1

Report on
SUMMER TRAINING AT ONGC ANKLESHWAR
ASSET
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.TECH
DEGREE

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

INDIAN SCHOOL OF MINES
DHANBAD
SUBMITTED BY

YASH SARAGIYA
15MT000294
3rd Semester, M.TECH Petroleum

CERTIFICATE
This

is

to

certify

that

Mr

Yash

Saragiya,

Roll

No:

15MT000294, 3rd Sem M.Tech (Petroleum Engineering) of

Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad has successfully completed
Summer training at ONGC Ankleshwar Asset, during the period
of 9th May to 3rd June 2016 and submitted training report titled,
REPORT ON SUMMER TRAINING AT ONGC ANKLESHWAR
ASSET.

Under the Guidance of

Shri. Kalyan Chakravarthi

Deputy Senior Engineer (P)
ONGC Ankleshwar Asset

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to thank OIL & NATURAL GAS CORPORATION Ltd.
Ankleshwar Asset for allowing to undergo training program at
their premises and for providing all the needful facilities
required for completion of the entire program.
I would like to express our sincere gratitude towards our
mentors Mr Gairik Das CE (P), Artificial Lift , Surface Team &
Mr Kalyan Chakravarthi Dy SE(P) , Area IV for his
continuous

guidance

knowledge

throughout

guidance

has

been

and

for

the

enlightening

program.

privilege

and

us

Working
a

with
under

fruitful

vital
his

learning

experience.
I am also thankful to Mr Amarnath, EE(P)who took great zeal
in arranging lectures and field visits during the course of our
training with the surface team. I would also like to thank Mr
KRVS Prasad and Mr D.R. Sharma of Logging Services for
providing us with all the necessary help and for guiding us
throughout the preparation of this report. I express my deep
gratitude to Mr. Ravi Pratap Singh of CMT and Mr Ayush ,
Mr Abhishek & Mr Nishant and Mr. Anup of Artificial Lift
department for sharing their valuable knowledge with us
without which the completion of this project would have been
rather impossible. I would also like to thanks to WCT team,
WSS Team, Work over & Fishing Team of PTYS Gandhar
for arranging field visits and providing us with valuable
knowledge

about

Workover,

Completion

&

Stimulation

Petroleum

engineering

operation.
I

would

like

to

thank

Head

of

department ISM, Dhanbad Prof. V.P Sharma and course

coordinator Dr. T.K Naiya for their support with which we were
able to complete our summer training successfully. I would like
to extend my thanks and would like to acknowledge the ONGC
personnel for sharing their valuable knowledge with us without
which the completion of this project would have been rather
impossible.

CONTENTS
Chapters
1. Introduction to ONGC and Ankleshwar asset
2. Artificial Lift
3. Reservoir Aspect of Artificial Lift
4. Trouble Shooting and Optimization of Gas Lift
5. Well Stimulation Services
6. Well Logging
7. HSE
8. Oil and Gas: Indian Scenario
9. Water injection
10.Cementing
11.Field Visit
CTU and solvent job
Work over and fishing job
Completion Equipments
GGS

Page No
10
14
32
36
44
51
62
71
73
76
90
96
103
119

INTRODUCTION

ONGC
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) is an Indian multinational oil and
gas company headquartered in Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India. It is a Public Sector
Undertaking (PSU) of the Government of India, under the administrative control of
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas. It is Indias largest oil and gas exploration and
production company. It produces around 69% of Indias crude oil (equivalent to around
30% of the countrys total demand) and around 62% of its Natural gas.
ONGC was founded on 14 August 1956 by Government of India, which currently
holds a 68.94% equity stake. It is involved in exploring for and exploiting hydrocarbons
in 26 sedimentary basins of India, and owns and operates over 11,000 km of pipelines in
the country. Its international subsidiary ONGC Videsh currently has projects in 17
countries. ONGC has discovered 6 of the 7 commercially producing Indian Basins, in the
last 50 years, adding over 7.1 billion tonnes of in-place oil and Gas volume of
hydrocarbons in Indian basins.
In a government survey for FY 2011-12, it was ranked as the largest profit making
PSU in India. ONGC has been ranked 357th in the Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds
biggest corporations for the year 2012. It is ranked 17th among the Top 250 Global
Energy Companies by Platts.
ONGCs operations include conventional exploration and production, refining and
progressive development of alternate energy sources like coal-bed methane and shale
gas. The companys domestic operations are structured around 11 assets (predominantly
oil and gas producing properties), 7 basins (exploratory properties), 2 plants (at Hazira
and Uran) and services (for necessary inputs and support such as drilling, geo-physical,
logging and well services).
Subsidiaries:
ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL) is the international arm of ONGC. It was rechristened on
15 June 1989. It currently has 14 projects across 16 countries. Its oil and gas production
reached 8.87 MMT of O+OEG in 2002/03. ONGC holds 100% stake in ONGC Videsh
Limited.
Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited (MRPL) is an oil refinery located at
Mangalore. MRPL has a design capacity to process 15 million metric tons per annum and

have 2 Hydrocrackers producing Premium Diesel (High Cetane). It also has 2 CCRs
producing Unleaded Petrol of High Octane.
Joint Ventures:
ONGC Tripura Power Company Limited (OTPC) is a joint venture between ONGC,
Infrastructure Leasing and Financial Services Limited and the Government of Tripura. It
is developing a 726.6 MW CCGT thermal power generation project at Palatana in
Tripura which will supply electricity to the power deficit areas of the north eastern states.
ONGC Petro Additions Limited (Opal), a multi-billion joint venture company was
incorporated in 2006, as a Public Limited Company under the companies Act, 1956,
promoted by ONGC and co-promoted by GAIL and GSPC. Opal is setting up a grass
root mega Petrochemical project at Dahej, Gujarat in PCPIR/SEZ.
Products and Services:
ONGC supplies crude oil, Natural gas and value-added products to major Indian oil and
gas refining and marketing companies. Its primary products crude oil and Natural gas
are for Indian market.
Listings and Shareholding:
The equity shares of ONGC are listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, where it is a
constituent of the BSE SENSEX index, and the National Stock Exchange of India, where
it is a constituent of the S&P CNX Nifty. As on 31 March 2013, Government of India
held around 69% equity shares in ONGC. Over 480000 individual shareholders hold
approximately 1.65% of its shares. Life Insurance Corporation of India is the largest nonpromoter shareholder in the company with 7.75% shareholding.
Employees:
As on 31 March 2013, the company has 32,923 employees, out of which 2.091 were
women (6.35%) and 143 were employees with disabilities (0.43%).

ANKLESHWAR ASSET
Ankleshwar is the first Asset where Oil and Natural Gas Corporation discovered oil in
1960. Its also the largest asset located in South of Gujarat in Bharuch district. Ankleshwar
asset is spread along Contiagal, Kosamba, Kim, Jalod, Rajpadi, Gandhar, Dahej, Nada, Kavi,
Dabka, Alamgir oil fields.

The Asset has two main fields: Ankleshwar field and Gandhar field. While Ankleshwar is a
mature field, Gandhar is a relatively new field which was discovered in 1984.
Ankleshwar field
Ankleshwar oil field is the biggest and the oldest oil-field of Oil and Natural Gas
Corporation Ltd. This is oil field is located at a distance of 6 km SSW of Ankleshwar Town in
Gujarat State. This field is situated in Narmada-Tapti Tectonic Block of Cambay Basin and
having an aerial extent of 32.47 sq. km.
Geological Survey of India started exploration of oil and gas in the field as early as
1930s. Subsequently the geologists of Oil and Natural Directorate of India mapped the area
and carried out Gravity Magnetic Survey during the year 1957-1958. Seismic survey was
carried out in the year 1958-1959. An exploratory test well was released for confirming the
hydrocarbon potential and the well was drilled in the year 1960 to a depth of 1969 m.
Hydrocarbon accumulations have been discovered in arenaceous reservoirs within Cambay
shale, Ankleshwar, Dadhar and Babaguru formations. Major oil pools are found in multi-layer
sandstone reservoirs within HazadandArdol members of Ankleshwar formation. The
sandstones of Ankleshwar formation represent series of delta front sands of the pro Narmada
Delta developed in the South Cambay Basin.
About the Field

Field discovered in 1960.

Put on production since 1961.

Located at a distance of 15 km. from Ankleshwar town.

Part of Narmada Block of Cambay Basin.

Spread over an area of approx. 32.27 sq. km.

Hydrocarbon entrapment in multi-layered sandstone reservoir.

Fig Map of Ankleshwar asset

Geology

E-W trending doubly plunging anticline, cut by reverse fault towards South.
Number of small fluid anomaly faults within main field.
Deltaic deposition comprising of distributaries mouth bars and channels.
Sand entry from North and North-East.
Grade into prodelta shale towards West.
Sand bodies separated by transgressive shales.

2. Artificial lift
Introduction to artificial lift systems Gas lifts - Introduction, process, types, advantages and
disadvantages, types of installations, continuous flow unloading system, gas lift valve and
design,

ARTIFICIAL LIFT SYSTEMS

1. Introduction to artificial lift systems
In many wells the natural energy associated with oil will not produce a sufficient
pressure differential between the reservoir and the well bore to cause the well to flow
into production facilities at the surface. In other wells, natural energy will not drive oil
to the surface in sufficient volume. Some form of artificial lift must then supplement
the reservoirs natural energy.

Types of Artificial Lift System

There are five basic ways of producing a well by artificial lift.
1. Gas Lift
2. Sucker Rod Pumping
3. Submersible Electrical Pumping
4. Subsurface Hydraulic Pumping
5. Progressing Cavity Pump ( PCP )

10

Gas lift Systems

Types of Gas Lifts

There are two basic types of gas lift systems used in oil industry.
1. Continuous flow gas lift well
2. Intermittent flow gas lift well

1. Continuous Flow Gas Lift

In the continuous flow gas lift process, relatively high pressure gas is injected down hole into
the fluid column This injected gas joins the formation gas to lift the fluid to the surface by
one or more of the following processes.
1. Reduction of the fluid density and the column weight so that the pressure differential
between reservoir and well bore will be increased.
2. Expansion of the injected gas so that it pushes liquid ahead of it which further reduces
the column weight, thereby increasing the differential between the reservoirs and well
bore.
3. Displacement of liquid slugs by large bubbles of gas acting as piston.

11

2. Intermittent Flow Gas Lift

If a well has a low reservoir pressure or a very low production rate it can be produced by a
form of gas lift, called intermittent flow. As its name implies, the system produces
intermittently or irregularly and is design to produce at an actual rate at which fluid enters the
well bore from the reservoir. In the intermittent system, fluid is allowed to accumulate and
build up in the tubing at the bottom of the well. Periodically, a large bubble of high pressure
gas is injected into the tubing very quickly underneath the column of liquid and the liquid
column is pushed rapidly up the tubing to the surface. This action is similar to a bullet from a
rifle by the expansion of gas behind the rifle slug. The frequency of gas injection in
intermittent lift is determined by the amount of time required for a liquid slug to enter the
tubing. The length of the gas injection period will depend upon the time required to push one
slug of liquid to surface.

Choice of Gas Lift System

Because of its cyclic nature, intermittent flow gas lift is suited only to wells that produce at
relatively low rates. Continuous flow gas lift will usually be more efficient and less
expensive for well that produce at higher rates, where continuous flow can be maintained
without excessive gas.
Gas lift is suitable for almost every type of well that require artificial lift. It can be used to
artificial lift oil well to depletion, regardless of the ultimate producing rate: to kick off well

12

that will flow naturally: to back flow water injection wells and to unload water from gas
well.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION OF GAS LIFT

The advantages of gas lift can be summarized as follows;
1. Initial cost of downhole equipment is usually low.
2. Flexibility cannot be equaled by any other form of lift. Installations can be designed for
lifting initially from near the surface and for lifting from near total depth at depletion.
Gas lift installations can be designed to lift from one to many thousands of barrels per
3.
4.
5.
6.

day.
The producing rate can be controlled from surface.
Sand in the produced fluid does not affect gas lift equipment in most cases.
Gas lift is not adversely affected by deviation of the well.
The relatively few moving parts in a gas lift system give it a long service life when

compared to other form of artificial lift.

7. Operating costs are usually relatively low for gas lift systems.
8. Gas lift is ideally suited to supplement formation gas for the purpose of artificially lifting
wells where moderate amounts of gas are present in the production fluid. The major item
of equipment (the gas compressor) in a gas lift system is installed on the surface where it
can be easily inspected, repaired and maintained. This equipment can be driven either by
gas or electricity.
On the other hand, gas lift also has certain limitations which can be summarized as follows:
1. Gas must be available. In some instances air, exhaust gases and nitrogen have been used
but these are generally more expensive and more difficult to work with than locally
produced natural gas. Wide well spacing may limit the use of a centrally located source
of high pressure gas. This limitation has been circumvented on some wells through the
use of gascap gas as a lifting source and the return of the gas to the cap through injecting
wells.
2. Corrosive gas lift gas can increase the cost of gas lift operations if it is necessary to treat
or dry the gas before use.

