) no background vibrarion, ( b ) 17

Hz background vibrarion at & O 38g,, and ( c ) 17 Hz background vibrarion at
&0.68g,.
Resolrs obrnined wirhour background vibrarion generally supported
Chancy's ( 1 9 6 4 ) previous findings. For rhe P e r c e ~ r i b l elevel, as might b e expected, the background vibration had a masking effect, and increasing levels of
acceleration were required i n order ro perceive rhe variable vibration as the level
o f background vibrarion was increased. On the other hand, there seemed ro be
a summation effect for the more inrense judgmenrs. T h e variable vibrarion was
judged ro be Mildly Annoying or Exrrelnely Annoying at lower acceleration inrensiries as rhe level o f the background vibrarion was increased.
Psychophysical Approaches
Alrhough ir does seem possible to replicate results of subjective response

srudies when essenrially all experimental conditions are idenrical (cf. Chaney,
1964; Brumaghim, 1 9 6 7 ) , it is also evident rhar procedural and equipment variables can produce widely differing results (cf. Parks & Snyder, 1961; Chaney,
1 9 6 4 ) An addirional diffic~llryin interpreting the resulrs of experiments o f
rhis kind is rhat rhere is no quantirative way in which the s~lbjecrivelevels can
be compared wirh one anorher. H o w much worse is "inrolerable" than "extremely annoying"? About the best rhar can be hoped for is an ordinal arrangement of the various qualirative levels, and even rhat may nor b e possible between
experiments. For example, is "alarming" a more severe or less severe raring than
"intolerable"? Of course this would depend on the parricular definitions given,
bur ar some point rhe degree of specificity arrainable through verbal descriptions
breaks down, and one becomes lost in a morass of semanrics. Ultimarely, it
would be desirable to determine curves of subjective equality across frequency
which bear a rario relarionship ro each other (analogous to the sone curves for
loudness), so char level 2 x indicates a subjective intensity of vibrarion m i c e as
great as level x.
T h e threshold o f perception seems ro be one subjecrive level which could b e
fairly easily defined and should show thc least variability from individual differences in verbal facility and past experience. However, even here there is lirtle
agreement among the results of different investigators. In Fig 2, the Perceptible
curves of Chanc) ( l o & ) and Parks and Snyder ( 1 9 6 1 ) show no resemblance in
~ d edo, (hey agree wirh Goldman's ( 1 9 4 8 ) composite
either shape or ~ i ~ i g n ~ nnor
Perceptible lf.vel ( F I S 1 ) . A problem wirh regard to the threshold curves for
the Boeing srud.es 1: rhe f a < ( rhar some form of padding was used between the
man and the supporting surfnce nf rhe seat: an aircrafr sear cushion in the case
o f Gorrill and Snyder ( 1 9 5 7 ) and a %.in. hnrd felr pad in the studies b y Parks
and Snyder ( 1 9 6 1 ) and Chaney ( 1 9 6 4 ) . This procedure can present difficulries in inrerpredng biodynamic influences at any level, and Chaney ( 1 9 6 4 )
has speculated rhar the elevation in his curves in comparison to Goldman's is
partially attributable ro rhis factor.
137
Goldman's curve probably represents the best available estimate of the

threshold for perception of whole-body vibration, even though it is a composite
assimilated from data from several sources and different directions of motion.
Recently, Miwa ( 1967a) has made threshold measurements in the frequency
range from 0.5 to 300 Hz, using the method of limits with ascending and descending series. His results showed the lowest thresholds in the 2- to 7-Hz
range, providing some verification for the shape of Goldman's Perceptible curve.
However, Miwa used 6-sec. exposure durations below 10 Hz and 3-sec. durations
above 10 Hz, and how much influence this may have had on the shape of the
curve cannot be determined without further experimentation. Threshold measurements are difficult to make, and proper determinations require distortion
free vibration equipment, masking of cues from acoustic noise, and utilization of
modern psychophysical techniques (e.g., the forced-choice procedures developed
from signal detection research, Swets, 1761; Swets, Tanner, & Birdsall, 1761).
In addition to threshold discriminations, Miwa (1767a) had his Ss make
equal-sensation judgments across frequency at several suprathreshold intensity
levels. He used both X- and Z-axis stimuli, with 20 Hz as the standard frequency against which other frequencies were compared. Miwa refers to the dimension on which he orders his equal intensicy contours as vibration greatness
level, which is analogous to loudness level (phon) in acoustics. In subsequent
experimentation, Miwa (1968a) applied a corrected ratio technique, borrowed
from acoustics (Garner, 1754), to develop a vibration greatness scale from
fractionation and equisection judgments. H e contends that vibration greatness
is analogous to loudness (sone) in acoustics. He has also adopted a method
from acoustics (Stevens, 1756) to calculate the total vibration greatness of complex periodic (Miwa, 1968b) and random vibrations (Miwa, 1767), from the
vibration greatnesses of their octave band or third-octave band components.
Many of the ideas which Miwa introduces are interesting and may be useful
in quantifying judgments of vibration intensity. Unfortunately, his execution of
these ideas leaves much to be desired in the way of experimental methodology.
An overriding problem is the fact that he has apparently used the same 10 Ss for
all of the experimentation described above, plus several other related vibration
studies (nine reports, that the writer is aware of, from 1767 to 1767). At best,
this has the effect of making his results seem more orderly and consistent than is
warranted, and at worst, may have introduced carryover effects from one experiment to another. Miwa also dismisses important vibration parameters as having
no effects on the basis of preliminary data from as few as three Ss, and often
ignores procedural variables such as order and sequence of treatments. To illustrate, in one experiment, in which X- and Z-axis vibration were compared in subjective intensity (Miwa, 1967b), Z-axis vibration was always used as the standard against which X-axis vibration was compared, and consequently the Z-axis
stimulus was always presented first. Moreover, the 10 Ss in this experiment had
138
R. W. SHOENBERGER
just complered a series of equal sensation judgmenrs wirhin each of the two axes
(Miwa, 1967a) in which rhe srandard stimuli for Z-axis vibrarion were at vibration acceleration levels of 20, 30, 40, and 50 dB, but rhose for X-axis vibration
were at 30, 40, 50, and 60 dB (no explanation was given for using levels 10 dB
higher for the X axis rhan for the Z axis). Conceivably this experience could
account for his finding that rhe accelcrarion level of X-axis vibration must be
about 10 dB higher rhan rhar of Z-axis vibrarion ro achieve a match in subjective intensity (Miwa, 1967b).
The psychophysical scaling techniques developed by Srevens ( 1957 ) have
also been employed in efforts to scale vibration intensity. According to Stevens
(1957, 1961a, 1961b, 1962) the fundamental psychophysical law relating the
subjecrive magnitude of sensory qualiries ro the physical magnirude of rhe stimuli giving rise to the sensations is a power function. H e mainrains thar the
power law holds for what he refers ro as prorheric (intensive) dimensions, and
has shown thar psychological inrensiry grows as a power function of physical
stimulus intensity for more than 20 different prothetic conrinua (Stevens.
1961a). One of rhe psychophysical techniques which Stevens uses in obraining
power functions is rhe merhod of magnitude esrimarion. In direct numerical
magnirude estimarion S is presenred wirh a srandard stimulus of moderate intensity and asked ro make proportional judgments of addirional stimuli which are
either more or less intense rhan rl~esrandard. The srandard srimoltrs is assigned
a number which represenrs its s~ibjecrivernagninlde (usually 10) and S must assign numbers ro the variable stimuli in proporrion to the standard. Power functions may also be determined through a cross-modality marching procedure in
which, for example, the loudness of n sound is adjusted by S until it is equal in
subjecrive magnin~deto thc brightness of a light. The exponenr of the function
relating the physical intensities of rhe rwo variables has been shown by Stevens
(1961b) to be equal co che ratio of rhe exponents relating the sensation magnirude of each variable to irs physical inrensiry. Assuming thar the exponent of
the power function for the matching variable (i.e., sound) is known, the exponenr for rhe experimenral variable (i.e., light) can be determined from this
relationship.
Versace (1963) reported a preliminary srudy in which the cross-modality
marching technique was applied to whole-body vibrarion. Ss adjusted the loudness of random noise in headphones to match the intensicy of rheir sensacion of
from + 0 0 2 to
vibration, at 1, 2, 3, 5 , and 7 Hz and a t four or five amplit~~des
-CO.lOg,. Several Ss were run, bur Versace presents data for only one S. For
this S exponents relating subjective magnirude ro physical intensity varied from
0.9 to 1.3 over the five frequencies. Cross-modality matching has also been used
by Van Deusen and Versace as a technique for raring the ride vibration in an
auromobile driven over a variety of rough roads (this srudy is described by both
Van Deusen, 1965, and Versace, 1963) . Van Deosen ( 1 9 6 j ) presents a lengd~v
139
discussion of the possibilities of applying Stevens' psychophysical procedures to

