ISSN 0747-9239, Seismic Instruments, 2007, Vol. 43, pp. 3439. Allerton Press, Inc., 2007.

Original Russian Text M.P. Chetaev, Yu.Kubish, Z. Tshesnevskii, 2007, published in Seismicheskie Pribory, 2007, Vol. 43, pp. 4956.

Slight-Displacement Meters Based

on Mechanical Oscillators with Force Cooling
M. P. Chetaev, Yu. Kubish, and Z. Tshesnevskii
AbstractThe results of experimentally investigating the fluctuation parameters of four slight-mechanicaldisplacement meters via the method of force cooling of their low-Q-factor mechanical oscillators are presented. In the course of the experiment at the temperature T = 300 K during continuous observation of the coordinate of a test weight of an oscillator in the steady nonequilibrium state, it was demonstrated that the standard
quantum limit (SQL) can be overcome.
DOI: 10.3103/S0747923907010057

INTRODUCTION

BASIC MODEL OF A DISPLACEMENT METER

The known solutions of the estimation of the effect

of thermodynamic fluctuations on the function of various physical systems are based on a fluctuationdissipative theorem [Johnson, 1927, 1928; Nyquist, 1928;
Callen, Welton, 1951]. Generally, the theorem was formulated for systems with a slight deviation from basic
equilibrium when a change of the system energy under
the influence of perturbing factors was comparable to
the internal energy of the system at basic equilibrium,
whose rigorous definition was idealized but never realized. During large deviations from equilibrium, the
fluctuationdissipative theorem should be used with
consideration for the energy state of the system concerned. Thereby, in the case of a high-nonequilibrium
steady state of the system, it is possible to obtain
expressions for parameter fluctuations on the basis of
the theorem [Vorontsov, 1989; Chetaev, 2002].

The efficiency of the method of force cooling of

mechanical oscillators during slight-displacement measurements was experimentally evaluated with some
models of slight-displacement meters, which differed
in the degree of electronic-system perfection, the temperature stabilization level, and the electromagneticscreening quality.
The slight-displacement meters (hereinafter
referred to simply as meters) were constructed on the
basis of a 1D low-Q-factor mechanical oscillator with a
horizontal pendulum suspension of test weight M, this
oscillator being run under nonequilibrium steady operating conditions [Klimontovich, 1982; Keizer, 1990].
Figure 1 schematizes the meter.
Platform 1 holds a pendulum suspension with horizontal arm 2, springing element 3, and test weight 4,
which is between plates 5 and 6 of a capacitive displacement pickup. At the mean distance 5 104 m

With the use of the high-nonequilibrium steady

operating procedure of mechanical oscillators, which
has been named force cooling, it is possible to solve
the problem of reducing thermal fluctuations without
the application of thermodynamic cooling and in the
absence of the effect on the dynamic parameters. Such
an approach is of interest for various areas of experimental physics, for example, the construction of slightdisplacement meters, atomic-force microscopes, and
gravitational antennas.

T = 300 K
1
2

7
3
FH

5
8

10

11

12

6
13

This paper presents the results of using the method

of force cooling to calculate and experimentally analyze the fluctuation parameters of slight-displacement
meters based on low-Q-factor mechanical oscillators.

15

14

Fig. 1. Schematic of a basic variant of a displacement meter:

(1) platform, (2) level, (3) springing element, (4) test
weight, (5, 6) plates of a capacitive displacement pickup, (7,
9) meter generators, (8) driving generator, (10) mixer,
(11) amplitude comparator, (12) frequency detector,
(13) amplifier, (14) magnet screen and thermostat, and
(15) mechanical system for the control of height position H.