13

TYPES OF INSTALLATION

Continuous flow gas lift may be utilized in numerous types of installations as well as
numerous combinations of tubing and casing sizes. In general, the flow may be classified as
tubing or annular flow.
Tubing flow is the injection of gas down the casing and the production of fluids through the
tubing.
Annular flow is injection the injection of gas down the tubing string and the production of
fluids through the tubing-casing annular space. The principles of tubing and annular flow gas
lift are same. The prediction of annular flow gradients is probably a little less accurate than
that through tubing. Also, the tubing should be large enough to handle the downward gas
flow without excessive pressure drop.
A continuous flow gas lift through tubing can be classified into;1. Open installation.
2. Semi-closed installation
3. Closed Installation.
A continuous flow installation through tubing without a packer is classified as an open
installation. This type of installation is seldom recommended, but well conditions may be
such that running a packer is undesirable. This type of installation has some disadvantages.
Any time the well is placed back on production, the fluids must be unloaded from the annular
space. This means that the gas lift valves will be subjected to cutting by liquid flow until the

14

well has unloaded to its working fluid level. A varying injection gas line pressure will also
cause the fluid level to rise and fall. This often results in heading or slugging of the
produced fluids instead of a smooth continuous flow. Each time fluid level is lowered, some
fluid is pushed through any gas lift valve beneath the fluid level. Eventually, this valve may
become fluid-cut.
Another possibility is that some of the actual production may rise and come through the gas
lift valves beneath the operating valve because of less friction in the large annular space.
Experience has shown that gas lift valves located beneath the operating valve will generally
be fluid-cut when an open installation is pulled.
A semi-closed installation is one in which a packer is run but no standing valve is used. This
type of installation is recommended for most continuous flow wells. Once the fluid is
unloaded from the annular space, there is no re-entry of fluids into the annulus. Therefore, a
stabilized level is maintained.
Reverse check valves on the gas lift valves prevent fluids from entering the casing-tubing
annular space and are recommended for all continuous flow installations. When a semiclosed installation is inoperative, the fluids do not rise in the annular space and, therefore the
well will stabilize much quicker when placed back on operation.
CONTINUOUS FLOW UNLOADING SEQUENCE
1. Until the top valve in Fig. A is uncovered, fluid from the casing is transferred into the
tubing through open valves and U-tubed by injection gas pressure being exerted on the
top of the liquid column in the casing. No pressure drawdown across the formation
occurs during Tubing operations because the tubing pressure at total depth (2390 psig at
5000 ft.) exceeds the static bottomhole pressure (2250 psig at 5000 ft.) due to the
pressure exerted by the liquid column in the tubing.
2. In Fib all valves are open. The top valve is uncovered, and injection gas is entering the
tubing through this valve. Unloading continues from the top valve with it remaining open
until the second valve is uncovered. A flowing BHP of approximately 2100 psig
(approximate producing rate of 375 BOPD) is required to uncover the second valve.
3. In Fig C all valves are open. Injection gas is entering the tubing through the top and
second valves. With the fluid level in the casing below the depth of the second valve, the
tubing pressure is less than the casing pressure at the valve depth, and injection gas enters
the tubing through the second valve. The flowing tubing pressure at the depth of the top
valve was decreased to 255 psig at 1175 ft. (Point one in Figure) by injecting a high
volume of gas through the top valve to uncover the second valve This high injection gasliquid ratio was required for only a short duration of time, and the valve must be capable
of passing this gas volume.

15

4. In Fig the top valve is closed and all other valves are open. Injection gas is entering the
tubing through the second valve. The third and bottom valves are not uncovered.
5. Top valve would close; the casing pressure was decreased slightly. The second valve
must remain open until third valve is uncovered.In Fig, the top valve is closed and all
other valves are open. The second and third valves are uncovered, and the injection gas is
entering the tubing through both valves. The volume of injection gas through the second
valve was increased until the flowing tubing pressure at the depth of the second valve
was decreased to 390 psig at 1900 ft. (Point 2 in Figure). Then the tubing pressure at the
depth of the third valve (Point 3 in Figure) was less than the casing pressure and injection
gas entered through the third valve. At that instant a flowing BHP of approximately 1870
psig (approximately producing rate of 950 BOPD) was established. .
In Fig, the top and second valves are closed, and the third and bottom valves are open.
Injection gas is entering through the third valve. The bottom valve is below the fluid level in
the casing. The producing capacity of the installation is reached with the available injection
gas pressure before the bottom valve is uncovered.

16

17

ADVANTAGES OF CONTINUOUS FLOW OVER INTERMITTENT FLOW GAS

LIFT
Continuous gas lift has certain advantages over intermittent lift. These are:
1. Continuous gas lift fully utilizes the formation gas. The injection gas is added to the
formation gas to arrive at the total optimum ratio needed above the point of injection.
Intermittent gas lift waste any formation gas energy because the gas is allowed to rise
through accumulating liquid head during the buildup period and moves on up the tubing..
All gas used in the lifting process must be supplied.
2. Continuous gas lift produces at a relatively constant rate. Although gas lift is in the slug
flow regime, the slugs are usually relatively small in size and production rate to the
separator and other surface facilities is fairly constant. This is not the case with
intermittent lift. The production rate varies widely with a slug of fluid produced into the
surface equipment at a very high rate. The variation in flow rate from the formation is not
as great but some variation occurs and this can be detrimental if a sand problem exists.
3. If the well is making some sand along with the liquid production, the shut in period in
which flow is not occurring will allow the sand to fall back around any equipment in the
hole and can be a serious problem. Where sand is being produced, continuous gas lift is
advantageous.
In continuous gas lift, the gas is injected at a relatively constant rate. This can be done in
intermittent lift although control of the intermittent lift cycle works better in most cases if a
time cycle controller is used at the surface and gas is injected into the well periodically. If the
gas lift supply gas system is relatively small, it is very difficult to maintain a constant system
pressure with these periodic surges of gas.

GAS LIFT VALVES

INTRODUCTION
The heart of any gas lift system is the gas lift valve. Gas lift valves are basically down hole
pressure regulator. The functional elements of a pressure regulator and a gas lift valve are
similar. A spring (Fig-16A), as in the gas lift valve (Fig-16B), forces the stem tip against the
seat.

18

The diaphragm of the pressure regulator and the bellows of the gas lift valve provide an area
of influence for the upstream pressure greater than the port area. The force that results from
this combination of upstream pressure and diaphragm or bellows area acts in a direction to
overcome the force of the spring. When this force of pressure times area exceeds the force of
the spring, the stem tip moves away from the seat, opening the valve. Both the pressure
regulator and the gas lift valve illustrated are controlling the upstream pressure. The regulator
upstream pressure is a function of spring force and effective diaphragm or bellows area.
Practically all gas sift valves use the effect of pressure acting on the area of a valve element
(bellows, stem tips, etc.) to cause the desired valve action. Knowledge of pressure, force, and
area is required to understand the operation of most gas lift valves.

VALVE MECHANICS
Basic Components of a Gas Lift Valves
Most valve designs use the same basic components. The arrangement of the component may
vary. The basic valve (Fig-17A) usually includes a bellows. Achamber (dome) formed by one
end of the bellows and the wall and end of the valve, and a port that is opened or closed by a
stem tip. The stem tip is larger than the port and is attached to the bellows by the stem.

19

All of the illustrations in Fig-17 have been the same basic components. The piston in Fig17A has no seal, so the dome cannot be isolated. In Fig-17B, the piston has an O-ring seal.
Fair isolation of the dome is obtained with the O-ring. Small leakage by the O-ring over long
periods friction of the O-ring cause this form of piston sealing to be impractical. A metal
bellows forms the seal in Fig-17C. The lower end of the bellows is welded to a solid plug.
The upper end of the bellows is welded to the valve. Convolutions (wrinkles) in the bellows
provide the flexibility required for movement. A bellows type seal used in the majority of gas
lift valves.
Closing Force
Many gas lift valves (Fig-18) have gas pressure (Pb) trapped in the dome. This pressure acts
on the area of the bellows and create a force (Fc) that is applied to the stem. The stem tip is
forced into contact with the upper edge (seat) of the port. The stem tip and seat portion of the
port are finely matched (often lapped) to form a seal. When the dome pressure (Pb) and
bellows area
(Ab) are known, the force holding the stem tip against the seat is
Fc = Pb*As

(1)

Fc = Closing Force.
Pb = Pressure inside the dome space sealed by the bellows and valve housing
Ab = Area of the bellows.

20

Opening Forces
A valve (Fig19) starts to open when the stem tip moves out of contact with the valve seat.
This occurs when the opening force is slightly greater than the closing force, therefore, just
before opening (Fo=Fc). Two forces usually work together to overcome the closing force
(Fc). Pressure (P1) applied through the side opening and pressure (P2) applied through the
valve port are the pressure sources to produce the two opening forces.
When the stem tip is seated on the port, P1 does not act on the entire bellows area (Ab). The
area of stem tip (Ap) in contact with the seat (Fig-4A) forms part of the bellows area (Ab).
Ap is isolated from P1 by the stem tip and seat. The area acted on by pressure (P1) is the
bellows area minus the area of the stem tip isolated by the seat (Ab - Ap).
The opening force resulting from pressure P1 applied through the side opening is:
F1=P1*(Ab Ap)

(2)

The area of the stem tip in contact with the seat (Ap) is acted upon by pressure (P2) is acted
upon by pressure (P2) applied through the port. The opening force contributed by this
combination is:
F2 = P2*Ap

(3)

The total opening force is the sum of these two forces:

Fo = F1 + F2
Or Fo = P1*(Ab Ap) + P2*Ap (4)
Just before the valve port opens, the opening force and the closing force are equal
Fo = Fc

21

P1*(Ab Ap) + P2*Ap = Pb*Ab

Solving for P1(injection pressure required to balance opening and closing forces prior to
opening an injection pressure operated valve under operative conditions,Fig-4

P1*(Ab Ap) = Pb*Ab P2*Ap

(5)

P1*(1-Ap/Ab) = Pb-P2*(Ap/Ab)

(6)

Ap/Ab = Ratio of port area to bellows area.(Obtained from manufacturers specs)

P1 = [ Pb P2*(Ap/Ab)] / [1 (Ap/Ab)](7)
P1

Is the pressure in contact with the valve bellows.

P2

Is the pressure in contact with the portion of the stem tip sealed by the seat

(port).
Ap

Is the area of the portion of the stem tip sealed by the seat.
Ab

F1

Is the area of the bellows.

Opening force resulting from P1 acting on the bellows area less than the port area
(Ab Ap )

22

F2

Opening force resulting from P2 acting on the stem tip area in contact with

the Seat port.

Fo

Total opening force.

The pressure (P1) determined by this equation is the balance pressure. Actually the valve
stem tip is still on seat and only slight leakage by the stem tip and seat may be observed. An
increase in P1 or P2 will move the stem tip proportionally further from the seat and allow
more gas passage. A decrease in P1 or P2 will load the stem tip harder against the seat and
cause a tighter stem tip to seal. This is the case as the valve closes.
Production Pressure Effect
As discussed earlier, the valve (Fig-19) is opened by the forces of P1 acting on the area of the
bellows less than the area of Valve port (Ab Ap), and P2 acting on the stem tip area that is
sealed by the seat. Without P2 to assist opening, P1 would have to be somewhat greater. The
Production Pressure Effect ( Ppe ) represents the amount that the opening pressure (P1) is
reduced as a result of the assistance of P2.
Ppe (sometimes referred to as tubing effect ) is obtained by multiplying production pressure (
P2 ) by the area over which it is applied ( Ap ) and dividing the force obtained by the area
(Ab-Ap) over which the valve opening pressure ( P1 ) acts. The result obtained is the amount
the valve opening pressure ( P1 ) is reduced in psi.
Ppe = (P2 * Ap) / ( Ab Ap )
Ppe = [P2*(Ap / Ab )] / [( 1 Ap / Ab )]
The ratio ( Ap / Ab ) / ( 1 Ap /Ab )is called Production Effect Factor ( Ppef). Also known
as Tubing Effect Factor (TEF ) If The Ppef is reported as a decimal.
Ppe = P2 * Ppef
And if reported as percentage,
Ppe = P2 * Ppef * 100
Closing Pressure
The closing pressure of the valve ( Fig 19 ) will be equal to the injection gas opening
pressure (P1) if the production pressure remains constant. The minimum closing pressure is

23

equal to the dome pressure ( Pb ) only at a time when the production, injection and dome
pressure are equal.
TYPES OF GAS LIFT VALVES

Classification of Gas Lift Valves by Application

In the well, a valve is exposed to two pressure sources that control its operation. One is
located in the tubing and the other in the casing. The valve is physically positioned between
the two pressure sources. Both of the pressures are trying to open the valve. When the
injected lift gas is in contact with the bellows (largest area of influence), the valve is called
an injection pressure operatedvalve (Fig 20A and B).

When the produced fluid is in contact with the bellows, the valve is referred as a production
pressure (fluid) operated valve (Figure-21A and B)
The valve may be identical in either case. As seen in the illustrations, the receptacle
(mandrel) can control how the two pressure sources are ported to the valve.
All calculations (opening pressure, closing pressure, etc.) for a production pressure (fluid)
operated valve are the same as those for an injection pressure operated valve. It is necessary
to insure that the action of the two pressure sources on the valve elements is properly
represented.
The opening pressure for the injection pressure operated valve (Figure-20A and B) has been
determined to be
P1 = [Pbt (Ap/Ab)] / [1 (Ap/Ab)]
Note:- In this equation, the generalized expression (Pb) for the pressure inside the dome has
been replaced with the bellows charge pressure (Pbt) at well temperature.

24

Injection pressure (P1) acts on the largest area of influence (Ab Ap) and production
pressure (P2) acts on the area of the port (Ap).
A production pressure operated valve (Fig 21A and B) has the production pressure (P1)
acting on the largest area of influence (Ap Ab).The injection pressure (P2) acts on the area
of the port (Ap).
The opening pressure for the production pressure operated valve is

P1 =[Pbt (Ap/Ab)]/[1 (Ap/Ab)]

The opening pressure (P1) equation is the same for both the cases. The convention of
applying P1 to the largest area of influence (Ab Ap) and P2 to the smallest area of
influence (Ap) must be followed.
Valves Used For Continuous Flow
A valve used for continuous flow should meter or throttle the gas throughput. The injection
gas volume is controlled at the surface.
Valves Used For Intermittent Lift
Intermittent lift usually requires a large volume of gas for a short period of time. Unlike
valves used in continuous flow, a valve used for intermittent lift should fully open during
injection and snap closed.
Basic Valve Design
1. Unbalanced Pressure Charged Valve
This valve (Fig.22) uses a nitrogen charged dome as the only loading element to cause
closure.

25

2. Unbalanced Spring Valve:

The dome of this (Fig.23) does not contain a charge. For this reason, temperature effects are
negligible and are normally not considered when setting the valves opening pressure.
Typical high spring rates (force increases per unit stem travel), cause the spring valve to
function like a variable orifice. This characteristic provides an infinite series of areas for gas
passage. A fixed orifice is not normally used.
Springs are most commonly applied within a valve in a fashion that causes a closing force. If
this spring force (Fs) in pounds is divided by the area of the bellows (Ab) in squire inches, a
value for pressure (psi) is obtained. This pressure is referred to as Spring Pressure Effect, and
is denoted Psp. A pressure of this magnitude placed in the bellows would provide the same
valve closing force as the spring.
For the purpose of calculations, Psp uses as a fictitious replacement of dome (bellows)
charge pressure. Since temperature effect is negligible, Psp represents the dome charge in the
tester as well at the operating depth.
An unbalanced spring valve with no dome pressure (Fig.23) has the following force balance,
just as valve starts to open:
Psp*Ab = P1*(Ab Ap) + P2*Ap
The equation may be rearranged to solve for Psp based upon the desired conditions at valve
depth and for particular valve specifications.

