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ENG 6- Research Writing

(Engineering Research)
Topics:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.

Research
A Review of the Basic Concepts of Grammar Discourse
Paragraphs
Forms of Discourse
Identifying Research Problems
Theoretical & Conceptual Frameworks
Respondents & Sampling Techniques
Common Statistical Treatments Used
Writing the Research Report
Writing Exercises
Outline Defense

Texts:
1. Research and Technical Writing
by Portillo, R, et. al.
2. Technical Writing for Filipino Students
by Alcantara and Espina
Chapter 1- Research
Research is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing information
(data) for specific purpose and the research methods (or methodology) are the ways one
collects and analyses data.
means searching for a theory, for testing theory, or for solving a
problem.
- A systematic quest for undiscovered truth. (Leedy, 1974)
- A continuing process
Social Research is about measuring, describing, explaining and predicting social and
economic phenomena.
- is the branch of sociology that carries out research.
Educational Research is disciplined inquiry in which different disciplines, including
education, provide principles of research by which to collect and reason from data.
- is the formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of
educational problems.
- is a research in which investigates the behavior of pupils, students, teachers, and
other participants in schools and other educational institutions. Behavior is often
investigated by examining work products such as documents and standardized test
results.

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Purposes of research
1. To improve quality of life
2. To solve problems
Characteristics of research
1. Research is logical and objective.
2. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation.
3. Research gathers new knowledge and data from primary and secondary
data/sources.
4. Research endeavors to organize data in quantitative (measurable) terms if
possible and to express these data in numerical measures.
5. Researchers require courage.
6. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
Types of research
A. Based on Inquiry
1. Rationalistic Inquiries
2. Naturalistic Inquiries
B. Based on Purpose
1. Basic Research
2. Applied Research
3. Developmental Research
C. Based on Method
1. Historical Research
2. Descriptive Research
2.1 Qualitative Research
2.2 Quantitative Research
3. Correlational Research
4. Ex Post Facto Research (causal comparative)
5. Evaluation Research
6. Experimental Research
Some sources of research problems
1. experiences
2. research issues
3. area of specialization
4. books and other reading materials
Characteristics of a good research problem
1. The problem is "researchable" - it is a problem that can be investigated
through the collection and analysis of data.
2. The problem has theoretical or practical significance.
3. It is a good problem for you.
Components of a well stated research problem
A well stated research problem should include each of the following components:

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1. The variables of interest to the researcher.
2. The specific relationship between the variables.
3. The type of subjects involved.
Note:
At some point we will need to have an operational definition of each of our
variables but we can ignore that component of a research problem until lesson on
formulation and statement of a research hypothesis.
Models for stating research problems
The following are the four models stating research problems:
1. [variable], [variable], and [variable] among [type of subjects] - descriptive
research.
2. The relationship between [variable] and [variable] among [type of subjects]
correlational research.
3. The effect of [independent variable not under experimenter's control] on
[dependent variable] for [type of subjects] - quasi-comparative research.
4. The effect of [independent variable under experimenter's control] on
[dependent variable] for [type of subjects] - experimental research.
Measuring Instruments are devices used to quantify and record information that is
important to a research study.
Data collection tools
1. Interviews
2. Questionnaires
3. Observations
4. Unobstrusive Method
Unobtrusive measures are measures that do not require the researcher to intrude in the research
context. Direct and participant observations require that the researcher be physically present. This can lead
the respondents to alter their behavior in order to look good in the eyes of the researcher. A questionnaire is
an interruption in the natural stream of behavior. Respondents can get tired of filling out a survey or
resentful of the questions asked.
Unobtrusive measurement presumably reduces the biases that result from the intrusion of the
researcher or measurement instrument. However, unobtrusive measures reduce the degree the researcher
has control over the type of data collected. For some constructs there may simply not be any available
unobtrusive measures.

Types of measuring instruments


1. Standard instruments
2. Researcher developed instruments
Research instruments must be
1. Reliable
2. Valid

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Reliability refers to the instruments accuracy or precision.
Accuracy - the degree of conformity of a measured or calculated value to its actual or
specified value.
Precision - the ability of a measurement to be consistently reproduced. It characterises
the degree of mutual agreement or repeatability among a series of individual
measurements, values, or results.
Validity refers to the degree in which a particular instrument is useful in measuring that
it is designed to measure.
Chapter 2 A Review of the Basic Concepts of Grammar Discourse
Well-created sentences express ideas clearly.
To be effective, writers must express their ideas accurately and clearly.
A good writer achieves unity, clarity, effectiveness and appropriateness

in writing.