vibration research, and outlines an extensive research plan to investigate human
response to vehicle vibration, using both ride simulator and field tests. H e advocates the use of both cross-modality matching and magnitude estimation approaches. Van Deusen recognizes that intensicy of vibration a t a particular frequency ( o r narrow frequency band) corresponds to what Stevens refers to as a
prothetic dimension, and that frequency corresponds to what Stevens calls a
metathetic dimension (Van Deusen refers to these respectively as the vertical and
horizontal aspects of the vibration problem). Nevertheless, h e seems to lose
sight of this distinction in his research plan when he proposes to attempt psychophysical scaling of 125 vibration stimuli which vary in both frequency and intensity. I t is difficult to see what would be the underlying physical dimension
against which the subjective responses might be scaled.
T h e desirability of vibration intensity curves analogous to the sone curves
for loudness has already been mentioned. Recent research by Shoenberger and
Harris (1971) represents a preliminary step in this direction. I n Exp. I of this
study, 20 seated Ss made numerical magnitude estimations of the subjective intensity of sinusoidal vibration at six physical intensities from k0.08 to *0.56g2.
Vibration at 20.32g: served as the standard and was assigned a subjective magnitude of 10. These accelerations were judged separately at each of the frequencies of 3.5, 5, 7, 9, 11, 15, and 20 Hz. For each frequency, the results
plotted as straight-line functions o n log-log graphs of subjective intensity against
physical intensity. This finding demonstrated that the subjective magnitude of
discrete frequency whole-body vibration can be related to the level of acceleration by a power function ( t h e slope of a straight line in a log-log plot is equal to
the exponent of the power function relating the two variables). T h e slopes obtained for the various freqliencies in the order listed were: 0.95, 1.04, 0.86, 0.97,
0.98,0.91, and 0.87.
Since a n acceleration of +0.32gZ was arbitrarily assigned the same subjective magnitude of 10 for all frequencies, and since numerous other studies have
shown that a constant acceleration level is not judged subjectively equal across the
frequency range used, only the values of the slopes in Exp. I were directly comand not the absolute subjective magnitude values.
parable across freq~~encies
Therefore, a second experiment was conducted as a means of integrating the results for all seven frequencies. In Exp. 11, Ss used the method of adjustment to
match vibration at 9 H z with vibration at each of the other six frequencies of
Exp. I. This provided a set of points (acceleration values) of equal subjective
intensity for each frequency through which lines with the slopes found in Exp. I
were drawn. T h e result was a plot of subjective magninide as a function of acceleration with frequency as a parameter. From this plot the family of curves of
equal subjective magnitude, shown in Fig. 3, were derived. T h e numbers associated with the curves indicate various levels of sitbjective magnintde. Their ab-
R. W.SHOENBERGER
.o
'
3.5
11
FREQUENCY
FIG.3. Z-axis equal rubiecrive magnitude
1971)
15
20
(Hz)
(after Shoenberger
NWCS
81 Harris.
solure values are arbitrary, bur assuming rhe validity of Stevens' magnimde esrimacion procedures for prodocing ratio scales they should bear ratio relarionships
to each other, e.g., level 20 should be subjectively twice as intense as level 10.
The authors make no claim for the definitiveness of this particular set of curves
(alrhough their general shape corresponds reasonably well with other subjective
response curves). However, they feel thar their resolrs demonstrate the feasibiliry of applying psychophysical procedures in furure efforts coward quanrification of judgments of vibration intensity.
P E R F O K M A N C ~STUDIES
The effects of vibrarion on human performance have been studied by Es
with widely varying backgrounds and experience, and for equally diverse purposes. Many smdies have bccn conducted in an attempt to solve specific applied
problems, while others have been directed coward establishing fundamental relationships between performance and basic physical vibration parameters. These
factors, plus the diversity of merhodologies employed by various investigators and
rhe plethora of different performance tasks used, make generalizations concern-
141
ing the performance effects of vibration very difficult; and simply organizing the
literature in this area in any coherent way is a perplexing task. The studies reviewed in this section are grouped according to the predominant requirement
involved in performing the task (or tasks) used. Even this fairly simple classification becomes somewhat strained for complex tasks.
An additional problem is related to methodology in investigating the contribution of frequency to vibration effects. There are several possible approaches, and all have been used by one investigator or another. One possibility
is to use a constant subjective intensity across frequency. For example, Teare
and Parks ( 1963) measured numerical counter reading over the frequency range
from 1 to 27 Hz at each of the four subjective levels determined earlier by Parks
and Snyder (1961); and Lange and Coermann (1962) tested visual acuity at
frequencies from 1 to 20 Hz at accelerations corresponding to roughly half of
short-time tolerance (Magid, et al., 1960). Similar procedures have been used
with tracking and other psychomotor tasks (Buckhout, 1964; Chaney & Parks,
1964a, 1964b; Coermann, Magid, & Lange, 1962; Harris & Shoenberger, 1966;
Shoenberger, 1967). The effects of different frequencies, for such paradigms,
are meaningful primarily in terms of the subjective intensity levels used to determine the level of acceleration for each frequency. Consequently, frequency effects in terms of the physical vibration parameters of acceleration or displacement are often obscured, and statistical tests for differences between frequencies
may have uncertain meaning at best. For example, if performance decrements
for various frequencies were related to acceleration in the same way as subjective
intensity, then a significance test for frequency would show no effects. On the
other hand, significant frequency differences would reflect an interaction between the factors determining the intensity judgments and those determining the
performance decrements. Some authors, faced with these problems, have attempted to show the effects of frequency for a constant acceleration by "normalizing" observed levels of performance to -t lg (Lange & Coermann, 1962; Coermann, et al., 1962). The fallacy in this procedure is that it assumes that decrements in performance are linearly related to acceleration at each frequency-a
rather optimistic assumption, in the writer's opinion.
Another alternative is to hold displacement constant and vary frequency.
This approach has been taken in studies of visual acuity (Rubinstein & Kaplan,
1968) and in studies of tracking performance (Catterson, Hoover, & Ashe,
1962; Fraser, Hoover, & Ashe, 1961). If this procedure is applied over a wide
range of frequencies the accelerations for high frequencies become very high,
possibly exceeding voluntary tolerance levels. Dennis (1965a) considered the
practicality of this fact in deciding to keep acceleration constant across frequency
in a study of visual performance. He states: "A possible alternative of keeping
amplitude of table movement constant and varying frequency was rejected because of the large increases in peak acceleration that result. With constant
amplimde, raising rhe frequency from 5 to 40 cps increases peak acceleration by