26

Psp = P1* ( 1 Ap / Ab ) + P2* (Ap / Ab)

The calculations are the same for an injection pressure operated valve, so long as the
pressures are properly identified with respect to the area elements they are acting on.
After Psp is determined, the test rack opening pressure may be calculated:
Pvo = Psp/( 1 Ap / Ab)
This equation is the same for the production pressure operated and the injection pressure
operated valve. Test rack pressure contacts the bellows in both cases and the area of the stem
tip in contact with the seat is at atmospheric pressure in each case.
3. Pilot Valves:
A pilot valve (Fig.24) offers the advantages of a large port combined with close control over
valve spread. The control section is an unbalanced gas lift valve. Casing and tubing pressure
act on the control section in the same way that they do on an unbalanced injection pressure
operated valve. When the control valve opens, the main valve (large port) opens; and when
the control valve closes, the main valve closes. Gas flowing through the small port of the
control section acts on the piston of the main valve to open it. When the control valve closes,
a spring returns the main valve to a closed position.

27

3. RESERVOIR ASPECT OF ARTIFICIAL LIFT

Most oil reservoirs are of the volumetric type where the driving mechanism is the
expansion ofsolution gas when reservoir pressure declines because of fluid production. Oil
reservoirs willeventually not be able to produce fluids at economical rates unless natural
driving mechanisms(e.g., aquifer and/or gas cap) or pressure maintenance mechanisms (e.g.,
water flooding or gasinjection) are present to maintain reservoir energy. The only way to
obtain a high production rate ofa well is to increase production pressure drawdown by
reducing the bottom-hole pressure withartificial lift methods.
Approximately 50% of wells worldwide need artificial lift systems. The commonly used
artificiallift methods include the following:

Sucker rod pumping

Gas lift
Electrical submersible pumping
Hydraulic piston pumping
Hydraulic jet pumping
Plunger lift
Progressing cavity pumping

Each method has applications for which it is the optimum installation. Proper selection of
anartificial lift method for a given production system (reservoir and fluid properties,
wellboreconfiguration, and surface facility restraints) requires a thorough understanding of
the system.Economics analysis is always performed. Relative advantages and disadvantages
of artificial liftsystems are discussed in the beginning of each chapter in this part of this book.
The chapters in thispart provide production engineers with fundamentals of sucker rod
pumping and gas lifts, as well asan introduction to other artificial lift systems.

There are various factors upon which selection of artificial lift depends.

28

Table artificial lift selection criteria

Most important factors for choice of lift modes:
For very high volume of production - GL, ESP or HP
For very low volume of production - SRP or IGL
For moderate volume of production - GL, ESP, HP or SRP
For very deep well of production - HP

29

Fig Pressure conditions in wells producing with the aid of (A)Downhole pump
(B)Gas lift
The above figure indicates the limit on production rate achieved by each lifting
method. Downhole pumps may withdraw reservoir fluid at rates approaching the absolute
open flow. In gas lift, on the other hand, backpressure exerted by the flowing fluid column
limits the reduction of wellbore flowing pressure and thus limits production to a rate
significantly less than the absolute open flow. In fact, bottomhole flowing pressure cannot be
lowered below wellhead pressure by means of gas lift. An important observation in the
pressure diagram is that there exists a relationship between wellbore flowing pressure, the
liquid level in the annulus and the casing head backpressure. This relationship plays a
significant role in determining the pump setting depth and its allowable pumping rate.
The above figure also illustrates pressure conditions in a well producing with two
forms of artificial lift. Most artificial lift sizing calculations stem from this figure. The IPR
curve relates the wellbore flowing pressure P wf to flow rate at the surface. The pressure
traverse curve at a given wellhead pressure determines the tubing intake backpressure P in at a
particular flow rate. Stable production can only exist if these two pressures, P wf and Pin are
equal.
In pumping well, the pump provides the pressure difference needed to overcome
tubing backpressure and sustain stable flow. In the gas-lift well, gas injected into the tubing
reduces the flowing pressure gradient to a level where P in = Pwf as needed for stable flow in
the well.

30

The effect and approach to handling bottomhole-free gas are different for two
artificial lift methods. In pumping wells, free gas is intentionally segregated from the liquid
before fluid enters the pump, being vented to the surface through the tubing/casing annulus.
In gas-lift wells the annulus is sealed by a production packer and free gas is forced to mix and
flow upward with the well fluid; in fact, the free gas assists artificial lift and reduces the
requirement for injected gas. Eliminating free gas in pumps is a fundamental requirement for
efficient pumping. Inversely, forcing free gas into the production string in gas-lift wells is
important for efficient operation and reduced energy consumption.
In review, the pressure and flow conditions illustrated in the figure are the keys to
designing artificial lift systems. The pressure diagram establishes the size and operating
conditions of the lift system needed to produce a well at a given rate or a given wellbore
flowing pressure. This then provides the basis for selecting equipment and performing a
detailed mechanical design of the system.
Some types of Artificial lift can reduce the producing sandface pressure to a lower
level than other artificial lift methods. For pumping wells, achieving a rate that occurs below
the bubble point pressure requires measures to combat possible gas interference because gas
bubbles (free gas) will be present at the intake of the downhole artificial lift installation. In
addition to setting the pump below the perforations, such measures include the use of a
variety of other possible gas-separation schemes and the use of special pumps to compress
gas or reduce the effect of fluid pound in beam systems. However, the artificial lift method
of gas lift is assisted by the production of gas (with liquids) from the reservoir.

Reservoir fluids
The characteristics of the reservoir fluid also must be considered. Paraffin build up can be
attacked mechanically when sucker rod pumping is used, but may require thermal or
chemical method, when other artificial lift method is used. Sand or solids laden production,
which can rule out the use of plunger lift, reciprocating hydraulic pumps and jet pumps. Gas
lift and PCP produce moderate volumes of solid with only minor problems. Producing Gasliquid ratio is very important to the lift designer. If the percentage of free gas at the intake is
high, gas interference is the potential detriment to all methods of lift, but it is a benefit to gas
lift. High fluid viscosity hinders most major forms of lift, but PCP may produce low
temperature shallow viscous fluids with little difficulty.

31

TROUBLE SHOOTING AND OPTIMIZATION OF GAS LIFT

Introduction to Gas Lift

Gas Lift is a method of lifting fluid where relatively high-pressure (250 Psi minimum) gas is
used as the lifting medium through a mechanical process.
This is accomplished by one of the following methods:
1. Continuous flow
2. Intermittent flow
Gas lift operating depth 5000-10000m and it can go maximum up to 15,000m.Compressed
gas with high pressure is injected to reduce density. Flowing gradients for continuous and
intermittent are .15psi/ft and .12psi/ft.
Components of gas lift system
1. High pressure gas source
2. Lift gas injection line
3. Lift gas metering (orifice meter) and control unit (metering is used to know whether
gas is flowing or not)
4. Gas lift mandrels
5. Low pressure gas compressors

Gas lifts best practices:

1. Organization
2. Training
3. Optimization
4. Continuous Surveillance
5. Design
6. Equipment
7. Surveillance

32

3 regions to be considered for trouble shooting

1. Inlet
2. Outlet
3. down hole
Trouble shooting parts in inlet region:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Compressor
Gas Lift Line
Gas Lift choke
Gas lift valves
Gas lift header

Trouble shooting parts in outlet region:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Flow line
Flow line chokes/bean
Valves of Christmas tree
Production header
Separator

Trouble shooting parts in down hole region:

1. Gas lift valves
2. Tubing
3. Casing
4. Packer
5. Perforation
Outlet region problems:
1. Restriction of valves in outflow lines
2. High back pressure or tubing head pressure because of choking
3. Separator pressure is high
Down hole region problems:
1. Hole in tubing or packer leakage:
It depends on the position of hole mainly where liquid level is not present.
Identified usually when casing head pressure is decreased
2. Well flowing dry gas
3. Gas lift valve stays open
Identified when Casing Head Pressure is not maintained and can be identified
through BHS, multiporting.

33

4. Gas lift valve spacing is too wide

5. Installation obymied and will not unload the well
It happens when hydrostatic column is high
6. Well not taking any input gas
Due to improper design

Causes of problem and its Remedies:

Communication between casing and tubing
1. Cause: Valve stuck open.
Remedy: Rock the well (by charging excess gas), flush the valve
2. Cause: Packer leaking
Remedy: packer is not set properly, reset packer
3. Cause: Tubing leak
Remedy: Repatch the leaking zone
Injection pressure increase
1. Cause: upper valve is operating valve
Remedy: adjust injection gas pressure
2. Cause: Valve plugged
Remedy: Valve needs to be replaced
3. Cause: Temperature rise affecting the valves
Remedy: Lower Test rack operating (TRO) pressure valve
High back pressure at well head
1. Cause: Plugged flow line
Remedy: Flushing
2. Cause: High separator pressure
Remedy: reset back pressure valve
3. Cause: Flow line size too low
Remedy: loop the flow line or install larger line
4. Cause: Well using too much gas
Remedy: adjust injection choke pressure, flow rate
5. Cause: Excessive back pressure (i.e., when tubing pressure is high)
Remedy: Remove choke, flush flow line
Diagnostic tools:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

2-Pen recorder chart

Bottom Hole Study(BHS)
CO2 well tracer study
Acoustical Survey
Tagging fluid level
Well test

2-Pen Record Chart:

34

Figure-1: General representation of 2-pen record chart for continuous gas lift
1. Straight line: ideal case (i.e. lift is working properly)
2. Excessive back pressure:
Cause: tubing pressure is more
Remedy:

remove choke, flush the flow line

35

Figure-: Tubing pressure is more

3. Fluctuating line:
Cause: Happens when intermittent and continuous gas lift has same network
Remedy: Use separate gas lift network or increase gas storage capacity.
4. Freezing of injection line:

Figure-: Freezing of injection line

Cause: Happens due to formation of gas hydrate.
Remedy: 1. install a large size injection choke to reduce pressure difference
across choke
2. Induce gas dehydrators
3. Routing of gas line through heat exchanger

36

Intermittent gas lift 2-Pen Recorder

1. Chart having sharp spikes then it is ideal situation

Figure-: Ideal tubing and casing pressure intermittent chart

2. Fluctuating line:

Figure-: Chart representing a leaky GLV

Cause: Leaky Gas lift valve
Remedy: water circulation

37

Unloading of GLV:
Unloading must be done at slow rates to avoid damage of GLV.

Figure-: Chart representing unloading operation of gas lift valve

Bottom Hole flowing pressure survey (BHS): provides static and flowing gradients
CO2 well tracer survey: inject CO2 through casing and observe the travel time. 1 st valve
will have fast travel time and last valve will have slow travel time.
Acoustical survey: Identifies liquid level
Tagging fluid level: By sending wire line we can identify liquid level position against the
particular valve.
To identify proper Productivity index (PI): long cycle study/24 hr Buildup study depicts true
well potential.
The following Softwares were used to study the gas lift valves are:
1. PIPESIM
2. PROSPER

38

Well Stimulation Services

Initially or during the producing life of a well it may not produce as expected or may go off
production for many reasons. Well stimulation techniques are tools for improving or restoring
productivity. Well Stimulation Services (WSS) came into being its present entity in 1983-84
to fulfil the need of stimulation and specialized services for enhancing oil and gas production.
WSS provides services in following areas:

Acidization
Hydraulic fracturing
Specialized services
o Coil tubing services
o Nitrogen services
o Sand control by gravel pack
o Water shut off
o Hot oil services

Hydraulic Fracturing
Since hydraulic fracture well stimulation was introduced in the early 1950's,technology has
increased tremendously. Frac job costs in certain situations may range upward to perhaps
100% of well drilling cost.
Fracturing for Well Stimulation
Objective:
The objective of hydraulic fracturing for well stimulation is to increase well
productivity by creating a highly conductive path (compared to reservoir permeability)
some distance away from the wellbore into the formation. Usually the conductivity is
maintained by propping with sand to hold the fracture faces apart. Acid fracturing involves
most of the same considerations as hydraulic fracturing except that conductivity is
generated by removing portions of the fracture face with acid, leaving etched channels
after the fracture closes.
Fracture Initiation:
Hydraulic fracture treatment is accomplished by pumping a suitable fluid into the
formation at a rate faster than the fluid can leak off into the rock. Fluid pressure(or
stress) is built up sufficient to overcome the earth compressive stress holding the rock
material together. The rock then parts or fractures along a plane perpendicular to the
minimum compressive stress in the formation matrix .

39

Fracture Extension:
As injection of frac fluid continues, the fracture tends to grow in width as fluid pressure
in the fracture, exerted on the fracture face, works against the elasticity of the rock material.
After sufficient frac fluid " pad" has been injected to open the fracture wide enough to
accept proppant, sand is added to the frac fluid and is carried into the fracture to hold it
open after the job.
A vertical fracture grows in length upward, downward, and outward. The growth upward or
downward may be stopped by a barrier formation; downward growth may also be
stopped by fallout of sand to the bottom of the fracture. The growth outward away from
the wellbore, (as well as upward or downward) will be stopped when the rate of frac
fluid leakoff through the face of the fracture into the formation equals the rate of fluid
injection into the fracture at the wellbore.
When sufficient sand has been injected, the pumps are shut down, the pressure in the
fracture drops , and the earth compressive stress closes the fracture on the proppant.
The surface and well set up required to achieve the above is schematically illustrated in
Figure below.

Fig - Surface and Well set up during hydraulic fracturing

Coiled tubing operations

40

Coiled tubing operations involve the insertion mechanically of a small bore tube which is
unwound continuously from a reel and injected into the well, optionally under pressure.
Coiled tubing is available in lengths up to 22,000 ft of continuous reel, depending upon
outside diameter. It is available in diameters ranging from less than1 to 7".Coiled tubing is a
well intervention method to deploy tools and equipments into a well. The major benefit of the
technique is that it allows concentric operations to be conducted in the tubing.
These operations can include:(a)

Mechanical operations whereby devices within the tubing, can be operated

(hydraulically or mechanically), retrieved or inserted.

(b)

Circulation operations such as the placement of acid or other treatment chemicals, or

cement to squeeze out at perforated intervals. In addition CT can be used as a velocity string
to extend the life of a production well where it is dominated by slippage.
Parts of Coiled Tubing Unit:
Tubing reel: In tubing reel, the coil tubing is spooled or stored.
Tubing Guiding Arch and Tubing Injector: Tubing guiding arch guides the coil tubing
from service reel to the injector chain present in the injector head. Tubing
injector controls the rate of lowering the tubing into the well under various well
conditions. It supports full weight of the tubing.
Stripper: Between BOP and injector head provides the primary operational seal
between pressurized wellbore fluids and the surface environments. It provides both
static and dynamic seal.
BOP: BOP of coil tubing unit is a quad ram BOP. It contains all the four rams- blind
ram, shear ram, slip ram and pipe ram.
If a coiled tubing unit is available, it represents an economic way of conducting a whole
range of work-over operations. Its principal advantage over w.ire-line arises from an ability
to generate much higher tensile stresses in pulling operations and also importantly it offers
the capability to circulate within the tubing. Depending on the depth of the well, coiled
tubing can also be used to install equipment through the tubing string e.g. into the area
beneath the tail pipe.
Coiled tubing can assist in conducting the following range of operations: Circulation of fluid placement within the wellbore
Retrieval and installation of wire-line or through tubing equipment
Drilling or milling operations

41

Fig. Schematic of coiled tubing unit

Fig. A S&S Coiled tubing unit

Hot Oil Circulation Job

Hot-oiling is one of the most popular methods of paraffin removal. Paraffin is both dissolved
and melted by the hot oil, allowing it to be circulated from the well and the surface producing
system. Lease crude or other oil is heated to a temperature significantly greater than that of
the formation. Hot oil is normally pumped down the casing and up the tubing.
Where lift equipment permits, or in flowing wells, hot oil may be circulated down the tubing
and up the casing or to the formation face. Paraffin could be removed from shallow pumping
wells by periodically circulating hot oil down hollow rods to a depth below the lowest
paraffin deposition in the tubing.