Sentence is a word or a group of words expressing a complete thought.


A sentence has
1. Subject person or thing spoken of in the sentence.
2. Predicate tells something about the subject.
It begins with a capital letter and ends with a punctuation mark. a period, a
question mark or an exclamation point.
Two common errors in writing sentences:
1. Sentence fragments
A group of words that does not make sense at all.
Ex. Population rapidly increasing. (error)
Population is increasing rapidly. (correct)
Population increases rapidly. (correct)
2. Run-on sentences
Also called fused sentences.
Consist of 2 or more grammatically correct sentences written as if they were
one sentence.
Ex. Every season of rain raises threat of disastrous flooding watersheds
without trees cause rivers to dry up and fertile fields to turn hollow. (error)
Every season of rain raises the threat of disastrous flooding. Watersheds
without trees cause rivers to dry up and fertile fields to turn hollow. (correct)
Several ways to correct run-on sentences
1. Separate the run-on sentence into two or more sentences.

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2. Join the independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction such
as and, but, for, nor and yet.
3. Join the independent clauses with a semi-colon.
4. Use conjunctive adverbs such as moreover, consequently, therefore or
furthermore.
An effective sentence must have
1. unity
2. parallelism
3. consistency in tense
4. pronoun reference
Unity means oneness or singleness of purpose.
Parallelism means like construction for like ideas.
- Precise meaning is conveyed.
Consistency in Tense refers to using the same tense of verbs throughout the sentence.
Pronoun Reference appropriate pronouns should be used in place of nouns.
Modifiers
Three types of modifiers which contribute to the ineffectiveness of sentences
1. Misplaced modifier which is not placed closed enough to the word or to the
phrase it modifies.
2. Squinting modifier between 2 words both of which it could modify.
3. Dangling modifier not related to any of the words in the sentence.
Chapter 3 Paragraphs
Paragraphs
It aids in communicating ideas.
It exhibits definite physical characteristics which are vital to form.
Form and content make a paragraph.
Form is merely the means while content is the end.
The sentences in a paragraph must altogether satisfy the following considerations:
1. Unity every sentence in a paragraph should contribute to the development of
central thought.
2. Emphasis it shows what is important and what is subordinate among several
points supporting the topic sentence.
3. Order the quality that gives the paragraph a specific direction.
Chronology of time
Spatial order

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4. Coherence ideas are expressed in a clear, logical manner.
To stick together
Topic sentence is the controlling idea.
- The heart of the central thought of the paragraph.
Classification of paragraphs
* Based on purpose or treatment
1. Descriptive paragraph
- gives the readers description of the nature of the object, person, idea or
place under discussion.
2. Expository paragraph
- sets forth information and explanation on the subject using facts, opinions
and details.
3. Narrative paragraph
- tells a story or gives the sequences of events that happened.
4. Argumentative paragraph
- is intended to convince or to persuade the reader from the writers vantage
point.
* Based on function
1. Introductory paragraph
- the beginning of a composition.
- essential part of a complete work.
- It must be interesting.
2. Transitional paragraph
- to express continuity of thought within the composition.
- to bridge the gap.
* Some transitional paragraphs include: therefore, thus, hence, be that as it
may, but, however, today, last year, etc.
3. Concluding paragraph
- to sum up what has been said.
- to give the last significant details.
- to give a sense of finality.
Chapter 4 Forms of Discourse
Grammar is important in every writing discourse.
This is not only the study of word forms and functions but also the putting
together of words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs to express your thoughts,
feelings, ideas and desires.
Before you begin to write, think of your purpose.
Once you have determined your purpose, make sure that the sentences you will
use will help you accomplish your aim/s.