a factor of 64" (Deonis, 1965a, p. 195).
A third possibiliry is to hold acceleration constant and vary frequency, as
Dennis did. This technique has also been used with a variety of tasks requiring
both perceptual and motor responses (Hornick, 1961; Hornick, Boerrcher, &
Simons, 1961; Schmirz, Simons, & Boerrcher, 1960; Shoenberger, 1970). In
addition to being a more manageable paramerer to hold fixed than displacement,
there are other desirable fearures associared with accelerarion. Acceleration is
directly relared to rhe coral force or energy produced by a particular combination
of frequency and displacement. Guillemin and Wechsberg (1953) state thar
from purely physical considerarions, one should expect char acceleration will be a
~ r i m a r yfacror in producing physiological injury during vibration. Van Deusen
(1965) recommends acceleration as the most useful measure of physical vibration intensiry for sn~diesof ride comforr, and mainrains rhat ir is more asily and
accurately measured rhan other quanrities. Acceleration hns also been recommended as the primary quantity to describe the intensiry of a vibration environment by the International Organization for Standardization (1970).
Sensory and Percep8z~lDircrimim/ion
Viru.1 acrri/y.-By far the largest group of studies in this category are rhose
concerned with visual performance. Blurring of the visual image on rhe rerina,
due ro relative movemenr between rhe eye and the viewed object, is the mosr apparenr cause of visual problems during vibration. Logically, rhe grearer the relative movement the greater should be rhe loss in visual acuity, and therefore a
lawful relationship should exist berween the extent of rhe movement and decrements in visual performance. Unformnately, measuring eye movement alone
during vibration is fraught wirh rechnical problems, and has only been done at
very low frequencies (Guignard & Irving, 1960, 1962). Relative movement between rhe eye and a visual targer is even more difficult ro derermine. Neverrheless, mosr investigators seem to assume the validity of such a mechanism, and
many have atrempted ro provide relevanr evidence rhrough indirect means. Several studies have shown thar decrements in visual performance are produced
when only che visual rarger (and nor the man) is vibrated (Crook. Hoffman,
Wessell, Wulfeck, & Kennedy, 1947; Dennis, 1965b; Huddleston, 1970; Rubinstein & Kaplan. 1968; Tinker, 1948). Relative movemenr is the only plausible
explanation for such effects; and these demonstrarions indicate that it also plays a
part in visual decrements when the man is vibrared, although conceivably there
may be ocher factors as well (e.g., deformation of the eyeball, or interference wirh
retinal blood supply ) . Regardless of the exact nature of rhe mechanism, there
is ample evidence that whole-body vibration degrades visual performance. This
is true when only rhe man is vibrated (Langc & Coermann, 1962; Mozell &
White, 1958; Schmirz, 1959; Simons & Schmitz, 1958) and when both man and
143
target are vibrated simultaneously (Rubinstein 8: Taub, 1967; Shoenberger,