42

Water Shut off jobs:

A serious problem in oil-producing reservoirs is water production. As with most things in
nature, fluids also tend to follow paths of least resistance which, in reservoirs, are often
created by the heterogeneous nature of the rock.
Water control is necessary, because for every barrel produced almost 3 barrel is produced
with it, and for a typical well with 80%vwater cut we spend $4/bbl for water. Main reasons
for additional costs are:

Lift and separation

Treatment and disposal
Corrosion and scaling
Formation damage, loss of productivity

There are two levels to this heterogeneity. The first is micro-scale heterogeneity which could
be represented as a simple porous feature distribution and the second is macroscale
heterogeneity which includes layering, natural or induced fractures, and high vertical and
horizontal permeabilities. Both can lead to poor conformance and, therefore, need to be
controlled. If conduits for water flow are available then they need to be blocked in order for
production wells to continue operation.
Many examples exist in the literature where permeability and porosity of reservoirs have
been sufficiently high to motivate operating companies to full developmental strategies only
to find out that. Upon implementation, the sweep through the homogeneous flow unit is much
less than the average literature numbers would have indicated. In such a case, even though
there is no macrosca1e problem, the microscale
in efficient oil

structure predisposes the reservoir

to

recovery. In such cases, although production well strategies can be

effective at reducing WOR, they should be viewed as "band-aid" treatments and more
long-term and pervasive influence can usually be achieved with injection well procedures.
Nevertheless, production well applications can be very lucrative if done correctly.
Main Sources of excess water production

Casing leak
Water coning
Channelling
Cross Flow
Fracture
Early breakthrough

Application of water shut off jobs

Repair of channel

43

Repair of casing leaks

Control of bottom water encroachment
Zonal isolation with and without rig
Control of injection water breakthrough in relatively high permeable layer

When flooded out channels and productive low permeability zones are well isolated from
each other, mechanical methods that alter the production profile can be used. Mechanical
methods include the use of selective completion configurations and squeeze cementing.
The process of a squeeze cementing operation for water shut off would be like:

Identification of water producing zones

Doing CBL/VDL log
Perforation
Injection of Gel
Squeeze cement

Profile modification methods

When flooded-out channels and paths of least resistance are not well isolated from one
another, mechanical methods maybe less effective and somewhat less efficient. In many
cases, die optimal profile modification strategy must rely on the inherent interaction between
the treatment fluids, the reservoir fluids and the reservoir rock into which the treatment is
placed.
Any strategy by which fluids are diverted from their path of least resistance is classified as a
profile modifier. The simplest examples of these are water-alternating gas techniques or
polymer floods which make use of the inherent interaction between fluids and the rock
characteristics.
In many operations there are much more drastic contrasts between layers or zones of the
reservoir

and more common techniques may not work

effectively. In addition, local

wellbore problems can be very difficult to resolve and very rigid blocking agents may be
necessary.
PHPA Partially Hydrolysed Poly Acrylamide cross linked gel is used with a delayed cross
linking system and organic cross linkers for high temperature formations.
A common recipe used is:
The Gel with treated water constituting polymer, Hexamine, KCl, Diesel.
Solvent Job
The main objective is to remove organic deposits in well. Other uses include:

44

To remove water block

To reduce choking in well line.
To dissolve scales
Wettability reversal caused due to earlier treatments
Asphaltene deposition removal

The Following rule of thumb is used for deciding which job to proceed for improving
productivity of well, based on water cut of the well:
Water cut
1-30%
30-50%
50%

Job
Solvent
Xylene-Acid
Acid

Recipe of a solvent job:

Xylene-600 L, Toluene- 600 L, Citric Acid-50 L, Acetic Acid-180 L, Naphthalene-120 L,
Acid Corrosion Inhibitor(ACI)-60 L, Iso Propyl Alcohol (IPA) -600 L,Surfactant-20
L,EGMB-120 L.

6 Well Logging

Introduction
Well logging is a continuous and systematic recording of physical parameter versus depth in
borehole. The recorded information on film or paper is called a well log. Logs can also be
preserved in CDs or DAT tapes. Wireline logs or well logs are obtained by downhole
logging tools which are known as Sonde lowered into the wells by means of a cable.
Measurements are transmitted up through the cable to a recording unit mounted on a logging

45

truck. The wire line logs are usually obtained after an interruption (or termination) of drilling
activity.
Geophysical well logging is necessary because core sample during drilling leaves a very less
record of formation encountered.

Fig Logging Truck

Category of logs Types of Log

Parameter

Application

Measured, Units
Mechanical

Caliper

Diameter of hole

The variation in diameter of a

borehole provides information on
the lithology, permeability and
porosity.

Electrical

S.P

Spontaneous

Correlation, Lithological indicator,

46

potential mV/div

Determination of volume of shale

and formation water salinity,
Identification of porous and
permeable beds.

Focused tools Resistivity,

Effective determination of
formation resistivity.

ohm-m
Micrologs

Resistivity, ohm-m

Resistivity of mud cake,

Resistivity of invaded zone,

Induction

Large,

Conductivity of

Measurement of formation

medium and

formation

resistivity

small spacing (millimhos/m)

Nuclear

Gamma Ray

Natural

Sensitive to presence of clay,

Radioactivity CPS

Correlation

or API
Gamma

Reaction to Gamma Determination of Density and

Gamma

ray bombardment

Porosity

CPS or API
Neutron

Reaction to Neutron Determination of Total Porosity

bombardment CPS
or API
Porosity

Acoustic

Single or
Double

Transit time ,
Microsecond/foot
than 5 %

receiver
System

Table: Types of Log and Applications

greater

for

valves

47

Types of log
Basically two types of logging are done:
Open hole logging
Cased hole logging
Open Hole Logging
Logs recorded in open hole are basically used for formation evaluation and identification of
lithology of the subsurface strata and estimating the thickness, porosity, permeability and
hydrocarbon saturation on the beds. This process is done after the drill string is pulled out
from the bore hole and before the casing is lowered inside.

Electrical logs

Self Potential log

Resistivity log

Radioactive logs

Gamma ray log

Neutron log
Density log

Other logs

Sonic log
Temperature log
Caliper log
Dip meter log
Formation Tester (SFT or MDT)
Side wall coring
Formation Micro resistivity image tool
Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool

Table: Open Hole Logs

Fig - Open Hole Tools

Cased Hole Logging
The logging carried out in the cased wells is called Cased Hole Logging.
The main application of cased hole logging are:
1. Completion Services:
To see cement quality
Control log for perforation and other services
2. Reservoir monitoring:
To detect water flooding of any zone
To detect rise in fluid contacts
To locate bypass hydrocarbon

3. Production Logging:
To detect channelling behind casing
To detect contribution from different zones
To detect type of fluid produced
Theory of Logging
Cement Bond Log (CBL-VDL)
The cement bond tool consist of an acoustic transmitter, two receiver R1, R2 (3 feet , 5 feet)
CBL / VDL works on the principle of acoustic reflectivity.
The evaluation of cement bond quality comprises:
1. Evaluation of quality of cement behind pipe (amplitude in mV)
2. Evaluation of quality of cement to formation (VDL Variable Density Log)

Micro or very thin fluid layer between casing and cement will give a high amplitude signal
corresponding to no contact, if casing is pressurised the micro annulus will close and low
amplitude will result. (The attenuation is inversely proportional to the casing thickness and
directly proportional to the solid density).
Sonic (CBL/VDL) Principle
As the sound travels at different velocities in different mediums, therefore their arrival times
to receiver will be different. The orders of these arrivals are:
1. The casing arrival
2. The formation arrival
3. The fluid arrival

Fig: Cbl/Vdl Variation

These arrivals depend on the factors such as:
a. Formation velocities
b. Open hole size
c. Casing size
The basic bond log consists of an acoustic transmitter (or sound source) and an acoustic
receiver. The transmitter generates a sound pulse which travels through several different
sound paths to the receiver. The three most obvious paths observed are casing path, the
formation path, and the fluid path. Because sound travels at different velocities in different
mediums, the sound waves from the three paths normally arrives at three different times.
Production Logging
Production logging is the wire line logging services in cased hole in dynamic well condition.
Logs recorded in Production logging are used basically to diagnoses production / injection

well problems. The objective of production logging is to determine what fluid are entering (or
leaving) the well bore, through which depth intervals and which part of the stratigraphic
column is the fluid source.
Production logging provides down hole measurements of fluid properties on a zone by zone
basis to yield information about the types of fluid with in and near the well bore.
The conventional tools used for production logging are:
Correction tool
o Gamma Ray
o

CCL

Flow Behind Casing

o

Temperature tool

Pressure Data
o

Pressure tool

Fluid Identification Tool

o

FDT (Fluid Density Tool)

Hydro Tool (Water Hold Up)

Rate of Fluid Flow

o

Flow Meter

Down Hole Tool

The down hole tools in use with Halliburton LOG-IQ Production Logging unit can be
categorized as

Telemetry tool
Analog tool
Auxiliary tool
2.PGR Production Gamma Ray tool
Production gamma detection provides
Lithology identification
Depth correlation
Identification of Radioactive scale, possible sign of water entry.
Monitoring of Radioactive flow tracer

3. FDR Fluid Density Radioactive Tools

The purpose of the FDR is to fluid density of a sample as it flows through the tool. The
average density of this volume is measured whether the flow is single or multiphase.
Application:
Multiphase production profiling
Fluid Identification
High fluid flow rates
4. CTF Capacitance, Temperature & Flow Meter Tool
Purpose: To provide a continuous log of fluid capacitance (water holdup), Temperature,
Flow rate and direction.
Application:

Fluid composition from average dielectric constant.

Location of leaks cross flow by temperature response.

Quantitative measurements of flow rate in casing & tubing.

Production and Injection log Interpretation.

Cement top determination.

Auxiliary Tools :
The auxiliary equipment provided with Production Logging Units
Roller Centralizer for centralization of tools in well.
Sinker Bar to provide weight to the string for easy slide in the well.
Bull Nose Required at string bottom in case CTF is not attached at the string
bottom.
Centralizer (Bow Spring) to provide centralization for CBL tool in well.

Sonic or Acoustic Log

Sonic log is the measurement of acoustic wave propagation in the sub surface. The sonic
log is based upon the propagation of sound wave through the formation. The speed of the
sound wave depends upon the presence of fluid in the pores of rock. Thus the wave speed
or its travel time is a measure of formation porosity. It is also used for fracture
identification as well as for lithology identification.
Application:
To determine the porosity in the reservoir
To compute secondary porosity like vuggs in carbonate reservoir and fracture in
traps/basement
As an aid in lithological determination, when it combined with other porosity logs.
This can be used to study compaction in sand, shale sequence

Caliper Log
Borehole diameter is measured by the calliper tool that records continuous variation of
borehole diameter with depth. Shapes of borehole cross section at different depth varies
from circular to elliptical, conical or any other configuration. It is also an indicator of
lithology.
During drilling, mud cake is formed against the permeable bed that causes the reduction
in

Figure : Caliper Tool

borehole size , on the other hand swelling of non-permeable shale give rise to caving
which results a large bore hole . A caliper is also useful in determining the amount of
cement for cementation.

Sidewall Coring
A core taken from the side of the borehole, usually by a wireline tool. Sidewall cores
using may be taken percussion or mechanical drilling. Percussion cores are taken by firing
hollow bullets into the formation. The bullets are attached to the tool by fasteners, and are
retrieved, along with core inside, by pulling up the tool and the fasteners. Percussion
coring tool typically holds 20 to 30 bullets, but two or three tools can be combined on one
run in hole.
Mechanical tool use hollow rotary drills to cut and then pull out core plugs. Up to 75
plugs can be recovered on one run.

Interpretation of Open Hole Log

Fundamentals of Log Interpretation
Log interpretation is needed to evaluate a reservoir and its porosity, hydrocarbon saturation,
thickness, area, permeability, geometry, formation temperature and pressure, and lithology
can play important roles in evaluation, completion and production of a reservoir.

Figure: Example Of Well Log

Above well log data shows different logs, Graph in first track shows Gamma ray response, its
deviation towards shows Sandstone, in second track gives Resistivity, high resistivity with
separation shows it may be the reservoir rock and corresponding low density and high
neutron log suggest that this bed is a reservoir rock containing Oil and Gas.
It is accomplished by determining the following parameters:
Detection of permeable beds and estimation of their true thickness
Determination of formation water resistivity, Rw
Determination of true formation water resistivity, Rt
Determination of true formation factor (F) and porosity ()
Determination of water saturation (Sw)
Determination of effect of clay
Detection of presence of hydrocarbon in permeable bed
Estimation of porosity and water saturation
Tortuosity constant (a)
Cementation factor (m)
Saturation exponent (n)

Combinable Magnetic Resonace (CMR)

The high resolution CMR tool enhances the precision of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
logging. Measurements for determining your reservoirs permeability, water cut and
hydrogen pore volume are obtained at logging speeds 3 to 5 times faster than those of
conventional NMR tools. The result is much greater accuracy in productivity estimation
along with improved completion design for optimizing well performance and return on
investment.

Health Safety and Environment

In upstream petroleum industry, finding and producing oil & gas while minimizing adverse
environmental impact require an understanding of the issues concerning

operations that generate wastes,

their potential influence on the environment, mechanism and pathways for waste
migration

effective ways to manage wastes, treatment methods to reduce their volume and/or
toxicity

Disposal methods remediation methods for contaminated sites, and all applicable
statutory regulations.

Environmental damages are anticipated/ created by

1.

spillage of oil from leak in pipeline

2. manual/ operational failure of machine/equipment

3. Accidental release of oil, blowouts, wreckage or natural calamity.
4.

The release of oil can be only few barrels or quite substantial running into thousands
tonnes or can be continuous in case of blow out etc. before remedial action is
implemented.