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As you consider your purpose, you must consider also your audience or readers.
o Specialized audience
o General audience
Four forms of discourse
1. Exposition
2. Description
3. Narration
4. Argumentation
Chapter 5 Identifying Research Problems
The Research Spiral
Identify the
Research Problem
Evaluate Data
and
Write Report

Review the
Literature

Analyze and
Interpret Data

Specify a
Research
Purpose
Collect Data

Identify the Research Problem


Specify a problem
Justify a problem
Suggest a need to study it for audiences

Chapter 6 Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks


Theoretical Frameworks - provide the structure for examining a problem; serves as a
guide to examine relationships between variables.
Theory - an organized and systematic articulation of a set of statements related to
questions in a discipline that are communicated in a meaningful whole. Its
purpose is to describe (set forth what is), explain (account for how it functions),

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predict (under what conditions it occurs), and prescribe (under what conditions it
should occur).
Types of Theories
1. Descriptive theories - describe characteristics of phenomena by describing the
discrete characteristics found. Identifies properties and components and circumstances
under which it occurs. It sorts out meaning and observations. It is not action oriented and
does not produce a situation.
Example: described the caring behaviors in a group of elderly patients
2. Explanatory theories - determine relationships among the dimensions of the
phenomena. Identifies how the properties and components relate to each other.
Example: influence of age, coping behavior, and self care on adolescent diabetic
patients management of their chronic illness
3. Predictive theories - predict relationships between the characteristics of the
phenomena.
Example: effect of a relaxation technique to amount of dyspnea experienced in
patients with COD
4. Prescriptive theories - addresses therapeutics and the consequences of
interventions. It designates the prescription and its components and the conditions under
which the prescription should occur.
Example: there are certain post-operative behaviors with different strategies of
post-operative teaching. The theory would explain what to do pre-operatively to bring
about the desired behavior.
Conceptual framework - is used in research to outline possible courses of action or
present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. The framework is built
from a set of concepts linked to a planned or existing system of methods,
behaviors, functions, relationships and objects. A conceptual framework might, in
computing terms, be thought of as a relational model.
Chapter 7 Respondents and Sampling Techniques
Research Respondents are the people who have responded to the survey questionnaire
or those who were interviewed. If you are conducting an experimental design,
subject is the more appropriate term. In case of qualitative research design, the
use of participant is suggested.
Sampling - is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a
population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our
results back to the population from which they were chosen.
Types of Sampling
There are five types of sampling: Random, Systematic, Convenience, Cluster, and
Stratified.

Random sampling is analogous to putting everyone's name into a hat and drawing
out several names. Each element in the population has an equal chance of
occurring. While this is the preferred way of sampling, it is often difficult to do. It
requires that a complete list of every element in the population be obtained.
Computer generated lists are often used with random sampling.
Systematic sampling is easier to do than random sampling. In systematic
sampling, the list of elements is "counted off". That is, every kth element is taken.
This is similar to lining everyone up and numbering off "1,2,3,4; 1,2,3,4; etc".
When done numbering, all people numbered 4 would be used.
Convenience sampling is very easy to do, but it's probably the worst technique to
use. In convenience sampling, readily available data is used. That is, the first
people the surveyor runs into.
Cluster sampling is accomplished by dividing the population into groups -usually geographically. These groups are called clusters or blocks. The clusters
are randomly selected, and each element in the selected clusters are used.
Stratified sampling also divides the population into groups called strata. However,
this time it is by some characteristic, not geographically. For instance, the
population might be separated into males and females. A sample is taken from
each of these strata using either random, systematic, or convenience sampling.

Chapter 8 Common Statistical Treatments Used


Measurement - is the process observing and recording the observations that are collected
as part of a research effort. There are two major issues that will be considered: (1)
fundamental ideas involved in measuring and (2) types of measures.
Level of measurement - refers to the relationship among the values that are assigned to
the attributes for a variable.
Levels of measurement
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio
Nominal Level
Level of measurement which classifies data into mutually exclusive, all inclusive
categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
Ordinal Level
Level of measurement which classifies data into categories that can be ranked.
Differences between the ranks do not exist.
Interval Level
Level of measurement which classifies data that can be ranked and differences are
meaningful. However, there is no meaningful zero, so ratios are meaningless.