As far as is known, such a method and its application in experimental physics have not been discussed in
the literature.
34

SLIGHT-DISPLACEMENT METERS BASED ON MECHANICAL OSCILLATORS

between the test weight and the condenser disks of the

pickup, the mean capacity is C0 1011 F. The displacement pickup is a part of signal generators 7 and 9 with
the mean frequency f0 4 107 Hz.
The changes of the frequency difference = 1
2 of generators 7 and 9, which are proportional to the
deviation x of test weight 4 from equilibrium, are
formed by mixer 10; stabilized in amplitude by the use
of amplitude comparator 11; transformed by frequency
detector 12 into a direct-current signal voltage; and,
through amplifier 13, fed to a recorder and to a feedback circuit. The changes of a meters signal, which are
induced by the displacement of the test weight under
the influence of an input, were recorded with an Agilent
34401A electronic voltmeter.
All the elements are housed in magnetically shielded,
temperature-controlled case 14 at T = 300 K. The design
of the meter case allows slight displacements in the vertical plane accurate to within H 107 m to be created
by mechanical system 15 in order to facilitate calibration. The temperature-maintenance error over a metering time of ~10 min was T 102 K.
In the course of the experiment during continuous
observation of the coordinate of the center of the test
weight of the mechanical oscillator, we measured the
rms deviation of the coordinate from the stationary
value obtained during the calibration. The calibration
actions were produced by a change effected in the projection of gravity F(g) = M[g0 g(H)] = Mg(H) onto
the normal to the mechanical oscillators pendulum
plane by means of the displacement of the oscillators
case in the vertical plane to setting value H in Earths
gravitational field with a acceleration gradient measured.
The change of the vertical position of the mechanical oscillator causes the following change of the projection of gravity:
F ( g ) = g 0 MR/R 0 = g 0 MH/R 0 ,

(1)

where 2g0/R0 = dg/dH 3 106 s1 is the normal value

of the vertical acceleration of Earths gravity in the
location of the device and R0 6.38 106 m is Earths
radius.
The action of force F(g) causes the following deviation of the test weight coordinate from the equilibrium
position:
x ( g ) = F ( g )/ 0 M.
2

(2)

As a result, there is a change in the reactive parameters

of the displacement pickup involved in signal generators 7 and 9 and a change in their frequency difference.
The displacement resolution of the meters was estimated according to the minimum recorded value of
input at a preset signal-to-noise ratio of 2 at the output,
this value being subsequently converted into the level
of the meter noise with allowance for the structure of
the measuring system. All measurements were made on
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35

massive foundations protected weakly from microseismic waves. Four different meters were investigated on
various foundations with different levels of seismic
noise and under different climatic conditions.
EVALUATION OF A METERS
ELECTRONIC-SYSTEM RESOLUTION
Let us estimate the resolution of slight-displacement
meters with mechanical oscillators in the high-nonequilibrium state according to the measured values of signal
levels in their electronic system.
Signal voltage Vs at a frequency detector output is
changed proportionally to the frequency difference
= 1 2 of signal generators, which is caused by
test-weight displacement x under the influence of
force F(g):
V s x F = 1 2 .

(3)

The minimum value s recorded can be determined through signal-to-noise ratio out = (Vs/n)out and
in = (Vs/n)in of the rms voltages at the frequency
detectors output and input, respectively, if a value of
the frequency modulation index = /
[Kharkevich, 1962] is known:
out / in 1.7 = 1.7/ s ,

(4)

where s 2/s is the value of the modulation frequency (s 20 s is the calibration-action time).
From expression (4) we determine , at which
there is out 2, as is the convention in our experiments:
2 s /1.7 in .

(5)

The relative change / of frequencies of generators 7 and 9 is connected with relative change x/ of
the coordinate of the test weight of the mechanical
oscillator during calibration. In this case,
x /.

(6)

Let us estimate a meters resolution by way of the

example of meter no. 4, whose fluctuation parameters
are listed in the table. The parameters of meter no. 4 are
as follows: a test weight of M = 45 103 kg, a Q factor
of the mechanical oscillator of Q 2, natural frequency
0 2 2 s1, an eigenfrequency of signal generators
of 2 4 107 s1, an average gap in the displacement pickup of 5 104 m, a calibration-signal time
of s 20 s, a signal magnitude at the frequency detector input of Vsin = 4 V, and an rms voltage of the inherent
noisethis voltage being measured at the frequency
detector inputof (n)in 3 105 V Hz1/2.
In accordance with expression (5), for the abovementioned parameters, we determine in a noise range
of 0.5 Hz the minimum recorded value , which is
defined by the time constant of the Agilent 34401A
voltmeter:

36

CHETAEV et al.

s 2 ( 5 10 )/1.7 ( 4 3 10 )
2

2 4.4 10

(7)

s .