1968; Taub, 1964,1966; Teare & Parks, 1963).
Given that vibration interferes with vision, what conclusions can be drawn
from the literature concerning relationships between visual performance and the
intensity and frequency of vibration? Increases in the intensity of vibration at a
given frequency produce increases in the amount of visual decrement (Dennis,
1960,1965a; Loeb, 1954; O'Briant & Ohlbaurn, 1970; Rubinstein & Taub, 1967;
Taub, 1964; Teare & Parks, 1963). This is certainly what one would expect,
and a quantitative statement of the relationship between changes in intensity and
extent of decrement would be much more satisfying than simply stating that it is
monotonic. The data available are insufficient for such a goal, but the relationship is apparently frequency dependent, since the increase in interference for a
constant increase in acceleration is greater for some frequencies than for others
(Dennis, 1960, 1965a; O'Briant & Ohlbaum, 1970).
Differential frequency effects on visual tasks have been reported by most
investigators, but agreement on the most troublesome frequencies is generally
poor. The discussion will deal primarily with studies using vertical vibration of
seated Ss, since the number of experiments in which other body orientations and
directions of vibration were used is inadequate for any general conclusions.
Guignard and Irving (1962) reported that the eye can make compensatory
tracking movements which are 50% or more of the input amplitude during
vibration at frequencies below about 2.5 Hz. These authors (Guignard &
Irving, 1960) also found decrements on a visual search task which were greatest
between 3 and 5 H z (for vibration at L0.25g: at frequencies from 2.4 to 9.5
Hz). They attributed this to a breakdown of compensatory eye movements, as
frequency increased, and to whole-body resonance effects that were greatest in the
same band of frequencies. Lange and Coermann (1962) have interpreted the
results of their study of visual acuity, at frequencies from 1 to 20 Hz, as being
related co primary and secondary whole-body resonances. However, since they
varied frequency and acceleration simultaneously, their interpretation is based on
the normalizing procedure discussed earlier.
Harris and Shoenberger ( 1965 ) attempted to relate the results of several experiments in which visual performance tasks were used (Dennis, 1960; Loeb,
1954; Mozell & White, 1958; Schmitz, 1959). They compared data at frequencies of 20 Hz or below &nd were unable to come to any general conclusions regarding frequency effects. The study by Dennis (1960) was the only one of the
four in which acceleration was held constant across frequency, and although he
used a 1%-in. foam rubber cushion he also measured acceleration at S's head.
These measurements indicated that the cushion produced attenuation at all frequencies, but relative transmission across frequencies does not appear to have
been greatly affected. Dennis' number reading task showed the most errors at 5
and 14 Hz when the input acceleration was +0.25gZ, and at 7 and 14 Hz with an
144
R. W. SHOENBERGER
input of &O.>Og, ( 5 Hz was not tested at this level). The low frequency
effecrs are probably related to whole-body transmission; 14 Hz is above the body
resonance range, but effects ar rhis frequency could be related to resonance of rhe
head or ro head rotarion caused by rbe center of gravity of the head being forward of rhe neck joinr (Goldman & von Gierke, 1960). In a larer experimenr,
Dennis (196Sb) compared visual decrements resulring from vibrarion of S with
decremenrs caused by vibrating only the visual display. He equated the displacemenr of targer vibrarion at each frequency wirh vertical displacements measured
at S's head during whole-body vibrarion. Under rhese condirions vibration of S
produced grearer impairmenr of vision than vibration of [he display a t 14, 19, and
27 Hz. Dcnnis hypothesized rhat rhis d~flcrznccis caused by resonance of the
eyeball or of facial tissue around the eye A c t ~ n part
,
of the effect could be due
ro head rotarion, since such movemenr wc,wld not be fully reflecred in measutements from a single.axis transducer.
A study by Rubinsrein and Kaplsn (1968), in which Y-axis vibration was
applied directly to S's head by means of individually firred head restraints, is relevant ro high frequency visual effecrs. They varied frequency of vibration from
13 ro 78 Hz, while maintaining either a constant acceleration of t l . O g , or a
constant displacement of 0.03 cm. With either technique rhe greatest losses in
visual acuity occurred from 22 to 34 Hz. They also vibrated the visual rarget
alone ar the same frequencies and amplitudes, and found a significant decrement
only at 13 Hz wirh lateral vibration equivalent to kl.Og,. Similar resulrs wirh
head vibration were obtained regardless of whether rhe distincrive feature of the
rarget (a srepped line) was oriented perpendicular or parallel to the axis of
vibration. This implies char rhere wns nor simply nn amplification of eye movement in rhe direction of rhe vibrarion but rather a general disrurbance of the
visual system. Alrhough this sn~dyfalls ourside the caregory o f whole-body verrical vibrarion, it does demonstrate [as does rhe study by Dennis (1965b)I that
visual decrements are not simply relared to degree of head vibrarion and lends
credence to hyporheses concerning high frequency resonance of small structures
such as the eyes or facial tissues.
In summary, when vertical, whole-body vibrarion is applied ro a man in an
upright seated position, rhere are primarily three frequency related factors char
appear to have a bearing on visual decrelnenrs. These are: compensatory tracking movements of rhe eye at very low frequencies, amplificarion or arrenuarion o f
vibration from sear ro head (including rotarion and resonance of the head itself),
and resonance associated with rhe eyeball and/or its supporting srmcmres ar high
frequencies. However, the third factor is deduced from the degree of visual decrement relative to rhe amplitode of head movemenr, and should nor cause large
absolute effects unless rhere is considerable high frequency vibration reaching the
head. This could occur when the head is in direct conracr wirh the vibrating
source or when rhe high frequency inyur acceleration to a seared man is quire
145
large. When the level of acceleration for each frequency is chosen in relation to
a subjective intensity curve the higher frequencies are administered at high acceleration levels and do tend to produce greater visual decrements (Teare & Parks,
1963; Lange & Coermann, 1962). However, without additional measurements
it is impossible to tell if they are a result of high frequency resonances or simply
a function of the higher g levels.
Pattern recognition and monitoring.-The performance tasks discussed in
the remainder of this section require ~rimarilya perceptual discrimination or
judgment plus a very simple motor response, such as a button press. Most of
these tasks involve vision, but they do not demand fine visual acuity, and are
generally unaffected by vibration.
Pattern recognition during vibration has been tested by Buckhout (1964)
and Shoenberger (1967). Buckhout used sinusoidal Z-axis vibration at 5,7, and
11 Hz, and intensities of 25, 30, and 35% of the 1-min. tolerance level (Magid,
et al., 1960). Shoenberger's vibration conditions were the same, but at intensities of roughly 20, 25, and 30% of tolerance. Buckhout found no significant
vibration effects on a task which required S to judge whether two successive patterns of lights, presented in a 6 X G matrix, were the same or different. Shoenberger's task was somewhat more complex. It consisted of a 6 X 6 matrix of
small squares which could be individually illuminated to form patterns resembling bar graphs. A standard pattern was presented, followed by two comparison patterns which contained "visual noise." The task was to determine
whether the first, second, or neither comparison pattern was the same as the
standard. Performance on this task was also unaffected by vibration.
Two other tasks were included in the battery which Shoenberger (1967)
used. One required S to monitor four dials with slowly oscillating pointers and
detect changes in the average reading on any of the four. The second consisted
of five red lights and five green lights, each with a push button beneath it, that
were located in pairs at each corner and in the center of the display console. S's
task was to keep the green lights on and the red lights off by operating the appropriate buttons. For these two monitoring tasks only response time to the
green lights was adversely affected. In general, green lights response time increased with increasing vibration intensity at all three frequencies.
Monitoring tasks have also been used in experiments with random vertical
vibration. Parks (1961) tested visual monitoring of four red "warning" lights
located at the corners of his display panel. His vibration conditions included
random vibrations with spectra from 0.3 to 3.3 Hz and peaks at 0.75 and 2.5 Hz;
constant frequency, random amplitude vibration at 0.75 and 2.5 Hz; and
sinusoidal vibration at the same frequencies. An auditory monitoring task was
used by Weisz, Goddard, and Allen (1965 ) and Holland ( 1966, 1967). Ss
were required to monitor a tone that was repeated at 1-sec. intervals and detect a
change in its frequency from 1600 to 1200 Hz. In the former study random
146
R. W. SHOENBERGER
vibrarion in the P 1 2 Hz range was compared wirh 5 Hz random amplitude

