Eulers Formula (Class Notes from Feb.

11, 2013)
Yoichiro Mori
February 13, 2013
Recall the Taylors formula for the exponential, sine and cosine functions:
xn
x2
+ +
+
2!
n!
x5
+

5!
x4
+

4!

exp(x) = 1 + x +
x3
3!
x2
cos(x) = 1
2!
sin(x) = x

The above formulas are valid for all real numbers, as you have most probably
learned in calculus II.
The above equations are the Taylor series of familiar functions exp(x),
sin(x) and cos(x). But once established, it is also possible to see the above
expressions as definitions of these functions. The advantage of this is that
the infinite series makes sense not only for real numbers but also for complex
numbers (and, as we shall see later on, also for matrices).
Substitute x = it(where i is the imaginary unit and t is a real number)
in the above Taylor expansion. We find:
(it)2
(it)3
+
+
2
3!
t2 t4
= 1 + + i t
2! 4!
= cos(t) + i sin(t).

exp(it) = 1 + it +

(it)4 (it)5
+

4!
5! 
t3 t5
+ +
3! 5!

(1)

We thus have Eulers formula:

exp(it) = cos(t) + i sin(t).

(2)

In general, if we have exp(a + ib) where a and b are real numbers, we have:
exp(a)(cos(b) + i sin(b)).
1

(3)

Some useful expressions:

sin(t) =

exp(it) exp(it)
exp(it) + exp(it)
, cos(t) =
.
2i
2

(4)

For a complex number = a + ib, a, b R, define

Re = a, Im = b.

(5)

Using these expressions, we have:

Re exp(it) = cos(t), Im exp(it) = sin(t).

(6)

Let us investigate the action of differentiation on exp(it). If we differentiate this equation with respect to t, once, and then twice, we have:
d2
d
exp(it) = i exp(it), 2 exp(it) = i2 exp(it) = exp(it).
dt
dt

(7)

Looking at the second derivative and using Eulers formula, we have:

d2
(cos(t) + i sin(t)) = (cos(t) + i sin(t)) .
dt2

(8)

This is nothing other than the statement that both the sine and cosine
function acquire a negative sign upon differentiating twice. Through Eulers
formula, this fact is linked to the algebraic relation i2 = 1. Dont you
think this is a beautiful observation! This observation is not just beautiful.
In fact, it will be foundational in our discussion of finding solution to second
order, higher order, and systems of linear differential equations.
One reason why Eulers formula is very useful is that the algebra and
calculus of exponential functions is simpler than trigonometric functions.
For trigonometric functions, the addition formula (that is cos(a+b) = ) is
quite complicated involving sines and cosines, whereas the addition formula
for exponential functions , exp(a + b) = exp(a) exp(b), is exceedingly simple.
For exponential functions, differentiation and integration is the same as
multiplication by a constant, whereas, for trigonometric functions, there is
the additional complication of sine changing to cosine and vice versa. Let us
look at examples of this. You may recall the following triple angle formula
from trigonometry:
cos(3) = 4 cos3 () 3 cos().

MATH 2574H

(9)

Yoichiro Mori

Let us verify this formula using Eulers formula. Let us compute cos3 ().


exp(i) + exp(i) 3
3
cos () =
2
1
= (exp(3i) + 3 exp(i) + 3 exp(i) + exp(3i))
8


 (10)
1 exp(3i) + exp(3i)
3 exp(i) + exp(i)
=
+
4
2
4
2
3
1
= cos(3) + cos().
4
4
This is nothing other than the triple angle formula. To derive this, all
we have used is some very basic algebra. In fact, some of you will have
recognized that this method of deriving the triple angle formula generalizes
to deriving the n-angle formula for any integer n.
Here is another example. Consider the integral:
Z
exp(ax) cos(bx)dx, a 6= 0, b 6= 0.
(11)
To refresh our memory, let us find the above indefinite integral in the usual
way, using integration by parts:
Z
Z
b
1
exp(ax) sin(bx)dx
exp(ax) cos(bx)dx = exp(ax) cos(bx) +
a
a
(12)
Z 2
1
b
b
= exp(ax) cos(bx) + 2 exp(ax) sin(bx)
exp(ax) cos(bx)dx.
a
a
a2
From this, we see that:
Z
exp(ax) cos(bx)dx =

b
a
exp(ax) cos(bx)+ 2
exp(ax) sin(bx)+C,
2
+b
a + b2
(13)
where C is the constant of integration. Let us now use Eulers formula to
find the indefinite integral.
Z
Z
exp(ax) cos(bx)dx = Re (exp((a + ib)x)) dx


Z
(14)
1
=Re exp((a + ib)x)dx = Re
exp((a + ib)x) + C
a + ib
a2

The rest is just a bit of algebra to see that the last expression indeed gives
(13). No integration by parts, and we get the answer directly.
MATH 2574H

Yoichiro Mori

Homework Problems (Due Feb. 19, 2013)

1. Compute the following.

exp(2i), exp(i/2), exp(i),

2 exp(i/4), 2 exp(i/6).

2. Write the following complex numbers in the form r exp(i) where r

and are real numbers.

i, 1 + 3i, 1 + i, 1 + i, 3 + 4i.
3. Derive the triple angle formula for the sine function imitating the
derivation of the triple angle formula for the cosine in (9).
4. Consider the integral:
Z 2
cos(mx) cos(nx)dx, where m, n Z

(15)

(a) Write cos(mx) and cos(nx) in terms of complex exponentials, and

compute cos(mx) cos(nx).
(b) Show that, for integer ,
Z

2
0

(
2
exp(ix)dx =
0

if = 0,
otherwise.

(c) Using the above, compute (15).

5. Consider the sum:

n
X

cos(k).

(16)

k=1

(a) Show that the above sum is equal to:

Re

n
X

exp(ik).

(17)

k=1

(b) Using the above, compute (16). (Hint: Note exp(ik) = (exp(i))k .
Use summation formula for geometric series).

MATH 2574H

Yoichiro Mori