The value from expression (7) corresponds to the

meters electronic-system resolution in terms of the
2
coordinate change x e 1/2 according to expression (6):
2 1/2

x e

s /

5 10 2 4.4 10 /2 4 10
4

5.5 10

18

(8)

m.

This result corresponds to the energy resolution of

the meters electronic system:
e = 0 M x e /2 1.1 10
2

34

J.

2 1/2

k B TQ/F 0 1.38 10

300 2/0.44 1.9 10

20

23

m Hz

1/2

(10)
,

where F0 0.44 N is the steady force acting on the

mechanical oscillator in the nonequilibrium state, kB is
the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature of the
mechanical oscillator, and Q is the Q factor of the suspension of the test weight M.
The value from expression (10) corresponds to the
energy of fluctuations of the coordinate of the test
weight of the mechanical oscillator:
N =

2
2
0 M x N /2

= 1.2 10

39

J/Hz.

(11)

The intercomparison of expressions (9) and (11)

shows that the energy of thermal fluctuations of the
coordinate of the trial weight of the electronic system,
in this case, determines the meters resolution as a
whole and greatly exceeds the energy of fluctuations of
the coordinate of the test weight of the mechanical
oscillator under force cooling. It is of interest to estimate the basic (Brownian) noise of the mechanical
oscillator in the fundamental equilibrium state. By the
fluctuationdissipative theorem, the rms fluctuations of
the coordinate of the center of the test weight of the
mechanical oscillator are
x = ( k B T / 0 M )
2

( 1.38 10

23

3 1 2

T fe e /k B 1.1 10
8 10

(12)
m.

11

This value should correspond to the energy resolution

of the mechanical oscillator:

)/2 2.1 10

21

(13)
J.

34

12

/1.38 10

23

(14)

K.

Thus, according to expression (11), the fluctuation

temperature of the mechanical oscillator in the nonequilibrium state is
T fN = N /k B 8.7 10

17

K/Hz.

(15)

ESTIMATION OF A METERS
(ELECTRONIC-SYSTEM
AND MECHANICAL-OSCILLATOR)
RESOLUTION IN THE EXPERIMENT
The experimental estimation of a meters resolution
determined on the basis of the example of the calibration according to a change of a meters case height by
H = 7.5 107 m in the Earths gravitational field has
the following results.
According to Eq. (1), the change of the force acting
on the test weight is
F = MHdg/d H 45 10
7.5 10 3 10 1 10
7

13

(16)
N.

As is seen from Fig. 2a, the change of the meters

output signal voltage corresponding to this action is
~1.5 103 V. According to expression (4), this value
results in the following estimate of the resolution
according to the change of the force:
F exp
2

= 1 10

13

1/2

= F ( H ) [ ( n /V ( H ) ]
3 2

[ 3 10 /1.5 10 ] 2 10
5

(17)
15

N.

Hence, it follows that, in this case, the experimental

coordinate resolution under an internal force is
x exp
2

2.410

11

Expressions (12) and (13) clearly show that thermal

fluctuations of the mechanical oscillator during its
operation in the fundamental equilibrium state at 300 K
fully determine the meters resolution at a significantly
higher energy level of expression (13) than those of
expression (11) or even (9).
With allowance for expression (9) and in view of
N
0, the fluctuation temperature of the meter
with the mechanical oscillator in the nonequilibrium
state is

1/2

300/160 45 10 )

160 45 10 (2.4 10

(9)

ESTIMATION
OF MECHANICAL-OSCILLATOR RESOLUTION
The thermal fluctuation of the coordinate of the test
weight of the mechanical oscillator in the nonequilibrium state, which we estimated previously [Chetaev,
2002], is
x N