vibrarion and wirh sinusoidal vibrarion ar 5 Hz;while rhe larrer was a comparie
ar 2 H z and rhe
son of two random spectra i n the 1 4 H z r a n g ~ n peaking
orher at 5 Hz. Moniroring performance was nor affecred by any of rhe vibrarion
conditions in any of these rhree experimcnrs. However, Hornick and L e f r i u
( 1 9 6 6 ) did find a decremenr on an insrrumenr moniroring rask during 1 to 12
H z random vibrarion Their task approximared a vigilance siruarion, since Ss
had to derecr and respond ro "rhrusr command" changes which occurred only
once during each half hour o t a 4-hr, simulated low-alrirude, high-speed flighr.
Response rime increased from a n average of 2.4 sec, during pre- and posr-vibrarion periods to 8.1 sec. during vibration bur was nor significantly related ro acceleration level (0.10, 0.15, or 0.20 RMSg,).
Pevceptual-motor Tasks
Reacliorz rime.-The
firsr group o t rasks in the perceprnal-moror category
comes under the heading of reacrion time in the vibrarion lirerarure. However,
most of [hem are berrer characrerized as measures of response rime, since the
rimes recorded usually include borh reacrion time and movemenr rime. Some of
the rasks discussed below differ lirrle from rhose described above as monitoring
tasks. They have been included here as choice response rime tasks if rhe stimulus lights and response buttons were clustered rogerher spatially rather than dispersed so rhar scanning was required in order to moniror rheir sracus.
True r n c r i o n rime was measured in a two-choice situation by Simons and
Schmirz (1958). Their Ss responded b y raising rhe righr hand when the vertical
row o f a cross o f fivc red lighrs was illuminared and by raising rhe lefr hand
when rhe horizonral row came on Vibration was ar 2.5 Hz, t 0 . l 7 g z and 3.5
Hz, +0.11g;.
They reporred a significant effecr due to vibrarion which appeared ro be greater for 2.5 Hz. However, Chiles and Cusrer (1963) have questioned rhe appropriareness of the data analysis, and i t appears ro the writer that a
random grorlps analysis was applied to a repenred measures design. In addirion,
a rrials (rime) variable seems to b e complerely ignored i n the analysis of variance. In any case rhe increase in reacrion rime was quire small-n
rhe order of
20 msec. Dodek and Clemens (1965) made separate measures of reacrion rime
and movement rime during vibrarion ar 4, 8, and 12 Hz at displacemenrs of 0.15,
0.20, and 0.25 i n . They r e p r r no significsnr effects on eirher variable due ro
frequency, amplitude, or their interaction. T h e description o f the procedure
given by Dodek and Clemens is very incomplere, and one can only infer from rhe
form of [he analyses of variance whar sort of experimental design was actually
used. This article purports ro be a snldy of vibrarion effects, bur apparenrly borh
inrensity and frequency of vibrarion were treated as bemeen-subjecrs effects
while rhe influence o f rhree types o f switches was a wirhin-subjects variable.
While inreracrions between types of controls and vibrarion parameters are cer-
HUMAN FSSPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION
147
tainly worthwhile objects of study, in the writer's opinion designs such as this are
hardly likely to uncover them. When such shortcomings are compounded by
vague and incomplete specifications of methods and procedures only confusion
results.
Simple foot response time was measured in a simulated driving task during
Z-axis vibration at 2.5 and 3.5 Hz (Schmitz, 1959). Hornick (1962a) used
essentially the same task, but modified it so that S only made the foot-braking
response to a particular pattern of colored lights rather than to the single red
light which Schmitz had used. Hornick tested frequencies from 0.9 to 6.5 H z at
accelerations of &0.15, 2 0 . 2 5 , and &0.35g, in each of the three axes (X, Y, or
Z ) . Response time was unaffected by any of the vibration conditions used by
these two authors. However, Hornick reports an increase in response time during a post-vibration test after vibration in the Y or Z axis. Whether this is a
true vibrational aftereffect, or the result of a motivational "let down" during the
posttest, is difficult to tell. Simple hand response time was also measured in the
experiment by Hornick and Lefritz (1966), described in the preceding section.
They report no effects as a result of the 4-hr.random vibration exposures employed in that study.
The experiments by Weisz, et al. ( 1965 ) and Holland ( 1967), previously
mentioned in connection with auditory monitoring, also incl~ideda test of choice
response time. This task consisted of three red and three green lights arranged
alternately in a horizontal row on a display panel. Below each light was a response button of the same color. At aperiodic intervals a red light would come
on or a green light would go out. The task was to keep the green lights on and
the red lights off by pressing the appropriate buttons. In both of these studies
this task was performed simultaneously with the auditory monitoring task and a
two-dimensional compensatory tracking task. None of the vibration variables in
the study by Weisz, et al. showed significant effects on response time to either
the red or the green lights. Holland's study was a long duration investigation of
random vibration effects. Response times for both red and green lights showed
significant increases only as a function of time over the 6-hr. testing period. Response times were also longer during vibration with the 5-Hz power peak than
during the static control run, but this effect was not statistically significant.
Although Weisz, et al. and Holland found response time generally unaffected by vibration, Shoenberger (1970) has obtained significant effects with
sinusoidal vibration on essentially the same task. His testing situation included
both choice response time and two-dimensional compensatory tracking, but not
auditory monitoring. Three separate experiments were conducted, one in each
axis (X, Y, or Z ) . Each experiment included frequencies of 1, 3, 5, 8, and 11
Hz at zk0.2g and k0.4g. For Z-axis vibration response times for both the red
and the green lights showed significant increases at 5 and 8 Hz, with 5 Hz producing slightly longer times than 8 Hz. Vibration in the X axis produced sig-
nificanr increases i n response rime to the green lights at 1, 3, 5, and 8 Hz, wirh
the greatest effect at 5 Hz. During Y-axis vibrarion green lights response times
were significantly increased at 1, 3, and 5 Hz, and red lights rimes were significantly lengrhened at 1 and 3 HZ. The longest times occurred at 1 Hz for both
red and green lights. Response times for the no-vibration control conditions
averaged about 0.9 to 1.0 sec. for various groups, and significant i o c r e a ~ swere
rypicaly about 0.1 sec., but ranged as high as 0.5 sec. for Y-axis vibrarion at 1
HZ. In a later srudy Harris and Shoenberger (1970) used the same task to investigate the combined effects of noise and vibration. Noise showed no effects
on response times, but both red- and green-light times were significantly
lengthened by 5-Hz vibrarion at k0.25gz (the only vibrarion condition used in
rhis experiment).
Tracking.-Investigations
of performance effects of vibration have been
conducted more ofren wirh rracking rasks than with any other kind. Although
the results are not in complete accord, there does seem to be sufficient agreement
ro warrant a few generalizarions and conclusions. As is rhe case wirh visual performance, rhere are considerable data demonstrating rhar whole-body vibration
has adverse effects on tracking performance. Again, as with vision, there is
little doubt char rhe degree of interference wirh tracking performance increases
with increasing inrensicy of vibrarion. This relationship has been shown most
often for Z-axis sinusoidal vibration (Carterson, et al., 1962; Chaney & Parks,
1964b; Fraser, et a!., 1961; Harris, Chiles, & Touchstone, 1964; Harris & Shoenberger, 1966; Shoenberger, 1970; Weisz, et d.,
1965), and has alsa been demonstrated at a variery of sinusoidal frequencies in the other two axes as well (Fraser,
et al., 1961; Hornick, 1962a; Lovesey, 1968; Shoenberger, 1970). There is also
evidence that decrements in cracking are related to intensicy of random vibrarion
in the Z axis (Besco, 1961; Soliday & Schohan, 1965; Torle, 1965; Weisz, el al.,
1965). A more quantirative sratement of rhis relationship is not possible at
present, but rhere are some data available which suggest that increases in intensicy at frequencies in the body resonance range produce the greatest increases in
tracking error (Chaney & Parks, 1964b; Harris & Shoenberger, 1966; Shoenberger, 1970).
The effects of frequency of vibration on tracking have received considerable
attention, primarily at frequencies below about 15 Hz. There is relatively good
agreement rhat tracking decrements in rhis frequency range are related to body
rranrmirrion phenomena. Harris and Shoenberger (19G6) tesied rwo-dimensional vacking performance during Z-axis vibration at 5, 7, and 11 Hz. A separate experiment was run at each frequency to determine rhe minimum acceleration level necessary to produce a significant increase in rracking error. Vertical
tracking error showed a significant increase ar *O.ZOg, at 5 Hz, ?0.25gi at 7
Hz, and ?0.37gr at 11 Hz. The results of several srudies conducted at Bostrom
Research Laboratories (Hornick, 1961; Hornick, el al., 1961; Schmitz, el nl.,
149
1960) are summarized in a report by Hornick ( 1962a). These experiments employed a simulated driving situation, which included horizontal compensatory
tracking with a steering-wheel control. Ss also attempted to maintain a constant
reading on a "speedometer" by means of a foot control. Although Hornick refers to this task as "foot pressure constancy" it may also be considered a type of
tracking task. During vertical vibration, at frequencies of 0.9, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5,
and 6.5 Hz and constant accelerations of k 0 . 1 5 , 20.25, and -+0.35g,, horizontal
cracking showed no frequency related effects. On the other hand, the ability to
maintain a constant foot pressure showed significant decrements at 5.5 and 6.5
Hz. A somewhat greater range of frequencies has been explored by Chaney
and Parks ( 1964a). They tested tracking performance with Z-axis frequencies
from 1 to 27 Hz. Their results showed the greatest decrements at frequencies
from 3 to 10 Hz. The long-duration, random vibration study described in the
section on monitoring (Holland, 1967) showed a non-significant trend which
suggested chat tracking performance was poorer with the 5-Hz power peak than
with the 2-Hz peak. Holland (1967) further investigated spectrum shape by
making it a within-subjects variable, in a supplemental experiment. With this
design both vertical and horizontal tracking were significantly poorer for the
spectrum peaking at 5 Hz than for the 2-Hz spectrum. These results suggest
that tracking performance during Z-axis random vibration is also related to
whole-body resonance.
Vibration in the X and Y axes has also produced tracking decrements which
appear to be related to whole-body transmissibility. The series of studies reported by Hornick (1962a) also involved X- and Y-axis vibration. Levels of
acceleration were the same as for the Z-axis, at frequencies of 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5,
and 5.5 Hz. The foot-pressure task showed the greatest decrement for X-axis
vibration at 3.5 Hz, while for Y-axis exposures it was most affected at 1.5 and
2.5 Hz. The horizontal tracking task also showed a significant decrement at 1.5
Hz during vibration in the Y-axis. In the study by Shoenberger ( 1970), described above in the section on reaction time, two-dimensional tracking was also
measured during vibration in each axis. Although Z-axis vibration did degrade
both vertical and horizontal tracking, significant differential frequency effects
were lacking. However, X-axis vibration produced the greatest effects at 1, 3,
and 5 Hz, especially for vertical tracking; and Y-axis decrements were largest at
1 and 3 Hz, with the greatest loss in tracking proficiency occurring for the horizontal component of the task. These results agree quite well with those reported
by Hornick for the X and Y axes and seem to reflect the fact that the greatest
transmissibilities for these directions of motion are between 1 and 3 Hz.
Intellectzlal Tasks
Tasks which involve primarily intellectual requirements have been used in
only a few vibration sntdies. A navigation task, included in the low-altitude,
150
R. W. SHOENBERGER
high-speed flighr simulations of Soliday and Schohan ( 1 9 6 5 ) and Schohan, Rawson, and Soliday ( 1 7 6 5 ) , showed no appreciable vibration effecrs. Simons and
Schmirz ( 1 9 5 8 ) also found no effecr on menral arithmetic ar 2.5 and 3.5 Hz,
wirh accelerarions to ?0.31g,.
However, Huddlesron's ( 1 9 6 4 ) "rolling arirhmeric" rask, cornbin~ngmenral addir~onand recenr memory, was aftecred by
vibrarion. H e osed sinusoidal v~brarionar 4.8, 6.7, 9.5, and 16 Hz. A t an accelerarion o f f0.5gZ, performance o n rhis task was significanrly slower for all
four frequencies than for a sraric conrrol condirion. A subsequent experiment
(Huddlesron, 1 9 6 5 ) , using the same g level ar 4.8 and 6.7 Hz, ~ r o v i d e dconfirmation of rhese results. A menral arithmeric rask was also used by Harris and
Somrner ( 1 9 7 1 ) in a srudy of the combined effecrs of noise and vibrarion.
Their rask involved short-rerm memory and menral subtraction, and was performed during exposure ro four inrenriries of broadband noise (80, 90, 100, and
110 d B ) , both wirh and without 5 H z vibrarion ar 10.25g,. Noise alone and
vibration plus low level noise ( 8 0 and 9 0 d B ) had n o adverse effect o n performance, bur vibration combined wirh the rwo highest noise levels ( 1 0 0 and 110
d B ) significantly reduced [he number of correcrly solved problems.
O n rhe whole, these resulrs indicate rhar inrellecrual rasks can b e affected
by cerrain vibrarion conditions, bur [he effecr does nor appear to b e a mechanical one. T h e facr rhar Huddlesron's resulrs ar +O.Sg, were nor related to frequency over a range which includes resonance, the additive effecr seen when
vibration is combined wirh noise, and the cognitive nature of rhe rasks all suggest a generalized effecr of stress acting on cenrral nervous system processes.
MECHANISMS OF VIBRAllON EFFECTS
Direct Mechanical Elfec~s
Human response ro vibrarion cnvironmenrs is governed predominantly by