5. These activities anticipate all types of pollution which causes air, water, soil and noise
pollution due to one or other activity affecting human/mankind or working personnel
and flora & fauna of the local area.
6. Oil field operations are waste intensive and have significant environmental
implications.
7. With the increasing public awareness on pollution and environmental protection, the
governments of the countries world over have come out with stricter regulatory
measures.

8. India is one of the foremost countries to make environmental protection as the

constitutional commitment of the nation and protection of wild life and quality of
water bodies as the fundamental duty of every Indian Citizen.
The thrust of the objective is to maintain the ecological balance and take necessary
preventive and corrective steps to improve Environment
Major Environmental laws and rules pertaining to oil and gas operations are:
The Wildlife protection act 1972 amended in 1983, 86 & 91
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 amended in 1978
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1974 amended in 1991
The Forest conservation act 1980 amended in 1988
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 amended in 1988
Environment Protection Act, 1986
The Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1989 amended in 2000
The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
Notification on Coastal Regulation zone 1991
Manufacture, storage and import of Hazardous chemical rules 1989
Chemical accidents (Emergency planning, preparedness and response) rules, 1996
Bio- Medical waste (Management and handling) Rules, 1988
Recycled plastics manufactures and usage rules, 1999
Noise pollution (Regulation and Control) rules, 2000

Quality Health safety Environment (QHSE) Management system

QHSE Management system is based on international voluntary standards given by
International organization for standardization (ISO), ISO 9001, (Occupational health and
safety administration) OHSAS 18001 & ISO 14001 and is an integrated approach to develop
a hybrid management system for achieving quality of products and services and addressing
safety, health and environmental aspects at the same time. The standards of this management
system are generic in nature with very little specific characters and thus provide freedom to
establish QHSE management system as per our requirements but objectively defined and
acceptable at the same time.
To our pride ONGC is an ISO 9001:2008, ISO 14001:2004 and OHSAS 18001:2007
Company.
ISO 9001:2008 Quality management

ISO 14001:2004 Environmental management system

OHSAS 18001: 2007 - OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH & SAFETY MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM

HSE Management system

HEALTH SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT AT ONGC

HSE Policy: Exploration and Production of hydrocarbon involves risk and close interaction
with surrounding environment. To safeguard the working and surrounding environment,
ONGC has adopted a well-defined HSE Policy focusing on Occupational, Health, Safe
Operation and control of Pollution.
Statutory Compliance: In carrying out its operation and safety requirements, ONGC abides
by laws pertaining to oil and gas exploration and production in India, particularly the Director
General of Mines Safety (DGMS) and Oil Industry Safety Directorate (OISD). All statutory
consents are obtains under section 32 of Air Act, under section 25 of water act, and
authorization underrule 3(C) and 5(5) of the hazardous waste (Management and handling)
rules for meeting operational requirements.
ISO certified: All the installations of ONGC has an Integrated Management system based on
requirements of ISO 9001, OHSAS 18001, and ISO 14001. The integrated management
system is in place since 2004.Today 412 nos working units of ONGC have third party
certified integrated OHSE Management system.

Corporate Environment Policy: The environment management policy of ONGC is top,

driven, effective and vibrant. Top management commitment for prevention of pollution and
protection of environment is evident from the exclusive Corporate Environment Policy
statement.
Renewable energy: ONGC has set up 102 MW Wind Farming Rajasthan, in addition to a
51MW Unit already working successfully in Bhuj, Gujarat. The planned investment is about
INR 8 billion.
Energy Conservation: ONGC has well defined energy policies with focus on various aspects
of energy conservation. The introduction of environment friendly and energy efficient
technologies led to an established savings of INR 409.23 crores during 2011-2012.
Bioremediation: Accidental oil spills and the tank bottom sludge generated during the
routine operation do pose threat to the environment. ONGC carries out environmental
friendly options for the disposal and treatment. ONGC developed the bioremediation wherein
microorganisms are isolated, enriched and harnessed on mass scale for the application in the
field
Safety: Risk Assessment and control are carried out in ONGC through four basic steps

Efforts taken to build and maintain safety and health culture at workplace:

To imbibe HSE culture among ONGC employees various program was undertaken
across the organization. Safetyawareness campaign is organized every year on the

occasion of National Safety Day on 4th March.

Apart from local safety awareness campaign, a complete organization level safety
awareness campaigns were launched every yearwith specific themes. The details of
some of them are describes as follows:

Humsafecampaign: In the year 2012, Humsafe campaign was launched. It is a campaign

that will spur everyone to think safety and act safely for himself and his team.
Contractor safety workshop: To improve upon the safety culture among contract workers, a
series of workshops with participation by senior management of both ONGC as well as
contractors was arranged during the period FY 2010-11 under the campaign Safe Together Tomorrow and Effective supervision is the key
Workshop on Occupational Health and Industrial Hygiene: To promote Health is
wealth, a one day workshop on Occupational Health and Industrial Hygiene was
inaugurated on 23 December 2011 by Mr. AK Hazarika, former Director (ONGC) at New
Delhi.
Emergency response: The Oil and gas exploration and production activities are dangerous.
Although built in safety designs at the design stages greatly reduce risk-fallout probabilities,
ONGC is still prepared adequately to plan for mitigating the consequences of such disasters
by mobilizing internal and external resources. Site specific emergency Response Plan (ERP)
and Disaster Management Plan (DMP) at asset level is an integral part of emergency
response. Offsite emergency plan at district level has also been made and approved by
competent authorities. Corporate DMPs are activated with decision of top management and
top officials.
Decision Crisis Management: Blowout control and all other related jobs of drilling,
workover and production of various assets and basins are handled by 4 regional crisis
management teams namely RCMT-Rajahmudry, Baroda, Shivsagar, Mumbai. All these 4
teams will be headed by responsive Head RCMTs. Audits and crew trainings and preparation
of contingency plans and SOP etc. are carried out as part of preventive measures.

Oil Spill Management: ONGC has tier-1 capability of combining oil spills of upto 700 tons.
For Tier-II, ONGC has inked MoU with MPT. JNPT and other oil companies for the
implementation. Of the National Oil Spill DisasterContingency Plan (NOS-DCP) in
coordination with the Indian Coast Guard. For combating Oil spills of higher magnitude
(Tier-III), membership o International Response Agency Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL),
U.K. has been taken by ONGC

8 Indian Oil and Gas scenario

The oil and gas sector is among the six core industries in India and plays a major role in
influencing decision making for all the other important sections of the economy. In 199798,
the New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) was envisaged to fill the ever-increasing gap
between Indias gas demand and supply. A recent report points out that the Indian oil and gas
industry is anticipated to be worth US$ 139.8 billion by 2015. Indias economic growth is
closely related to energy demand; therefore the need for oil and gas is projected to grow
more, thereby making the sector quite conducive for investment.
The Government of India has adopted several policies to fulfil the increasing demand. The
Government has allowed 100 per cent Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in many segments of
the sector, including natural gas, petroleum products, and refineries, among others. Today, it
attracts both domestic and foreign investment, as attested by the presence of Reliance
Industries Ltd (RIL) and Cairn India.
Backed by new oil fields, domestic oil output is anticipated to grow to 1 MBPD by FY16.
With India developing gas-fired power stations, consumption is up more than 160 per cent
since 1995. Gas consumption is likely to expand at a Compound Annual Growth Rate
(CAGR) of 21 per cent during FY0817. Presently, domestic production accounts for more
than three-quarters of the countrys total gas consumption.
India is the fifth-largest Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) importer after Japan, South Korea, the
United Kingdom and Spain and accounts for 5.5 percent of the total global trade. The LNG
imports had increased by 24 per cent year on-year in January 2016 to1.98 Billion Cubic
Metres (BCM). Domestic LNG demand is expected to grow at a CAGR of 16.89 per cent to
306.54 Million Metric Standard Cubic Meter per Day (MMSCMD) by 2021 from
64MMSCMD in 2015.
The country's gas production is expected to touch 90 Billion Cubic Metres (BCM) in 2040
from 35 BCM in 2013.Gas pipeline infrastructure in the country stood at 15,808 km in
December 2015.
State-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) dominates the upstream segment
(exploration and production), accounting for approximately 68 per cent of the countrys total
oil output (FY14).

Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) operates 11,214 km network of crude, gas and
product pipelines, with a capacity of 1.6 MBPD of oil and 10 MMSCMD of gas. This is
around 30 per cent of the nations total pipeline network. IOCL is the largest company,
operating 10 out of 22 Indian refineries, with a combined capacity of 1.3MBPD.
The trends in the production of crude oil and natural gas for the year 2009-10 to 2014-15
have been depicted below:

9 Water injection
Water flooding is the most widely used post primary recovery method and contributes
substantially to current production and reserves.Waterflooding or water flooding refers to the
method in the oil industry where water is injected into the reservoir, usually to increase
pressure and thereby stimulate production. Water injection wells can be found both on- and
offshore, to increase oil recovery from an existing reservoir.
Water is injected:

(1) to support pressure of the reservoir (also known as

voidagereplacement), and (2) to sweep or displace oil from the reservoir, and push it towards
a well.
Normally only 30% of the oil in a reservoir can be extracted, but water injection increasesthat
percentage (known as the recovery factor) and maintains the production rate of a reservoir
over a longer period.
Waterflooding began accidentally in Pithole, Pennsylvania by 1865. Waterflooding became
common in Pennsylvania in the 1880s.
Any and every source of bulk water can be, and has been, used for injection. The following
Sources of water are used for recovery of oil: Produced water is often used as an injection
fluid. This reduces the potential of causingformation damage due to incompatible fluids,
although the risk of scaling or corrosion in injection flowlines or tubing remains. Also, the
produced water, being contaminated with hydrocarbons and solids, must be disposed of in
some manner, and disposal to sea orriver will require a certain level of clean-up of the water
stream first. However, the processing required to render produced water fit for reinjection
may be equally costly.
As the volumes of water being produced are never sufficient to replace all the production
volumes (oil and gas, in addition to water), additional "make-up" water must be provided.
Mixing waters from different sources exacerbates the risk of scaling.
Seawater is obviously the most convenient source for offshore production facilities, and it
may be pumped inshore for use in land fields. Where possible, the water intake is placedat
sufficient depth to reduce the concentration of algae; however, filtering, deoxygenationand
biociding is generally required.

Aquifer water from water-bearing formations other than the oil reservoir, but in the
samestructure, has the advantage of purity where available.
River water will always require filtration and biociding before injection.
Filters: The filters must clean the water and remove any impurities, such as shells and algae.
Typical filtration is to 2 micrometers, but really depends on reservoir requirements. The
filters are so fine so as not to block the pores of the reservoir. Sand filters are a common used
filtration technology to remove solid impurities from the water. The sand filter has different
beds with various sizes of sand granules. The sea water traverses the first, coarsest, layer of
sand down to the finest and to clean the filter, the process is inverted.
After the water is filtered it continues on to fill the de-oxygenation tower. Sand filters are
bulky, heavy, have some spill over of sand particles and require chemicals to enhance water
quality. A more sophisticated approach is to use automatic self-cleaning back flushable screen
filters (suction scanning) because these do not have the disadvantages sand filters have.
The importance of proper water treatment is often underestimated by oil companies and
engineering companies. Especially with river-, and seawater, intake water quality can vary
tremendously (algae blooming in spring time, storms and current stirring up sediments from
the seafloor) which will have significant impact on the performance of the water treatment
facilities. If not addressed correctly, water injection may not be successful. This results in
poor water quality, clogging of the reservoir and loss of oil production.

De-oxygenation: Oxygen must be removed from the water because it promotes corrosion and
growth of certain bacteria. Bacterial growth in the reservoir can produce toxic hydrogen
sulfide, a source of serious production problems, and block the pores in the rock.
A deoxygenating tower brings the injection water into contact with a dry gas stream (gases
always readily available in the oilfield). The filtered water drops into the de-oxygenation
tower, splashing onto a series of trays, causing dissolved oxygen to be lost to the gas stream.
An alternative method, also used as a backup to deoxygenating towers, is to add an oxygen
scavenging agent such as sodium bisulfate and ammonium bisulphate.
Water injection pumps: The high pressure, high flow water injection pumps are placed near
to the de-oxygenation tower and boosting pumps. They fill the bottom of the reservoir with

the filtered water to push the oil towards the wells like a piston. The result of the injection is
not quick, it needs time.
Water injection is used to prevent low pressure in the reservoir. The water replaces the oil
which has been taken, keeping the production rate and the pressure the same over the long
term.

10 CEMENTING
Functions of Cement:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Support the Casing

Provide zonal isolation
Support axial load of casing strings
Provide casing protection against corrosive fluids
Support the wellbore
Shut-off zones of lost circulation
Protect water zones

Cement Manufacture and Chemistry

Cement is made from calcareous and argillaceous rocks such as limestone, clay, shale
and any other material containing a high percentage of calcium carbonate. The dry
materialise finely ground and mixed thoroughly in the correct proportions.

Cement slurry is the mixture produced when dry cement is mixed with water.
Classes of Cement:
Oil well cement is manufactured to API Specification 10 and is divided into 8 classes (A-H)
depending upon its properties. Class G and H are basic well cements which can be used with
accelerators and retarders to cover a wide range of depths and temperatures. The principal
difference between these two classes is that Class H is significantly coarser than Class G.
The Classes are:

1. CLASS A: Intended for use from surface to a depth of 6,000 ft (1,830 m), when
special properties are not required. Similar to ASTM (American Society for Testing
Materials) Type Icement.
2.

CLASS B: Intended for use from surface to a depth of 6,000 ft (1,830 m). Moderate
to high sulphate resistance. Similar to ASTM Type II, and has a lower C3A content
than Class A.

3.

CLASS C: Intended for use from surface to a depth of 6,000 ft (1,830 m) when
conditions require early strength. Available in all three degrees of sulphate resistance,
and is roughly equivalent to ASTM Type III. To achieve high early strength, the C3S
content and the surface area are relatively high.

4. CLASS D: Intended for use from 6,000 ft (1,830 m) to 10,000 ft (3,050 m) under
conditions of moderately high temperatures and pressures. It is available in MSR
(moderate sulphate resistance) and HSR (high sulphate resistance) types.
5. CLASS E: Intended for use from 10,000 ft (3,050 m) to 14,000 ft (4,270 m) under
conditions of high temperatures and pressures. It is available in MSR and HSR types.
6. CLASS F: Intended for use from 10,000 ft (3,050 m) to 16,000 ft (4,880 m) depth
under conditions of extremely high temperatures and pressures. It is available in MSR
and HSR types.
7.