0 = 0 M x /2

= 2 10

15

1/2

= F exp
2

1/2

/ 0 M

/4 4 45 10 2.8 10
2

16

(18)
m,

which is worse than that obtained via expression (8),

because of seismic noises during measurements and
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SLIGHT-DISPLACEMENT METERS BASED ON MECHANICAL OSCILLATORS

37

Estimates of fluctuation parameters in equilibrium and nonequilibrium states of mechanical oscillator no. 4 and slight-displacement meters based on it
Parameter

1
6.5
2 3.5
~10
0.5

103

Test weight M, kg
Eigenfrequency; s1
Q factor
Steady-state force F0 , N
T = 300 K

3
2 8.5
20
1

22
2 8
2
0.6

102

45 103
2 2
~2
0.44

103

I. Equilibrium state
Mechanical oscillator (calculation)
Standard thermodynamic limit (STL)
1.1 1011
6.7 1012
8.6 1012
2.1 1021
1.9 1021
2 1021
Standard quantum limit (SQL)

Brownian noise x21/2, m

Energy resolution (STL), J

8.4 1018

Brownian noise x q 1/2, m

7.9 1018

9.5 1018

2.4 1011
2.1 1021
1.3 1017

Energy resolution q (SQL), J

Fluctuation temperature Tfq q (SQL)/kB , K

1.1 1033
5.3 1033
5.4 1033
2.5 1033
8 1011
3.8 1010
3.8 1010
1.8 1010
II. High nonequilibrium state
Thermodynamic limit (NTL) of the nonequilibrium state of the mechanical oscillator (calculation)
2.6 1021

8.3 1020

1.4 1020

1.9 1020

1.1 1040
3 1037
18
8 10
2.2 1014
Meter electronic system (experiment)

5.4 1039
3.9 1016

1.3 1039
9.4 1017

3.2 1015

2.7 1016

8.8 1019

5.7 1033
4.4 1028
4.1 1010
3.2 105
Meter resolution* (experiment)

2 1030
1.56 107

2.8 1036
2 1013

Coordinate resolution x N 1/2, m

Energy resolution N , J
Fluctuation temperature TfN , K

1.9 1017

Coordinate resolution x e 1/2, m

Energy resolution e, J
Fluctuation temperature Tfe , K
Coordinate resolution x N exp 1/2, m

6.2 1015

4.1 1014

6.5 1015

2.8 1016

Energy resolution Nexp , J

Fluctuation temperature TfNexp, K
Averaging time , s
Platform height change during calibration, H, m

6 1028
4.3 105
10
5 103

7.2 1026
5.2 103
10
4.7 105

1.2 1027
8.7 105
2
1.2 105

2.8 1031
2 108
2
7.5 107

* Without seismic insulation.

insufficient temperature stability of the mechanical

oscillator and the displacement pickup.
According to expression (18), the experimental
energy resolution of the meter as a whole (the mechanical oscillator and the electronic system) is
exp = x exp 0 M/2 = ( 2.8 10
2

4 45 10 /2 2.8 10
3

31

16 2

) 4

(19)

J.

On the basis of the presented results of recording the

indicated action response of the meter, it is possible to
estimate the conversion conductance
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V s 0
V out
11
- 10 V/m.
------------ = -----------------------g ( H )
x s
H ---------------H
2

(20)

According to expression (19), the experimental fluctuation temperature of the meter is

T f exp = exp / k B 2 10

K.

(21)

For the mechanical oscillator in the quantum-coherent state, the fluctuation temperature corresponding to
the standard quantum limit (SQL) [Braginskii, 1970,
1988],

38

CHETAEV et al.
V(H), V

H = 0.75E6 m, t = 2 s

0.504 (a)
0.500
0.496

0.404

H = 1.5E6 m, t = 2 s

0.184

(b)

H = 3E6 m, t = 2 s

(c)

0.396

0.168

0.388

0.152

0.136
0.492
0.380
132465 132495 132525 132555
131320 131400 131480 131560
0 100 200 300 400 500
t, s
6.47
t=2s
t=2s
(d)
(e)
6.360
H = 24E6 m
H = 3E6 m

6.352

6.45

H = 6E6 m

6.344

H = 12E6 m

6.43

6.336
6.41

6.328
6.320
44320 44400 44480 44560
t, s

6.39
44920 45000 45080 45160
t, s

Fig. 2. Fragments from a record of a calibration-action response of a meter containing mechanical oscillator no. 4.