mechanisms relared direcrly ro the mechanical effecrs of rhe vibrarion physically
acting on the body as a whole or on irs parrs. Transmission characrerisrics of
rhe body, producing ampliftcarion and resonance of vibrarion inputs at some
frequencies and arrenuarion at orhers, influence almost every type of response
considered i n rhis review Judgmcnrs o f vibrarion intensity, wherher they are
in terms of voluntary tolerance limits, psychophysical jadgmenrs, or orher subjectively defined levels o f inrensity, all reflccr rhis influence. Equal inrensiry
curves (plorred in rerms of acceleration and frequency) are far from mirror
images o f rransmissibility curves, bur general correswndence is indicared by rhe
d i p rypically seen in the 4- ro 8 - H z range. Pos~ohlec ~ ~ l s of
e s differences in the
shapes of rhe curves produced by different i n v z , u y ~ r i ~include:
r~
diverse definirions of inrensiry levels and diverse merhod* of d.\r 8 collecrion, nonlineariries
near rhreshold levels and ar high inrensiries, l a ~ kof f~del:ryor purity in rhe waveforms produced by the vibrarion source, and variability of vibrarion rransmission
ro S from diverse support and resrrainc config~~rations
and body orienrations and
postures.
151
The interference of vibration with skilled performance is also related to