CLASS G + CLASS H: Intended for use as a basic well cement from surface to 8,000
ft (2,440m) as

manufactured, or can be used with accelerators and retarders to

cover a wide range of well depths and temperatures. No additions other than calcium
sulphate or water, or both, shall be
Underground or blended with the clinker during manufacture of Class G and H well
cements. They are available in both MSR and HSR types.
CEMENTING ADDITIVES
Additional chemicals are used to control slurry density, theology, and fluid loss, or to provide
more specialized slurry properties.

Additives modify the behaviour of the cement slurry allowing cement placement under aide
range of down hole conditions. There are many additives available for cement and these can
be classified under one of the following categories:
1. Accelerators: chemicals which reduce the thickening time of a slurry and increase the
rate of early strength development. They are usually use in conductor and surface
casing to reduce waiting on cement time (WOC). Calcium chloride (CaCl2), sodium
chloride (NaCl) and sea water are commonly used as accelerators.
2. Retarders: chemicals which retard the setting time (extend the thickening) of a slurry
to aid cement placement before it hardens. These additives are usually added to
counter the effects of high temperature. They are used in cement slurries for
intermediate and production casings, squeeze and cement plugs and high temperature
wells. Typical retarders include: sugar; lignosulphonates, hydroxycarboxylic acids,
inorganic compounds and cellulose derivatives. Retarders work mainly by adsorption
on the cement surface to inhibit contact with water and elongate the hydration
process; although there are other chemical mechanisms involved.
3. Extenders: materials which lower the slurry density and increase the yield to allow
weak
Formations to be cemented without being fractured by the cement cloumn.Examples
of
Extenders include: water, bentonite, sodium silicates, puzzles, Gilsonite, expanded
perlite, nitrogen and ceramic microspheres.
4. Weighting Agents: materials which increase slurry density including barite and
haematite.
5. Dispersants: chemicals which lower the slurry viscosity and may also increase free
water by dispersing the solids in the cement slurry. Dispersants are solutions of
negatively charged polymer molecules that attach themselves to the positively charges
sites of the hydrating cement grains. The result is an increased negative on the
hydrating cement grains resulting in greater repulsive forces and particle dispersion.
6. Fluid-Loss Additives: Excessive fluid losses from the cement slurry to the formation
can
Affect the correct setting of cement. Fluid loss additives are used to prevent slurry
dehydration and reduce fluid loss to the formation. Examples include: cationic
polymer, non-ionic synthetic polymer, anionic synthetic polymer and cellulose
derivative.

7. Lost Circulation Control Agents: materials which control the loss of cement slurry
to weak or fractured formations.
8. Strength Retrogression: At temperatures above 230 F, normal cement develop high
Permeability and reduction in strength. The addition of 30-40% BWOC (by weight of
Cement) silica flour prevents both strength reduction and development of
permeability at
High temperatures.
9. Special Additives:
a. Silica flour- Because of temperature limit after thickening time (after 100 o F )
there may be formation cracks then formation fluids may go to annulus so special
additive is added like silica flour(to stop formation of crack) mainly recommended for
BHCT > 110oF.
B. Silica Flume- For shallow well with more WOC and to improve compressive
strength.

Slurry Testing:
Cement tests should always be performed on representative samples of cement, additives and
mix water as supplied from the rig.
THICKENING TIME
Thickening time tests are designed to determine the length of time which cements slurry
remains in a pump able state under simulated wellbore conditions of temperature and
pressure. The pump ability, or consistency, is measured in Bearden Consistency units (BC);
each unit being equivalent to the spring deflection observed with 2080 gm-cm of torque when
using the weight-loaded type calibration device. The measure takes no account of the effect
of fluid loss. Thus, thickening times in the wellbore may be reduced if little, or no, fluid loss
control is specified in the slurry design.
Results should quote the time to reach 70 Bc - generally considered to be the maximum
pumpable consistency.
Types of cement jobs:

1. Primary it is done for support of surface casing, production casing and support of
additional casing strings as per casing design
Types of Primary Cementation:
1. Normal Primary Job.
2. Stage Cementing Job.
3. Liner Hanger Cementing Job.
4. Tie back Cementing Job.
2. Secondary these are additional cementing jobs done after primary cementing to
rectify the problems caused in primary cementing.
The following comes under the secondary cementing:
1. Plug cementing
2. Squeeze cementing

Plug cementing:
The process of setting a cement plug involves the placement of a relatively small amount of
cement slurry inside an open hole or inside casing. The main reasons for setting cement plug
are as follows:
(a) To plug back a zone or abandon a well
(b) To sidetrack above a fish or to initiate a sidetrack
(c) To provide a seal for open hole testing
(d) To cure a lost circulation zone.
The two common techniques for setting a cement plug are:
1. Balanced Plug
2. Dump Bailer.
Steps for the Plug Cementing Job:
1. Blindly drop bottom plug.
2. Drop cement plug
3. Check the gauge

Check list for good cementation:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Well bore should have minimum 3 inch clearance.

Well should be stable
Calliper log to check the actual hole size
Well to be circulated minimum 1.5 to 2 cycles of hole volume to condition the mud
Fitting of centralizers/turbolizers (to create turbulence).
Proper cement slurry
Preflush

Cementing Equipments:
1. Cementing unit
2. Cement carriers/skid silos
3. Batch mixers/ Re-CirculatingMixer (RCM) provides uniform gravity to the whole
volume of cement slurry.
4. Cementing head- Used in intermediate casing and it consists of 3 ports and can
5.
6.
7.
8.

accommodate 2 rubber plugs which are top plug and bottom plug.
Guide shoe
Float Collar
Multi-Stage Collar
Cement plugs

Description of some of cementing equipments:

Guide shoe:
A guide shoe is used to guide the casing through the hole, avoiding jamming
the casing in washed-out zones, or in deviated wells. It can be a simple guide or may contain
a ball valve or flapper valve. When a guide shoe contains a valve element it is described as
afloat shoe. A float shoe prevents cement from flowing back into the casing once the cement
is displaced behind the casing which is shown in figure 1.

Figure-1
Float collar:
A float collar is a one way valve which is represented in figure 2 is placed at
one or two joints above the shoe. The float collar provides the same functions as a float shoe
by preventing fluid back flow into the casing: mud backflow during running in hole and
cement slurry backflow after cementdisplacement.The distance between the shoe and float
collar is called Shoe Track.

Figure-2: Float collar

Basket &Centralizers:
These are used to centralize the casing within the hole to improve the cementing
process which is represented in figure 3.

Figure-3: Baskets and centralizers

Cement plugs:
The main functions of cement plugs are:
Separate mud from cement
Wipe the casing from mud before cement is pumped and then wipe casing from the cement
film after the complete volume of cement is pumped.
Prevent over-displacement of cement
Give surface indication that cement placement is complete
Allow the casing to be pressure tested
In effect, the cement plugs act as barriers between mud and cement providing physical
separation between the two fluids and are represented in figure-4.

Figure-4: Cement plug

Cement pumping units:
The pumping units used are- BJ, TIL, SS. SS is a twin pumping unit having
complicated lines and has capacity of 20 metric tons. Silo consists of surge tank which has a

compressor. The cement slurry is pumped to oil well through super chaser and pump the
chaser sucks the slurry to delivery line which is connected to oil well at a pressure of
15,000psi. To release pressure there are pressure hose line which is of 1 size and a butterfly
valve of 2 size. Silo is mainly used for surface and intermediate casing.
To make homogenous blend and for final casings RCM and batch mixer are used.

Cementing calculations:

1st part: consider the surface casing. The cement slurry volume will be calculated in
the following way:

First annular capacity must be calculated using the below formula:

((D2)2 - (D1)2)/1974. Here D2 will be 17-1/2 and D1 will be 13-3/8
Now consider caving % if calliper log is not available for considering the

bore hole diameter.

Therefore it will be equal to : 100 * X * 2
Where 100 is the total depth, X is the annular capacity and 2 is the 100%
caving, for first casing 100 will be considered slowly it will be decreased.

2nd part: consider the intermediate casing. The cement slurry volume will be calculated in the
following way:

First annular capacity must be calculated using the below formula:

((D2)2 - (D1)2)/1974. Here D2 will be 12-1/4 and D1 will be 9-3/8

Now consider caving % if calliper log is not available for considering the

bore hole diameter.

Therefore it will be equal to : 400 * Y * 1.5
Where 400 is the total depth (1000-600), where 1000 is total depth and
from 600m cementing is done. Y is the annular capacity and 1.5 is the

caving %.
Similarly other parts volume is calculated.

After obtaining cement slurry volume Oil Well Cement (OWC), metric tons is calculated:
OWC= (C/S)/yield
Yield = (% composition of cement)/sp.gravity + (0.5/1)
Where 0.5 is 50% water and 1 is sp.gravity of water.

Evaluation of cement job:

The following tools are used to evaluate the quality of the cement and the bond between the
Cement and the casing:
Cement Bond Log (CBL)
Variable Density Log (VDL)
Cement Evaluation Tool (CET)
Ultrasonic Borehole Imaging (USI)
Segmented Bond Tool (SBT)
Cement generates a considerable amount of heat during the hydration process. Temperature
survey can be used to indicate the presence of cement and TOC. Temperature surveys cannot
be used for a quantitative evaluation of the job. They generally must be run within 24 hours
of the cement job.
The temperature survey is used to determine TOC where a CBL is not planned or may be
unreliable due to size of casing.
The temperature log can sometimes be used for detecting flowing fluids immediately outside
the casing. When run in combination with a noise log, relative volumes and fluid composition
can be estimated. Analysis of the frequency spectrum and the amplitude of the noise received
enable fluid types and their location to be estimated. Departure of the temperate from the
normal geothermal gradient can be related to the volume of fluid and its rate of flow.

(a) Cement Bond Log (CBL)

The CBL log provides a measure of the cement to casing bond and cannot be used to quantify
the amount of cement present. The principle of measurement is to record the transit time and
attenuation of an acoustic wave after propagation through the borehole fluid and the casing
wall. The CBL gives a continuous measurement of the amplitude of the first casing arrivals
from 3 ft transmitter/receiver spacing. This reading is a maximum in unsupported pipe, and a
minimum for well cemented casing. The absolute reading is a function of casing size and
thickness, cement bond quality, wellbore fluid, tool type and tool centring.
Generally most of these parameters will be constant so that cement bond quality can be
directly related to the amplitude measured. The tool is used to evaluate the percentage of the
pipe circumference bonded by cemented, and the cement compressive strength. The output is
only valid however, if the tool improperly centralized and there is no micro annulus.
An important feature when using the CBL is to provide a correlation to the open hole logs.
This is achieved by running a Gamma Ray (GR) and Casing Collar Log (CCL) in
combination with the CBL to provide a correlation for any subsequent operations e.g.
perforating. Where a micro-annulus is suspected the CBL must be run under pressure.
The following conditions are required for a reliable CBL/VDL log:
(i) Casing sizes preferably 9 5/8" or less.
(ii) Good centralization. At least 3 centralizers must be used to ensure that the transmitter and
receiver are within 1/8" of the pipe centre. On deviated wells thebe/CET must be centralized
and run specifically for each string.
(iii) No micro annulus between the casing and cement.
(iv) A minimum cement thickness of 1".

(b) Variable Density Log (VDL)

The VDL provides a graphical representation of the actual sonic wave form recorded at a 5
transmitter/receiver spacing. This trace should be used to better discriminate between casing
and formation arrivals. The VDL is generally used to assess the cement to formation bond
and helps to detect the presence of channels and the intrusion of gas.

A poor cement bond is noted by strong parallel black and white vertical striped. A good
cement bond is generally noted by a dull grey featureless response when the casing signal is
expected.
The CBL/VDL output is affected by:

tool eccentricity;
micro-annuli; fast formations;
the presence of gas; and
Thin cement sheaths.

(c) Cement Evaluation Tool (CET)

The CET is an ultrasonic tool consisting of eight focused transducers arranged in a helical
pattern around the body of the tool. While CBL tools measures the attenuation of a sonic
compression wave propagating axially along the casing, the CET induces casing resonance by
transmitting a broad band pulse (270 Hz to 650 kHz) normal to the casing wall.
The energy returning to the transducers from the induced casing resonance is related to the
acoustic impedances of the materials in contact with the inner and outer surfaces of the
casing. As the only unknown is the acoustic impedance of the material in the annulus,
knowledge of the energy emitted from the transducer allows this to be calculated. The
compressive strength of the cement in the annulus can then be estimated. The radial
arrangement of the transducers allows an estimation of the cement distribution to be made. As
the transducers are of 1-inch diameter, the percentage of casing circumference investigated
will vary depending upon the casing size (approximately 36% for 7" liners to
26% for 9 5/8" casing).
The CET is unaffected by water filled microannuli up to 0.1 mm and can detect channelling
in the cement (only when the channel is in contact with the casing). However, the CET is
badly affected by corrosion inside the casing.
(d) Ultrasonic Borehole Imaging (USI)
The USI operates in a similar way to the CET but provides full 360o coverage of the casing
circumference by use of a rotating transducer acting as both transmitter and receiver.

(e) Segmented Bond Tool (SBT)

The SBT quantitatively measures the cement bond integrity in six angular segments around
the casing. The acoustic transducers are mounted on six pads positioned in contact with the

interior casing wall to provide compensated attenuation measurements. Acoustic attenuations

measured in two directions, using an arrangement of two transmitters and two receivers on
four adjacent arms. The two measurements are combined to derive a compensated value that
does not depend on receiver sensitivities or transmitter power. This measurement process is
repeated for each of the six segments.
For ease of interpretation, the SBT measurements are displayed in two log presentations.
The primary presentation is available in the logging mode as the SBT data are acquired,
processed, and plotted in real time. The secondary presentation consists of six 60 degrees
segmented arrays, variable-attenuation "cement" map, and a tool orientation trace overlay.

11 Field Visits

11.1 Coiled Tubing Operation Date -26/05/2016

Description of well

well number ABC

Description casing 7 inch
Production Tubing 2 7/8 inch
Connected to GGS4
Well has 6 GLV 1st at 873m
2nd at 1588m

3rd at 2142m
4th at 2562m
5th at 2877m
6th at 3126 m

2m perforation from 3390.5m to 3392.5 m

1 hydraulic packer at 3353m

Most important question

Why coiled tubing operation for well number 704?
Ans. production has been decreasing day by day due to plugging of pores by paraffin and
asphaltenes in the formation so to remove them solvent job is to be carried out which consist
of injecting mixture of toluene, xylene, surfactant and EGMBE mutual solvent which are
placed against the formation and let it remain for 24 hrs and then again start to produce and
because for packer completed well CTU is the only option in production tubing act as casing
as CTU pipe act as tubing.
Introduction
The Coiled Tubing (CT) is a second-generation hydraulic system for well servicing under
pressure. It is a versatile tool and its use has many advantages such as:

1. Allows live well servicing.

2. Since kill fluid is not used, there is no formation damage
3. Allows circulation while RIH & POOH
4. Faster method with maximum handling speed of 250 ft/min.

