2.1 Elements, compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview
o Matter can be classified into three types based on its composition Elements Compounds Mixtures o Substance matter whose composition is fixed o Element the simplest type of matter with unique physical and chemical properties, only consists of one kind of atom Macroscopic Qualities Color, density, and combustibility o Molecule an independent structure of two or more atoms bound together o Compound consists of two or more different elements that are bonded chemically Many consist of molecules The elements are present in fixed parts by mass Each unit of the compound consists of a fixed number of atoms of each element A compounds properties are different from the properties of its component elements Can be broken down into simpler molecules o Mixture consists of two or more substances that are physically intermingled Not a substance The components of a mixture can vary in their parts by mass A mixture retains many of the properties of its components Physical changes can separate mixtures 2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter o Law of mass conservation the total mass of substances does not change during a chemical reaction The number of substances may change and, by definition, their properties must, but the total amount of matter remains sonstant Matter cannot be created or destroyed o Law of definite composition no matter what its source, a particular compound is composed of the same elements in the same parts by mass o Fraction by Mass the part of the compounds mass of each element by the mass of the compound o Percent by mass the fraction by mass expressed as a percentage o Mass fraction is fixed no matter what size of the sample o Law of Multiple proportions if elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers 2.3 Daltons Atomic Theory
John Dalton created postulates of the atomic theory
All matters consist of atoms, tiny individual particles of an element that cannot be created or destroyed Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another element. In chemical reactions, the atoms of the original substances recombine to form different substances Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties and are different from atoms of any other element Compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific ratio of atoms of different elements 2.4 Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model o Discovery of the Electron and its Properties For many years, scientists knew that matter and electric charge were related Didnt know what that current was made of Some investigators tried passing current through nearly evacuated flass tubes fitted with metal electrodes When turned on, a ray could be seen at the phosphor coated end of the tube Called cathode rays o Mass/Charge of the Electron Mass JJ Thompson measured the ratio of the mass of a cathode ay particle to its charge Estimated that the ray particle weighed less than 1/1000 as much as hydrogen o Implied there were even smaller particles than atoms, contrary to Daltons atomic theory Charge Robert Millikan measured the charge of an electron o Observed the movement of oil droplets in an apparatus that contained electrically charged plates and an x-ray source o Electrons from gas molecules were knocked off and suck to oil droplets o Measured the mass of the droplet from its rate of fall, and used the fields strength to make the droplet hand suspended in the air o Found that the total charge of the varius droplets was always some whole-number multiple of a minimum charge o Reasoned that this minimum charge was the charge of an electron o -1.602X10-19 Coulombs Calculating Mass o
The electrons mass/charge ratio and the value of the
charge was used to find mass o -5.686X10-12 kg/C X 1.602X10-19 = 9.109X10-28 g o Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus Thomson propose a plum pudding model A spherical atom composed of diffuse, positively charged matter with electrons embedded like raisins in a plum pudding Rutherford tested a new model Gold foil experiment Alpha particles emitted from radium are aimed at a gold foil, and a zinc sulfide screen registers the deflection by emitting light flashes when particles strike it Flashed occurred backwards Concluded that alpha particles were propelled by something small, dense, and positive o Showed an atom is mostly space occupied by electrons o The center is a tiny region called the nucleus Proposed that positive particles lay within the nucleus and called them protons Chadwick then discovered the neutron 2.5 The Atomic Theory Today o Structure of the Atom An electrically neutral, spherical entity composed of positively charged central nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons Atoms are 20,000 times the diameter of the its nucleus, but 99.97% of the atoms mass is the nucleus o Atomic Number, Mass number, and Atomic Symbol Atomic Number (Z) - equals the number of protons in the nucleus All atoms of an element have the same atomic number, and the atomic number of each element is different from that of any other element Mass number (A) the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom Each proton and neutron contribute to the mass number Atomic Symbol representation of an element based on English, Latin, or Greek name Atomic number is written as a left subscript Mass number is written as a left superscript Neutrons = mass number atomic number o Isotopes All atoms of an elemnt have the same atomic number but not the same mass number
Isotopes - atoms that have different numbers of neutrons and
therefore different mass numbers Chemical properties of an element are primarily determined by the number of electrons, so isotopes of an element have nearly identical chemical behaviors o Atomic Masses of the Elements, Mass Spectrometry Mass of an atom is measured relative to the mass of an atomic standard The modern standard is the carbon-12 atom, who is exactly 12 atomic mass units AMU 1/12 the mass of carbon-12 Absolute mass of 1.66054X10-24 g The isotopic makeup of an element is determined by mass spectrometry Atoms of a sample are bombarded by a high energy electron beam One electron is knocked off, and the resulting particle has a +1 charge o Its mass/charge ratio equals the mass of the elements atom divided by 1+ Mass to charge are measured to identify the masses of different isotopes of the element 2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table o Organizations of the Periodic Table Each element has a box that contains its atomic number The boxes are arranged into grid of periods and groups Period (horizontal row) has a number from 1 to 7 Group (vertical column) number from 1-8 and either the letter A or B The eight A groups contain the main-group elements The ten B groups, located between contain the transition elements o Classifying the Elements One of the clearest ways to classify the elements is through metals, nonmetals, and metalloids The metals lie in the large lower-left portion of the table o of the elements are metals Shiny solids at room temperature that conduct heat and electricity well, malleable and ductile Nonmetals lie in the small upper-right portion of the table o Gaseous or dull, brittle solids, conduct heat and electricity poorly Metalloids have properties between nonmetals and metals o Group (family) names 1A Alkali metals
2A Alkaline eart metals
7A halogens 8A noble gases 2.7 Naming compounds o Ionic compounds bonds formed from the transfer of electrons o Covalent compounds bonds formed from the sharing of electrons o The formation of Ionic Compounds Typically forms when a nonmetal reacts with a metal