T fq h 0 /k B 10

34

9 10

2 2/1.38 10

11

K Hz

23

(22)

(h is Plancks constant) is found to be higher than the

fluctuation temperature of the mechanical oscillator in
the high-nonequilibrium state, i.e., as is evident from
comparison of expressions (22) and (15): Tfq > TfN.
Thus, in our case of using the nonequilibrium operating
conditions (force cooling) of the mechanical oscillator,
we were able to overcome the SQL during continuous
observation of the coordinate of the test weights center.
Figure 2 demonstrates fragments of a calibrationaction response of the meter with mechanical oscillator
no. 4 by its vertical displacement in the Earths gravitational field. Output voltage Vout (V) of the meter is
shown along the ordinate axis; the current measuring
time (s), along the abscissa axis.
All measurements were performed at an output-signal averaging time of t 2s. The position of the meters
case and the mechanical oscillator changed after each
measurement, respectively, by H = 0.75, 1.5, 3.0, 6.0,
12, and 24 m (see Figs. 2a2e). The recording time of
output signal Vout was ~20 s; after that, the meter
reverts to the starting position for ~20 s. This procedure
was repeated more than once. The maximum output
voltage of the meter is Vout max 7.5 V. This value
restricts Hmax by a value of ~24 at a displacement
negative feedback factor of kf 10.

In the table, estimates are given for the fluctuation

parameters of four mechanical oscillators of electronic
meter systems and for slight-displacement meters
designed on their basis, which differ insignificantly in
terms of their design philosophies. The first variant featured passive stabilization of temperature; the others
feature active stabilization of temperature to within
T 0.1 K.
As is evident from the table and current estimates for
the mechanical oscillators, in all four variants, the condition of overcoming the SQL is met; i.e., N < q. Here,
the meters with mechanical oscillators no. 2 and 3
exhibit the greatest fluctuations among those presented,
a result that is due to the choice of parameters, the measuring conditions, and an insufficient protectability of
the meters' foundations. Owing to this circumstance,
the fluctuation estimates, which were determined during measurements of internal forces, should be considered as an upper boundary.
From the results of the investigation, it can be concluded that the achievement of a high resolution of a
meter under real conditions is restricted by the seismic
noise and the electronic-system noise. The latter
appears as a frequency instability of a meters generators, which in turn depends on the temperature stability
of the thermostat and determines a meters resolution as
a whole.
In terms structural variations, the slight-displacement
meter with mechanical oscillator no. 4 substantially
reproduces our previous models [Chetaev et al., 2002].
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SLIGHT-DISPLACEMENT METERS BASED ON MECHANICAL OSCILLATORS

The first models used rare-earth-metal permanent magnets as springing elements. As the authors found later, a
similar solution was used by Bell Aerospace in the development of accelerometers on a rotatable platform [Chan
et al., 1985]. Because of the discovered magnetic-field
jump variations that are associated with both magneticflux quantization and the effect of the uncontrolled factors on this process, the authors discarded such a solution
and turned to the use of stringing elements based on
mechanical springs.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of investigation have corroborated the
high efficiency of using the strongly nonequilibrium
operating conditions (force-cooling method) of
mechanical oscillators, thus allowing us to recommend
it for physical measurements with quantum resolution,
even without the use of low temperatures, in particular,
during construction of gravitational antennas of a new
generation with high resolution. The method can be
used to improve the parameters of atomic-force microscopes, accelerometers, gravimeters, magnetizability
meters, and other physical devices as well as in all cases
of application of mechanical oscillators when it is necessary to provide high resolution and stability. The simplicity and compatibility with other methods are important advantages of the force cooling method.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank L. Kmech and S. Tsvik for the support and
A. Kulak for collaboration.

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