5. Only method for packer completed wells.

6. Logging & perforating of highly deviated wells.

Figure Coiled Tubing Unit

Field unit description

Diameter of coiled tubing unit is 1 1 4 inch at Ankleshwar asset

Bop test pressure is 5000 psi & for all hydraulic lines pressure is 3000 psi, length of

4000 m reel cable.

80000 lb yield strength of pipe
4 rams at BOP

Well Control Systems for CTU

The primary function of the coiled tubing BOP and stripper is to maintain control of the well
at all times. BOP's and strippers must be properly maintained and kept ready to operate.
Before the job, the BOP's and strippers must be inspected, function-tested and pressuretested.
All BOP's and strippers basically operate on the same design principle. Standard coiled
tubing BOP's are available generally in quad-, combi-, or monoblocks. Each set of rams
functions independently from the others; the operator manually selects the hydraulic controls
at the operators console. Many older BOPs are still rated for 5,000psi but more and more
BOPs are rated for 10,000psi working pressure, with some rated for 15,000psi. The BOP
working pressure is based on body design and the lower connection rating. If only four rams
are to be utilised, configure the rams in the following order:
Ram 1: blind rams The blind rams are designed to seal off the wellbore once the pipe is out
of the well.
Ram 2: shear rams The shear or cutter rams are designed to cut the CT and / or wireline
cables. (If hydraulic lines are installed in the coil the shear rams may need to be upgraded or
a booster unit installed on the end of the ram bonnet).
Ram 3: slip rams The slip rams hold the pipe either in the pipe light (snub) or pipe-heavy
position.
Ram 4: tubing rams The tubing rams seal off the annular area around the CT, preventing
wellbore fluids from reaching surface or the slip inserts

Figure BOP
Additional BOP Equipment
Additional equipment typically required to connect, monitor or operate the pressure-control
Equipment package includes the following:

 Kill line runs between the well-control stack and the high-pressure pump manifold and
can be used as a contingency facility to kill the well by pumping down the annulus
Choke line runs from the well-control stack to the choke manifold providing a highpressure conduit necessary when operating the choke manifold
Choke manifold the choke manifold must be configured for drilling applications with two
manual chokes and one pressure gauge (some applications may require a remotely operated
choke). The choke manifold is an important item of pressure control equipment since it is
used to control wellbore pressures during critical phases of a drilling operation, e.g., as
contingency well control or maintaining well control during underbalanced drilling.
Mud return line A remotely operated valve may be installed on the outlet of the mud
return line, but typically a manual valve is used as this is simply to shut off the mud flow. If
desired, this mud return outlet can be configured as a high pressure line to enable the use of
the CT stripper as a functional well-control device. This requires that the spool, riser and
outlet be rated to full pressure and the line from the spool be fitted with remote valves as
required by regulations or prudent practices to permit total isolation for use of the stripper
under full pressure conditions.
BOP controls and instruments all BOP equipment should be controlled from the CTU
operators console ( or control cabin area. In some cases, it may Also be desirable or
necessary to include a repeat/remote control located in a Safe area for emergency operation,
e.g., remote operation of shear/seal tertiary pressure control equipment.
Mud spool/riser Typically, the injector is connected to the actual wellhead BOPs by way
of a spool and/or riser. This represents what is termed the "bell nipple" on a conventional
drilling rig. The function of this piece of equipment is to provide an outlet for the mud return
to the pits, and to provide a means of connecting the CT injector physically to the riser. This
physical connection is often termed the quick disconnect or quick connect.
CT Injector Head
The CT injector head (provides the power and traction necessary to run and retrieve the CT
String into and out of the wellbore .A thorough understanding of the injector control and
monitoring systems is essential to ensure the equipment is operated efficiently, safely and
without risk of damage to the well equipment, pressure control equipment, CT string or CTU.

Figure -Typical CT Injector

CT Reel
The primary function of a CT reel is to safely store and protect the CT string. This should be
achieved while avoiding excessive damage to the string through fatigue (bending) or
mechanical damage from spooling. The reel typically incorporates a swivel assembly which
enables fluids to be pumped through the tubing string while the reel drum rotate

Figure - CT Guide Arches

Figure - CT Reel

11.2 Well Services Workover and fishing

Introduction
Well services group is a pioneer in its field covering the entire gamut of activities consisting
of workover operations, well testing and completions and well stimulation services. Having a
strong and experienced man power of more than 700 persons, this group has rose to the
occasion to meet the multidimensional challenges in day to day activities with utmost
concern in safety aspects. This group comprises of three major sections viz. Work over
Section, well testing and well stimulation services.
Workover
The workover operation plays the major role in sustaining the oil production from the mature
fields of eastern region. These operations are required for revival of sick oil, gas and water
injection and effluent disposal wells. The workover section is the flag ship of well services
group. Water shut off, zone transfer, casing repair, sand control jobs, servicing of of effluent
disposal wells, servicing of wells on artificial lifts, installation of artificial lifts systems etc.

Well completion and testing

This section comprises of well testing and downhole sections. Well testing is the first and
foremost major activity under taken after drilling a well success of which decides all future
oil production activities. All identified prospective objects are individually perforated and
completed using downhole equipments and the well is activated. Flow studies are then carried
out to measure the flow rates to estimate the reservoir potential. The wells are then suitably
completed and put in production.
Well stimulation services
Came into being in its present entity to fulfill the need of stimulation and specialized services
for enhancing oil and gas production.WSS provides stimulation services such as hydraulic
fracturing, acidization ,surfactant/solvent treatment and specialized services like coil tubing
services, gravel pack, nitrogen application, water shut off, hot oil circulation, sand gel plug,
tubular scouring and cleaning etc. This section has also actively participated in crises
management activities like blow out control, trouble shooting in trunk lines operations etc.

Workover

What Is Workover
The term workover is used to refer to any kind of oil well intervention operations i.e. the
workover operation includes one or more of a remedial operations on a producing well in
order to increase production.
Workovers rank among the most complex, difficult and expensive types of well work.
Workover operations are performed if the completion of a well is terminally unsuitable for
the job at hand, the production tubing may become damaged due to operational factors like
corrosion to the point where well integrity is threatened, downhole components such as
tubing, downhole retrievable safety valves or the artificial lift may have malfunctioned,
needing replacement or due to changing reservoir condition which make the completion
unsuitable.
Why Workover Is Necessary

 To maintain the well in optimum producing condition.

Solving specific well and reservoir problems.
Workover operations performed
Through tubing perforation
Zone transfer
Fishing Operations
Fishing refers to the application of tools, equipment and techniques for removal of lost or
stuck objects from the well bore. The term fishing is taken from the times of the earlier
cable tool drilling when the crew simply put a hook on a line and attempted to catch the wire
line when it would break so that the tool could be retrieved. Over the years, with
advancement in drilling, completion and work over, fishing has also evolved greatly as an art
and science of removing broken or stuck equipment or small non-drillable materials from the
well bore.
The fishing operations can mainly be categorized into:
Open hole operations are those in which the fishing tools are run in open hole to
retrieve a fish present in open hole.
Cased hole wherein the fishing operations are carried out in cased hole.
Through tubing Through-tubing fishing takes place through the restriction of the
smaller-sized tubing. Through-tubing fishing applications have grown dramatically
with the increased use of coiled tubing as a conveyance method.
Fishing Tools
The key enabling technologies for successful fishing operations are cutting, milling,
catching/engaging and pulling.
Based on the kind of fishing operation, a variety of fishing tools are available. The use of
appropriate fishing tool for any particular job will largely depend on the type of fish in the
hole, whether the fish is stuck or free, whether it is in an open hole or in a cased hole, the
condition of the hole at the site of break and the condition of the top of the fish. Each fishing
job is unique but there are some basic tools such as safety joint, bumper sub, hydraulic jar
and heavy weight drill pipes that are used in most jobs along with appropriate fishing tool and
drill pipe work string. Based on intended application, the fishing tools can be classified into:

A. External Catch Tools

The external catch tools engage a fish on its outside body. Some of the commonly used
external catches fishing tools are:
i. Overshot
The overshot is one of the most widely used fishing tools. It is a highly versatile and efficient
tool. There are several different types of over shots; however, each overshot is designed to
engage a specific size of tubing, pipe, coupling tool joint, drill collar or smooth O.D tool. The
over shots are designated by a series number that indicates their application for fishing certain
types of fish e.g. Series 70. Over shots are used to release a fish with short space to engage
the tool on it. Similarly, Series150 over shots are used to release fish with sufficient neck
length and allow for circulation too.
Description of Tool
The basic overshot (from top down) consists of a top sub, a bowl, grapple, control and a
guide. In addition to the basic components, some over shots can be dressed with either:
Spiral Grapple used if the fish diameter is near the maximum catch of the overshot.
Basket Grapple used if the fish diameter is considerably below maximum catch size
(usually )
Some times over shots are used with extension subs that are installed between the top sub and
the bowl of the overshot and extends the overshot bowl. Extension subs are used to either
establish a longer hold on a fish that may be undersize at the top by having been pulled in
two/ an overshot released several times or cover a bad section of pipe so that a tool joint can
be caught. Extension subs will only cover a fish O.D. equal to the maximum catch of the
overshot using a basket grapple and still remain full strength.
ii. Die Collar
The Die Collar is designed to retrieve tubular members from the well bore. The Die Collar is
manufactured from high-grade alloy and specially heat-treated. The hardened cutting teeth
(wickers) are machined on a shallow taper (approximately 3/4 inch per foot) to provide an
excellent grip and positive engagement. For operation, the tool is run to the fish top and
minimum weight and sufficient rotation is applied to allow the wicker threads to become
embedded in the exterior surface of the fish.

A major disadvantage of die collar is that the dis-engagement of die collar, in case the stuckup is not released, is extremely difficult and may further complicate the fishing operations.
B. Internal Catch Tools
The internal catch tools engage a fish on its inside body. Some of the commonly used internal
catches fishing tools are:
i. Taper Tap
The Taper Tap operates in an exactly opposite manner to a die collar and is basically designed
to retrieve tubular members from the well bore. It is the most economical tool of its kind for
freeing fish. The Taper Tap is also manufactured from high-grade alloy and specially heattreated. The basic Taper Tap is a single piece construction. The hardened cutting teeth
(wickers) are carbo-nitrided and machined on a shallow taper (approximately 3/4 inch per
foot) to provide an excellent grip for light duty pick-up jobs. For operation, the taper tap is
run to the top of fish and rotated sufficiently to allow the wicker threads to get embedded into
the interior surface of the fish.

ii. Grapple Releasing Spears

The grapple releasing spears are rugged, dependable and inexpensive tools used to retrieve
casings for side tracking purposes or tubing left due to free fall. The simple design assures
positive engagement throughout the fishing operation, is easy to release and re-engage if
necessary and may be run in conjunction with other equipment such as pack-off attachments
and internal cutting tools. The basic tool consists of a mandrel, a grapple, a bull nose nut and
a release ring.

C. Junk Catcher Tools

The junk catcher tools are used to remove junk/ debris from the well bore prior to/during
fishing/milling operations. Some of the commonly used such tools are:
i. Jet Basket
Jet basket is used to recover small objects such as bit cones, bearings, mill cuttings, broken
slips, hand tools and fragments of steel. Objects are forced into the basket by high-pressure

jets forcing fluid down the outside of the tool. The fluid exits through the tool I.D. moving
the object into the basket allowing the spring loaded catch fingers to catch the object.
The jet basket is usually made up in the fishing string below the drill collars in place of the
bit. The basket is lowered into the hole to a few feet off bottom and full circulation started
while slowly rotating the string to flush the hole of cuttings.
ii. Junk Basket
The junk basket is a highly successful fishing tool that incorporates a mill with double sets of
free finger type catchers. It will catch most small objects that may be dropped into the hole
including irregular objects. It is used to catch bit cones, slip fragments, wire line, hand tools
and other similar objects. Additional uses are to take core samples, drill full gauge holes or
ream. The manganese bronze catching fingers can be field dressed.
iii. Reverse Circulating Junk Basket
The conventional junk catchers employ forward/direct circulation at the bottom to lift the
cuttings and trap them. The distance to which the junk is to be lifted is normally more and
hence such tools are less effective.
In the Reverse Circulating Junk Basket also forward circulation is applied in the string that
gets converted to reverse circulation at the tool due to a ball. The RCJB is a better junk
catcher tool since the junk needs to travel a short distance only before it gets trapped in the
catcher sub. RCJB is used to remove objects such as slips, hand tools, bit cones and any other
small pieces of junk from bottom of well bore.
D. Accessory Tools
Various accessories are used in the fishing string. Some of them are:
i. Wire Catcher / Wire Line Spear
The wire line catcher is used to retrieve wire line.
ii. Fishing Magnet
The fishing magnet is used to retrieve all types of small objects having magnetic attraction
from the borehole bottom. Objects such as bit cones, bearings, slips, tong pins and mill
cuttings can often be retrieved only by magnetic attraction.
iii. Lead Impression Block (Lib)

The LIB is used to determine the configuration of fish top and to locate its position in the
well bore. The impression block is lowered on the end of the fishing string to approximately
5 feet above the fish. Circulation is used to clean the top of the fish and the string is then
rapidly slacked and set on fish with 15,000 to 20,000 pounds of weight on the fish to get a
good impression of fish top.
iv. Hydraulic Fishing Jar
The hydraulic fishing jar is used when a powerful upward blow is required to release the
stuck fish. The hydraulic jar is placed directly below the drill collars in the fishing string. The
intensity of each blow is controlled by the amount of stretch placed in the drill string. More
the pull harder is the blow. The jarring effect is enhanced by placement of drill collars above
the jar.
v. Bumper Sub
Bumper sub is used below hydraulic jar to prevent transmission of impact generated by jar to
tubing.