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Ratio Level
Level of measurement which classifies data that can be ranked, differences are
meaningful, and there is a true zero. True ratios exist between the different units
of measure.
Common statistical treatments used in research:
1. frequency counts
2. mean or average
3. median
4. mode
5. percentage
6. t-tests or f-tests
7. correlations or regressions
8. hypothesis testing

Three modes of presenting data:


1. textual mode
2. tabular mode
3. graphic

Chapter 9 Writing the Research Report


Choosing an appropriate topic
is the first, most difficult and most important step in the research process.
Tips for the researcher/s
1. Choose a topic that is close to your interests and experiences.
2. Check availability of materials or resources on your chosen topic.
3. Consider the length of the report and the length of time needed to complete the
report.
A short report demands a short time to prepare. A delimited or specific
topic also requires research time.
4. Find a topic of novelty.
5. Consider the age level, interest and occupation of your expected readers.
The following questions may also be asked to start or set the mind of the researcher
working:
1. What could be the need of time?
2. What field or area am I interested in? Is it a field of interest others could be
interested in?
3. Has the field been explored? Are there research studies already available on this
field of study?
4. Will I be able to handle the area completely?
5. What situations surround this field of study?
6. Who are the personalities who have done something in this particular field?
7. What will the result be useful for?
8. What is the importance of the particular field?
By answering these questions, the researcher can now decide on a good topic.

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Defining and narrowing down a topic


After choosing a topic, the researcher should examine whether the topic is broad
or narrow.
Broad topic entails great deal of time and effort.
Very limited topic leaves the researcher little room for discussion.
Steps in topic definition and delimitation
1. Define major terms or concepts.
Read literatures foreign and local.
Read related studies
Write variables and define terms associated with the topic.
2. Focus on one main idea or event.
3. Read general articles on the topic to become familiar with it.
Encyclopedia articles for background reading
Decide what facts of their subject are the most interesting or most suitable
for research.
4. Ask yourself a series of questions to delimit the topics. The answer to each
question leads to narrowing down the subject.
Bibliography
Bibliography is a list of books, journals, periodicals, electronic materials,
electronic publications and other documents used in the preparation of a research paper.
Reasons for preparing a bibliography:
1. The bibliography provides the researcher a list of materials to survey.
2. It enables the researcher to learn and develop comprehensively various aspects of
a chosen topic.
3. It helps the researcher limit the research topic.
Usefulness of a bibliography:
1. It enables the readers to verify the documentation provided in the research paper.
2. It provides them with a list of further readings on the subject.
3. It enables them to estimate the probable value of the paper on the bases of the
range, up-to-dateness and reliability of the sources used.
How to prepare a bibliography?
o For a book, the following information must be noted:
Author, title, date, publisher and place of publication.
o For an article, the following must be listed down:
Author, title of article, title of journal/periodical, volume number and/or issue
number and page numbers.
o Writing down sources/information saves time.

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o The researcher may go back to the library and use the information to search for
the material.
o Two most common manuals for format and style are:
4. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA
Manual)
5. Manual for Language association (MLA)
o APA style websites:
http://www.lesley.edu/library/guides/citation/apa_basic.html#article
http://www.unsp.edu/acad/psych/apa4.html
http://www.lesley.edu/library/guides/citation/apa_citation_format.doc
Examples:
Books
Skinner, B.F. (1991). Contingencies of reinforcement. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Books edited
Tan, W. K. (Ed.). (1999). Symposium on interdisciplinary research. Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press.
Article in journal with author
Sy, S. I. (1970). Sustainable development. Ecology Journal. 15, 14 16.
Article in journal, no author
Sustainable development. (1995. May 2). Ecology journal. 10, 14 20.
Article in an edited book
Ang, C. Y. (1983). Perception of shade. C.V. Yap & V. C. Uy (Eds.).
Photoperception of plants (pp. 137 197). London: The Royal Society.
Conference paper (published)
Garcia, E. B. (1998). Natures talk. In E. B. Fernandez (Ed.), Proceedings of the
first research forum (pp. 11 -15). Urdaneta City: Camacho Press.
Conference paper (unpublished)
Yap, R. B. (1997, Janaury). The modular organisms. Paper presented at the
PIChE National Convention, Davao City.
Theses & Dissertations (Unpublished Master's Thesis)
Caravaggio, Q. T. (1992). Trance and clay therapy. Unpublished master's thesis,
Lesley University, Cambridge, MA.
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation
Arbor, C.F. (1995). Early intervention strategies for adolescents. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