body resonance for tasks which have large motor components and require precise manipulative skills. The studies reviewed in the section on tracking show
the most detrimental effects in the range of frequencies which have the greatest
transmissibility, for each of the three vibration axes. For vibration at 5, 7.5, 10,
and 22 Hz, in the Z axis, Larue (1965) obtained significant effects on vertical
positioning only at 5 Hz (his task was much like two-dimensional compensatory
tracking without any forcing function). Again, with Z-axis vibration, Guignard
and Irving (1960) found that performance on a marker positioning task was
related to transmissibility. Using frequencies from 2.4 to 9.5 Hz, they found the
greatest increase in the time required to perform the task at 3.4 Hz. This frequency also showed the highest transmissibility, based on measurements taken at
S's head. Results by Shoenberger (1970) show differential frequency effects
on choice response time which also suggest a relationship to body resonance, in
all three axes.
All of these tasks have visual as well as motor components, and visual interference probably contributes to their degradation during vibration. Resonance of the eye itself may be important at higher frequencies, but modification
of vibration transmission to the head, as a result of body resonance and attenuation, significantly influences visual effects in many situations.
There are other sources of evidence that mechanical interference is the
primary mechanism responsible for vibration decrements in skilled psychomotor
performance. Tasks which have predominantly perceptual or simple cognitive
requirements and minimal motor components (i.e., pattern recognicion and auditory and visual monitoring) are hardly affected during vibration. On the other
hand, visual acuity, tracking, and positioning tasks show consistent decrements
under similar vibration conditions. Discrete control adjustments, involving the
use of knobs, levers, switches, and buttons, are also adversely affected by both
sinusoidal (Chaney & Parks, 1964a) and random vibration (Dean, Farrell, &
Hitt, 1969). These tasks all require fine visual discrimination or skilled motor
manipulation, or both. Results with choice response time tasks seem to be
equivocal, showing decrements in some cases and not in others. Whether the
requirements of such tasks are predominantly perceptual or motor is a difficult
question. However, the stimulus-response relationships that have been used are
highly compatible, so that relatively little cognitive functioning is required to select and execute the proper response.
The differential effects of vibration on the horizontal and vertical components of tracking tasks also indicate direct mechanical interference. Through
a logical analysis of the relationships between the direction of vibratory motion
and the control and display configurations for two-dimensional tracking, predictions can be made of the expected effects of vibration in each axis on horizontal
and vertical tracking scores. For X-axis motion, visual effects involve changes
152
R. W. SHOENBERGER
in rhe distance of rhe display from the eye and should produce minimal interferd
movemenrs are likely ro be ~nducedprimarily i n the
ence, but ~ ~ n w a n r ehand
fore-and-aft direction and should cause grearer decremenrs for verrical rhan for
d
relative
horizontal rracking performance. Vibrarion in rhc Y axis s h o ~ ~ linduce
motion between the eye and the display in rlle horizontal dimension, and also
creare the greatest hand movements in the side.to-side direcrion. These two factors should summate to yield large increases in horizonral tracking error. Z-axis
vibrarion should cause v i s ~ ~ ainterference
l
primarily in the verrical dimension
( a well as slightly grearer control inrerference in the fore-and-afr direction, due
to body asymmetry from front to back) and show greater effects for vertical
than for horizontal rracking. Many experimenrs on rracking performance doring
Z-axis vibrarion have shown greater increases in verrical than in horizontal rracking error (Buckhour, 1964; Harris, et d l . , 1964; Harris & Shoenberger, 1766,
1970; Mozell Br White, 1 9 5 8 ) . T h e srudy by Shoenberger ( 1 9 7 0 ) , which involved vibrarion ar rhe same frequencies and inrensiries in each o f the rhree axes,
prod~lced results which are in complete agreemenr wirh the above predictions.
Decrements in tracking were grearer in rhe vertical dimension than the horizontal for borh X- and Z-axis vibrarion, while the opposite occtirred for Y-axis motion.
Mechanical inrerference with control movemenrs is also indicated by rwo
random vibrarion studies, which show rhat support and restraint devices for the
arm reduce vibration effects. In one experimenr (Torle, 1 9 6 5 ) , adding a small
arm-rest significanrly reduced tracking errors during vibration. In the orher
srudy (Soliday & Schohan, 1 9 6 5 ) , tracking performance during vibration was
significanrly better with a side-arm controller that incorporated a padded armrest and an over-arm restraint rhan wirh a conventional center.stick conrroller.
Non-rpecific Strerr Effect,
Data showing non-mechanical effecrs of vibratio~i are rather sparse. As
previously mentioned, simple cognitive rasks are relarively resisrant ro vibrarion
effecrs. Nearly all the evidence available indiraring non-specific effecrs comes
from studies using intellectual rasks. Since such tasks are almost free of components which mighr be direcrly affected by mechanical interference, decrements
due ro vibration imply non-specific srress effects. i n addirion to the interacrive
effects of noise and vibrarion on mental arithmeric (Harris & Sommer, 1 9 7 1 ) .
high intensity noise (110 d B ) has also shown increases in tracking error when
ir is combined with vibrarion (Harris & Shoenberger, 1970). These resulrs indicare rhat generalized stress effects of borh noise and vibrarion combine i n a n
additive way, and further suggesr char part of the detrimental effecrs o f vibration o n cracking may be due to non-specific facrors. Theorizing about rhe nonspecific stress effecrs o f noise h z ofren incorporared the concept of arousal
level ( e g , Hockey, 1969; Wilkinson, 17631, and there is evidence rhat a high
153
arousal state interferes with smooth and efficient motor performance (Duffy,
1962). In view of the massive sensory inputs which accompany whole-body
vibration, excessive arousal also seems a plausible mechanism to account for
short duration vibration effects which are not related to mechanical interference.
Duration of Exposure
The time factor has been mentioned only incidentally up to this point. Very
few sntdies have considered exposure duration as a primary variable, and, indeed, most vibration experiments are for relatively short times. Nonetheless,
duration is one of the primary attributes of any stimulus, and must be considered
along with frequency and intensity characteristics to provide an adequate specification of vibration. The effect of even small time increases on voluntary tolerance is evident in the data of Magid, et al. ( 1960), shown in Fig. 1. As is true
for any type of stimulation that is near damaging levels, these curves show that
increases in exposure duration must be accompanied by decreases in intensity in
order to remain tolerable. A similar relationship for exposure times in the range
from 1 to 8 hr. is also indicated when one compares vibration levels which are
recommended to preserve comfort (Harris & Shoenberger, 1965; Linder, 1962).
In the performance area there is little evidence that changes as a function of
vibration duration are any different from time-dependent changes during static
performance. There are some data (Harris & Shoenberger, 1966; Shoenberger,
1970) which suggest that limited adaptation may take place during exposures of
10 to 20 min. for sinusoidal vibration conditions that have large detrimental effects on performance. However, there are other data (Harris, et al., 1964; Harris & Shoenberger, 1966) that show as much improvement, over these fairly
short time periods, for the no-vibration condition as occurred during vibration,
indicating that the effect is one of general learning or habituation to the testing
situation.
Only two experiments have been concerned with the long-term effects of
vibration on performance (Holland, 1967; Hornick & Lefritz, 1966). Holland
found small but significant increases in tracking error and choice response time
during a 6-hr. exposure to Z-axis random vibration. However, both of these
measures also showed comparable time related increases without vibration. Holland's Ss performed for 45 min. of each hour, and then had a 15-min. respite
from the tasks, while the vibration continued. He found a progressive increase
in tracking error during each performance period, but there was almost total recovery on the first trial of the next hour (after the rest period). These results
indicate a fatigue effect that is more related to performing the tasks than to
vibration. Hornick and Lefritz tested performance continuously during 4 hr. of
Z-axis random vibration, plus a 1/2-hr. pretest and a Y2-hr. posttest under static
conditions. They also found a significant increase in tracking error over time,
but no significant time trends for simple response time. Whether the increase
in rracking error is relared to rhe vibration exposure or represenrs a more general f a r i p e effecr is difficult to tell, since there was not a static conuol run of
the same duration as the vibrarion runs. The rracking error did conrinue to
increase during the posrrest after rhe vibrarion had ceased, however; although
the authors inrerpret this finding as a residual effecr (presumably as a result of
the vibrarion), an alternarive interpretation is rhar it represents persisting fatigue
for five hours.
effects related to performing the rasks contin~~ously
PROBLEMS~ r n
SHORTCOMINGS
OF VIBRATION RESEARCH
advanced in rhis paper have been based
Generalizations and inte~~rerarions
on findings from more than one investigator. However, rhere are instances of
disagreement and contradiction in the vibration lireran~re. For example, the
tracking results of Morell and White (1958) showed no consistcnt effects of
eirher frequency or intensiry of Z-axis vibrarion in a range where other invesrigarors have reported large decrements in rracking ( 8 ro 23 Hz). Other examples are included in various secrions of rhe paper, and the many inconsisrencies
in judgments of vibration intensiry are obvious from the curves in Figs. 1 and 2.
Variability, inconsistency and contradiction among results severely limit the
generalizations and conclusions which may be drawn in any area of research.
Some of the factors contriburing to rhese problems in vibration research are
discussed below.
One problem which seriously hampers interpretation and integration of
vibrarion resulrs is incomplete or ambiguous specificarion of the vibration srimulus. Some of rhe older literarure refers to vibration condirions as "lighr" or
"heavy" wirh no quanritative specification of inrensiry, or even of frequency, in
some insrances. The physical inrensity of sinusoidal vibrarion is often given in
rerms of displacement, and is sometimes noted only as amplimde. Without further designation i t is difficult to know if this means single- or double-amplitude,
and calcularions of accelerarion may then be in error by a factor of two. A similar problem exisrs with respect to more recent investigations of random vibration in which high-speed, low-alrimde flighr of a patria~laraircraft (or class of
aircraft) is simulared (Schohan, el al., 1965; Soliday & Schohan, 1965). Here
the only specification of the vibrarion environment may be in terms of gust
velocities and dynamic characteristics of rhe simulated aircraft, and translation
into a power specrn~mis difficult, i f nor impossible. Additional complications
arise when the simulation is "closed loop" and S's control movements affect the
motion of the simulator. In such insrances one may be left without an independenr variable.
There are several merhodological variables which are sources of variability
in vibrarion results. Confounding rhe effects of frequency and intensiry, in designs where both frequency and accelerarian are vacied simultaneously, has al.
ready been disaissed. Hornick (1962b) has considered rhis problem, along
155
with some of the other factors included here. H e also favors the use of constant
acceleration across frequency, for most situations. Whether or not S is restrained
and the type of restraint are additional methodological variables and should be
clearly specified. These factors can cause changes in body resonance and influence the extent of vibration transmission to the man. With regard to fidelity
of transmission, seat cushions have unique dynamic characteristics and will
amplify the input at their resonant frequencies and attenuate it at others. Even
a thin layer of hard felt, a condition used by several investigators, can cause considerable attenuation at high frequencies. It is possible to measure the vibration input at the interface between the man and the cushion, but unless the study
is concerned with evaluating- the effects of the cushion itself it is more desirable
to put S in direct contact with a rigid vibrating source. This makes measurement and control of the vibration input considerably easier and simplifies interpretations of biodynamic influences.
Unless the purpose of a vibration experiment is to study effects on learning,
sufficient training should be given on the experimental task to bring performance to a fairly stable level before introducing vibration. If this is not done,
since most environmental studies use repeated measures designs rather than the
independent groups designs most often appropriate in learning experiments,
learning effects may interact with the vibration conditions in complex and uninterpretable ways. Similar problems arise in connection with other variables
whose effects are associated with the passage of time, such as motivation and
fatigue. If proper control conditions are not included in the experimental design, it is impossible to isolate effects due to vibration alone or to evaluate interactions between vibration and such factors.
Most vibration research has been conducted with sinusoidal vibration.
From a practical viewpoint, sinusoidal vibration is easier to produce and quantify than random. It also provides a fairly simple dimensional framework, in
terms of frequency and intensity, which can be systematically explored through
a sampling of vibration conditions. On the other hand, the number of different
random spectra which can be produced is practically unlimited, and simply deciding where to begin and which of the many parameters to explore is a difficult problem. Nevertheless, pure sinusoidal vibration is seldom encountered
outside the laboratory. If laboratory results are to be useful for solving operational problems, the question of generalizability of sinusoidal findings to random environments is of paramount importance.
The possibility that findings obtained with sinusoidal vibration can be generalized to random motion is indicated by several writers. With regard to the
nature of operational sources of random vibration, Notess ( 1963) points out that
most vehicles, have dynamic characteristics that amplify motion at their natural
frequencies, and that random motion can often be adequately simulated in the
laboratory with sinusoidal vibration. Hornick (1962b) suggests that perform-
156
R. W. SHOENBERGER
ance effecrs may be caused by discrere frequencies and amplin~deswirhin a complex random spectrum and argues for a systematic investigation of the parameters of sready-stare s i n ~ ~ s o i d avibrarion.
l
Conversion facrors o r weighting
systems, for relating rhe effecrs of sinusoidal vibrarion ro random environments,
have also been proposed (Parks, 1961); and rhe Inrernational Organization
for Srandardizarion (1970) has outlined a sysrem which assumes direct correa l random effecrs in evaluaring human exposlue
spondence between s i n ~ ~ s o i d and
ro whole-body vibrarion.
Very few s n ~ d i e shave specifically compared random and sinusoidal effects.
T h e experimenrs by Parks (1961) and Weisz, el nl. (1965). previously described in rhe section o n moniroring rasks, showed n o significanr differences berween sinusoidal vibrarion, random alnplirude vibration, and vibration with rand o m amplirude and freqnency in rheir effecrs o n several performance tasks. T h e
vibrarion conditions compared in rhese studies had similar frequency components and were cquared in amplitude on the basis of over-all RMS accelerarion.
Although rhe differenr types of vibration produced similar resulrs for the limired
frequency ranges explored, providing dara o n rhe comparability o f random and
sinusoidal vibrarion with rhis approach rakes the form of proving rhe null hypothesis. A somewhar different approach was rakeo by Holland (1967), w h o
showed that a specrrum which peaked at 5 H z had greater effecr on tracking
rhan a specrrom which peaked a t 2 H z , when equated o n the basis of RMSg,.
These results show a relarive difference for w o random vibration condirions
which is similar to frequency differences found with sinusoidal motion. All of
these findings supporr rhe premise thar sinusoidal dara is generalizable to rand o m environmenrs. Neverrheless, final conclusions depend on additional re^
search, since so few s n ~ d i e shave addressed rhis problem, and only a limired
range o f vibrarion parameters has been sampled.
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Dial-rcddhp oerformanre nr n lrrncrion o f frequency o f vibrdtson and head