Figure: Spiral Grapple

Figure: Spearhead

Figure: Milling Tools

11.3. Completion Tools and equipments

Design Integral Plan for Efficient Well Completion
Well completion is the selection and installation of equipment in a well to achieve the
optimum production at minimum possible cost for entire foreseeable producing life of
an oil or gas well.
To have the optimal production at minimum cost, the completion must be designed to
satisfy the following conditions:
1. Maximum reservoir protection
2. Minimum remedial work
3. Ease of work over operations
4. Maximum operational effectiveness
5. Minimum lifting cost of produced fluids
6. Maximum ecological protection
7. Maximum degree of safety at all times
8. Maximum protection in corrosive environment

Completion design
Completion system must have the ability to provide an effective isolation between
surface and subsurface along with isolation of various layers penetrated within the
well bore.
The selection of equipment is determined primarily based on price, and its speedy
installation to get production from the well as early as possible
Maximum productivity of the well depends on the productivity index (PI) of the well
and the effectiveness of completion design.
PI improvement by stimulation still depends on original conditions and hence it is not
fully controllable.
The effectiveness of a completion is totally controllable and is directly related to the
proper selection of completion techniques and completion equipment.
Completion must be of prime consideration from the very outset of planning for any
well.
Reservoir considerations of well completion (effect of reservoir drive mechanism):
The two most important characteristics that affect the well completion are drive
mechanisms of reservoir and reservoir homogeneity and heterogeneity.
Drive Mechanisms of reservoir:
1. Dissolved gas drive: The source of pressure (energy) is due to the liberation
and expansion of dissolved gas from oil as pressure is reduced due to
exploitation of reservoir
2. Gas cap drive: The source of pressure (energy) is due to expansion of free
gas available above the oil zone.
3. Water drive: The source of pressure (energy) is due to expansion or influx of
water from outside and below the reservoir.
Most reservoirs produce through some combination of each drive mechanism
The reservoir drive mechanism influences producing well characteristics and
therefore, they are given due importance while designing and selecting initial well
completion and later in recompletion of wells.

Future Stimulation considerations:

Present and future stimulation requirements of each well must be considered at the
time of initial completion itself.

Completion selection and design criteria:

Gross production rate

Well pressure and depth
Rock properties
Fluid properties
Well location

Production testing:

Major conduit for the wells produced fluid

Protects casing from pressure and corrosion
Most common sizes are 2-7/8 OD (73.02mm), 2-3/8 (60.32mm), and 3-1/2 .
Tubing normally runs from the well head to the production zone.
Tubing is classified by size (OD,ID,tool joint OD,ID), Weight(lbs/ft), and grades such
as J-55 and N-80.

Types of Completion
1.Classification Based on Interface between Wellbore and Reservoir

Figure : Types of completion based on interface between wellbore and reservoir

2. Classification Based on mode of production & No. of zones completed:

Figure : Types of completion based on mode of production and no. of zones completed

Basically three methods for completing a well

Open hole completion: production casing is set on top of the pay zone.
Cased perforated completion: producing interval is covered by the production casing.
Liner completion: production casing is set on top of the pay zone and is followed by a
liner.

Open hole completion:

Casing is set only to top of the or slightly into the completion interval. neither casing
nor cement is set opposite the production formation to restrict its flow
Advantages:

Minimize formation damage

No perforation required
Deepening and easy to convert in other mode(ex. Liner)
Log interpretation is not critical

Dis-advantages:

Difficult to control gas/water

Selective stimulation is difficult

Figure-3 Representing open hole completion

Uncemented Liner completion:

Figure-4 Representing uncemented liner completion

To isolate the trouble zone and resume drilling. Possible completions are:

Tubing and Packer completion

Commingled completion

Selective alternate production

Dual completion

Completion Types: Tubing and Packer completion

Advantages :

Safe Completion

Casing is protected against pressure and & corrosion effect

Annulus fluid can be used as kill fluid

Suitable for artificial lift system

Limitations:

WOR due to packer leak

Killing is cumbersome process

Completion Types: Single String multiple zone Completion

Advantage

Production from two zones is possible through single tubing

Less cost

Offers the option to isolate the water bearing zone.

Limitation

Cross flow

Killing will be an issue

Problem in P/O of two packer

Reservoir monitoring necessitate wire line

Completion Types: Dual string completion

Advantages:

Each zone is produced via diff string, surface monitoring is effective

Each zone can be gas lifted

Safety of each string is ensured through individual SSSV

Bottom hole study of each zone is possible

Limitations:

More possibility of WOR due to increase in leakage possibility

Packer retrieving is an issue

Requires specialized tubular running/pulling equipments

PERFORATED COMPLETION
Advantages

Producing intervals can be isolated

Multizone production can be possible

Limitations

Perforating expense

Formation damage

Well can be deepened with reduced diameter

Figure 5-Representing perforated completion

Downhole completion equipments

Packer
Expansion joint
Safety valve
Flow coupling
Blast joint
Safety joint
Landing/seating nipple
Sliding sleeve
Side pocket mandrel
Pump out plug
Wire line reentry guide
Bridge plug
Cement retainer
Scrapper

Packer
Isolate the annulus from the production conduit,

Controlled production, injection or treatment.

Packer consists of slip arrangement

 A reliable hydraulic seal to isolate the annulus, typically by means of an expandable

elastomeric element

Basic parts:

Flow mandrel: provides the flow conduit for production

Resilient elements: forms the tubing to annulus pressure seals
Cone or wedges: Assists in setting the slips
Slips: which grips the casing wall and prevent the packer from moving up and down
Ratchet mechanism: locks the packer in set position.

Types:
Retrievable packers
Mechanical-set packers
1. Weight set packers
2. Tension set packers
3. Rotational set Packers
Hydraulic set Packers
Permanent Packers

Mechanical set packers:

Figure 6 Representing Mechanical packer

Setting:

Employ a slip and cone arrangement, or a shear pin, or a collet

for setting
Tubing weight is used to compress sealing element

Packer is released by upward pull of tubing & retrieved on

Retrieving:

tubing
Selection:

Good for straight, relatively shallow, low pressure wells

It cannot withstand differential pressure from below, unless it is

equipped with hydraulic hold-down.

Tension set packer

Setting:

By pulling tension on tubing

Pressure from below increases the setting force of the packer

Packer is released by slacking off tubing weight.

Used for water injection wells

For wells which need stimulation
Shallow wells when weight of tubing not sufficient to compress

Retrieving:

Selection:

seal element.

Hydraulic set packers: Figure below Representing hydraulic set packer

Setting:

Induced fluid pressure drives the cone behind the slips to set

them
Slips remain set by either entrapped pressure or a mechanical
lock.

Retrieving:

Mostly by picking up on tubing

Some require tubing rotation

excellent for deviated or crooked holes

Selection:

Production tubing can be run in the well and well head installed

before setting packer

Tubing can be hung in neutral tension
Multiple completion strings can be landed simultaneously.

How to differentiate between mechanical and Hydraulic packer?

Mechanical packer will be having drag block and seal where as these wont be
present in Hydraulic packers

Expansion Joint
ii. Expansion joints are designed to be used in single and multiple string completion
when tubing is expected to change length because of temperature and/or pressure
changes during treatment or production.

iii. Expansion Joint is splined to provide rotational lock for the full travel expansion.

iv. It can be pinned at different stroke lengths as per the requirement.

v. Higher temperatures can be achieved using alternate seal stacks.

Flow Coupling

The Flow

installed

Couplings are heavy walled tubing pups that are

above

and

below nipples and sliding sleeves, where it is

to

have

internal erosion, caused by the abrasive action of

turbulent flow through

these restricted areas. The Flow Couplings are

anticipated

available in 36 or 48 inch lengths. Flow Coupling is manufactured for Standard, H2S and
H2S-CO2 service
Blast Joint
Blast Joints are heavy walled tubing, run in the tubing string and positioned across from
perforated interval where the jetting action of the fluid can erode the outside of the tubing,
thus prolonging the life of the completion.A blast joint is also a length of tubing with
enhanced wall thickness.
Landing Nipple: below figure 8 represents landing nipple

Landing nipple in the tubing string enables the installation of various control equipment with
wireline.The landing nipple with their variety of profiles, allow the incorporation of an
unlimited number in a tubing string, with complete selectivity for setting and locking of the
appropriate mandrels.The well may have atleast one landing nipple in the tubing string .It
performs a dual functions .It prevents the wireline tools larger than the no-go dimensions
from being run below the tubing. It permits re-cocking of hydraulic jars when trying to open
or close sleeves.
Sliding Sleeve:
Sliding sleeves are part of tubing string and provide communication between the tubing and
the annulus , Used for following application: Displacing fluids, Selective testing treating and
production in multiple completion, killing by circulation, Pressure equalizing ,Install valve,
choke and flow regulator in the nipple profile provided.
Side pocket mandrel:
vi. Side pocket mandrel has a polished receptacle/pocket at one side which receive down
hole tools lowered by wire line. Side pocket mandrels can be positioned in the tubing
string where it is necessary to install: GLV, chemical injection valve, hot oil injection
valve, Chemical injection valve, Test or treat selectively. Provide communication
between the tubing and annulus when required.
Pump out Plug:

A pump out plug is generally run at the bottom of the string and is used for
hydraulically setting the packer. It has a seat to accommodate the ball & the seat is
locked in position by shear screws of specified shear value. The ball dropped for
setting the packer seats on the seat & ensures leak proof system. After setting the
packer, further pressurizing shears the shear screws the seat & ball drops in to the
sump.

Wire line re-entry guide:

The wire line re-entry guide forms the bottom most part of the completion string and is
basically a mule shoe that is beveled to facilitate easy lowering & pulling of wire line
string through it.

Bridge Plug:

A bridge plug is set in the casing to prevent the flow across that point in the casing. It
provides additional safety while the X-mass tree is being nippled up or nippled down.
It may be permanent or retrievable. Bridge plug can also be set between perforations
to isolate the lower perforation while the upper zone is squeezed cement, acidized or
fractured. They can be set either mechanically or by wireline.

Cement Retainer:
The tool utilizes a production packing element design for effective sealing in the well
bore. During run-in, the packing element traps atmospheric pressure between itself and
the body. Both the upper and lower slips are locked in position for safe tripping in the
well bore. When the slips are set in the casing, they encompass nearly the entire
circumference of the casing for maximum anchoring ability. The retainer can be set by
electric-line or mechanically.
Casing Scraper:

A casing scrapper is used to remove foreign substances, such as scale, perforating

burs and cement from inside the casing wall. The scrapper is usually run above a bit
and reciprocated in the casing. The scrapping action is provided by spring tensioned
blade against the casing wall.

11.4. GGS 4 AREA -3 GANDHAR visit Date 31/05/2016

Basic unit operation is separation of liquid & gas.

Total wells connected are 73.
Total number of flowing wells are 19 , out of which 11 are on gas lift , 3 high pressure

, 1 medium pressure , 4 low pressure wells .

Average liquid production rate is around 350 m 3/day, out of which 70-80 m3/day is

water.
There are 4 liquid storage tanks which are of fixed roof type each of 400m3 capacity.
Oil and gas path sequence well to GGS which may be 3 or 4 inch line , which has
first pressure recorder then NRV , then based on pressure they are sent to HP header ,
MP header , LP header , test header. From these they are sent to respective HP
horizontal two phase separator, MP horizontal two phase separator, LP horizontal two
phase separator, vertical two phase test separator. For test separator tank capacity is 45

m3.
Minimum liquid level in the separator is maintained with the help of level controller.
Most important concept is that gas should not be transmitted to fixed roof liquid tank
as it may explode due to high pressure continuously building inside, also pump cannot
accept gas while pumping oil to CTF pump is used. In the same way gas should not

contain entrained liquid droplets while it has to be compressed.

Mass flow rate meter are installed to measure oil and water flow rate which require

density of oil and water as an input.

Input and output to fixed roof tank are at bottom of the tank.
Proper water spray line and froth injection line are installed for safety in case of fire.
Liquid when reaches to fixed roof tank are called as dead oil because it is not at

atmospheric pressure.
From the bottom of all separator oil in sent to tanks. Outlet of separator is maintained

at 2 kg pressure so that liquid rises in tank from bottom.

From the high pressure separator gas is directly sent to GLC (Gas lift compressor)
where reciprocating compressor compress if from 35 kg to 115 kg pressure for gas to

be used in gas lift wells.

From the LP separator gas is compressed in ZFC ( zero flare compressor ) , here gas is
compressed in 3 stages from 2 kg to 35 kg pressure with the help of 3 stage 6 cylinder
reciprocating double acting compressor. There are total 4 compressor, 3 are of 1.6
lakh m3 / day capacity and one of 2 lakh m3/ day capacity. These are gas engine type
compressor i.e. gas is power source for these compressor also it is cooled with the
help of 4 fans which act as radiator.

Visited compressor unit C in ZFC in following are pressure :

Inlet suction pressure 1.5 kg
1 stage outlet pressure 7 kg
2 stage outlet pressure - 20 kg
3 stage outlet pressure 35 kg
Moisture extractors are installed at inlet of compressor to remove any liquid moisture.
There are 3 reciprocating compressor single stage double acting motor driven which
takes electricity directly as source of energy through which motor rotates and
compressor operates which compress gas from 35 kg to 115 kg . Inlet to these

compressors is from high pressure separator gas and from outlet of ZFC unit.
Excess gas is flared at flare unit whose stack is 60 m high
Fixed roof tank description

Parts for fixed-roof tankMain inlet: Large pipe through which liquids are introduced into the tank.
Spray nozzle: Device that sprays water onto the roof of the tank to cool it when the

temperature rises.
Manometer: Device that measures the pressure of the product inside the tank.
Manhole: Round opening in the tank that is covered with a plate; workers can pass

through it.
Automatic tank gauge: Device used to measure the level of the liquid in the tank; the
tank gauge floats movement is transmitted to a magnet, which moves the hands on a
dial.

Secondary inlet: Small pipe through which liquids are introduced into the tank.
Bund wall: Cement wall around the tank that protects the environment in the event of

accidental leakage.
Concrete drain: Small concrete trench used to drain off the product in the event of a

spill or when the tank is emptied.

Spiral staircase: Staircase whose stairs wind around the wall of the tank to the roof.
Breather valve - the breather valve is a protection device mounted on a nozzle
opening on the top of a fixed roof atmospheric tank. Its primary objective is to protect
the tank against rupturing or imploding.

Health Safety Environment at GGS

Whole plant area is classified into zone 0, zone 1, zone 2 based on hazard prone
Hazardous area - a space is deemed to be hazardous in which a flammable atmosphere
is expected to be present in such concentrations and frequencies which require special
precautions for the construction, installation and use of electrical apparatus and
equipment during normal and abnormal operating conditions.
Zone 0 - an area in which hazardous atmosphere is continuously present.
Zone 1 - an area in which a hazardous atmosphere is likely to occur under normal
operating condition.
Zone 2 - an area in which a hazardous atmosphere is likely to occur only under
abnormal operating conditions.
Personnel protective equipments (PPE): Equipments designed to offer protection
against potential hazards, Fire, toxicity, accidental fall etc. during normal and
emergency operations.
Personnel protective equipment such as safety shoe, hand gloves, apron, safety
goggles, safety belt, helmet, ear muff, dust respirator, self contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA), resuscitator etc. as applicable shall be worn while carrying
out operations in normal and emergency situations.