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vcrrrarnr
Accepted No>w,,rh.r I I , 1971.

Percept Mot Skills 1972 Shoenberger 127 60

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Percept Mot Skills 1972 Shoenberger 127 60

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Perceptual and Motor Shills, 1972,34, 127-160.

@ Perceptual and Motor Skills 1972

HUMAN RESPONSE T O WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION1

Locomotion of any kind, from walking or running to space flight, subjects

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

represents any of a number of possible levels of vibration acting in rhe same

Whole-body TranrmFrsion and Reronatlce

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODYVIBRATION

(1959) provides an adequate summary statement of seat-to-head transmissibility,

The majority of studies investigating the mechanical response of the body

Experiments in which Ss are required to make judgments of the intensity or

Volzcnrary Tolerance Levels

ance by Ziegenruecker and Magid ( 1 9 5 9 ) . Their Ss were seated in a modified

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

mately the same length of time to attain *2.5g, at 10 Hz as i t did to reach

A number of other wrirers have defined limits of vibrarion exposure which

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

rhree background vibration condirions: ( a ) no background vibrarion, ( b ) 17

Alrhough ir does seem possible to replicate results of subjective response

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

Goldman's curve probably represents the best available estimate of the

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

discussion of the possibilities of applying Stevens' psychophysical procedures to

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

amplimde, raising rhe frequency from 5 to 40 cps increases peak acceleration by

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

target are vibrated simultaneously (Rubinstein 8: Taub, 1967; Shoenberger,

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

vibrarion in the P 1 2 Hz range was compared wirh 5 Hz random amplitude

HUMAN FSSPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

Direct Mechanical Elfec~s

Human response ro vibrarion cnvironmenrs is governed predominantly by

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

The interference of vibration with skilled performance is also related to

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

Wuhingl'rojecr 862. Progress Rc-

BehuPrunT, J. E.. S!~l-uea, F. W., Bnumncn~l*I,S. H., & K N A P P , R. K. Tcn year, of

he effecrs of cockpit verr~cal acceleration on a simple pilored rracking

HUMAN RESPONSE T O WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

Jolph Field, Tcr.:USAP School of Avia~ionMedicine, 1953. (Project No. 211203-0002)

HUMAN RESPONSE TO WHOLE-BODY VIBRATION

SHOENB&RGER, R. W . Inuerligaionr of the i , i l g . i ' c 01 ~ r h r i , , , on

Dial-rcddhp oerformanre nr n lrrncrion o f frequency o f vibrdtson and head

Accepted No>w,,rh.r I I , 1971.

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