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Web Page (not from a library database)
Shackelford, W. (2000). The six stages of cultural competence. In Diversity
Central -- Learning. Retrieved April 16, 2000, from
http://www.diversityhotwire.com/learning/cultural_insights.html
Nikesh, M. (2003). Midst of bees and other short stories. Available:
http://home.earthlink.net/ [February 26, 2003]
Understanding plate motions (2002) available:
http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/textdeveloping.html [May 5, 2003]
Web Site Published by an Organization
American Psychological Association. (n.d.) APAStyle.org: Electronic references.
Retrieved August 31, 2001, from http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html
Lesson Plan on the Web
Jaskoski, L. (1999, October 3). Earthquakes web quest. AskERIC Lesson Plan
#AELP-EAR0035. Retrieved May 3, 2000, from
http://www.eduref.org/cgibin/printlessons.cgi/Virtual/Lessons/Science/Ge
ology/GLG0035.html
Government Document on the Web
Massachusetts Department of Education. (2001, June). Massachusetts English
Language Curriculum Framework. Retrieved June 12, 2002, from
http://www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/0601ela.pdf
CD ROM
Haw, T. (1996). Form and functions in architecture, [CD ROM]. Available:
University of Michigan Press.
APA Style Bibliography
http://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/bibliography_style_handbookapa.htm
http://www.apastyle.org/elecmedia.html
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss. New York: Basic Books.
Festinger, L., Riecken, H., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Higgins, J. (Ed.). (1988). Psychology. New York: Norton.
Grice, H. P., & Gregory, R. L. (Eds.). (1968). Early language development.
New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Experimental psychology. (1938). New York: Holt.
Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard
edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3
66). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923).
Wilson, J. G., & Fraser, F. C. (Eds.). (1977-1978). Handbook of teratology (Vols. 1-4).
New York: Plenum Press.
Cousins, M. (1984). Michel Foucault. Theoretical traditions in the social sciences.
New York: St. Martin's Press.
Page, E. (1968). The use of the computer in analyzing student essays.
International Review of Education, 14, 253-263.
Monson, M. (1993, September 16). Urbana firm obstacle to office project. The
Champaign-Urbana News-Gazette, pp. 1,8.
Internet Article/Source:
Yap, R.T. (2003). Ecology for caregivers. Available: http://www.wow.org/mali/
Understanding caregivers (2003) available: http://www.wow.org/mali/ [June 30, 2004]
Uy, T.V. (2003). Review of international studies. Available:
http://www.inter.com.ph/mali/ [June 15, 2004]
CD-ROM:
Haw, T.R. (2003). Form and style, [CD.ROM]. Available: Davao City Library.

Online periodical:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (2000).
Title of article. Title of periodical, xx, xxxxxx.
Retrieved month day, year, from source.
Online document:
Author, A. A. (2000). Title of work.
Retrieved month day, year, from source.
Internet articles based on a print source

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At present, the majority of the articles retrieved from online publications in
psychology and the behavioral sciences are exact duplicates of those in their print
versions and are unlikely to have additional analyses and data attached. This is likely to
change in the future. In the meantime, the same basic primary journal reference (see
Examples 15) can be used, but if you have viewed the article only in its electronic form,
you should add in brackets after the article title "Electronic version" as in the following
fictitious example:
VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in the selection
of resources by psychology undergraduates [Electronic version]. Journal of
Bibliographic Research, 5, 117-123.
If you are referencing an online article that you have reason to believe has been
changed (e.g., the format differs from the print version or page numbers are not indicated)
or that includes additional data or commentaries, you will need to add the date you
retrieved the document and the URL.
VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in the selection
of resources by psychology undergraduates. Journal of Bibliographic Research,
5,
117-123. Retrieved October 13, 2001, from http://jbr.org/articles.html
Article in an Internet-only journal
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and
well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20,
2000, from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html
Article in an Internet-only newsletter
Glueckauf, R. L., Whitton, J., Baxter, J., Kain, J., Vogelgesang, S., Hudson, M., et al.
(1998, July). Videocounseling for families of rural teens with epilepsy -- Project
update. Telehealth News,2(2). Retrieved from
http://www.telehealth.net/subscribe/newslettr4a.html1
Use the complete publication date given on the article.
Note that there are no page numbers.
In an Internet periodical, volume and issue numbers often are not relevant. If they
are not used, the name of the periodical is all that can be provided in the reference.
Whenever possible, the URL should link directly to the article.
Break a URL that goes to another line after a slash or before a period. Do not
insert (or allow your word-processing program to insert) a hyphen at the break.

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Nonperiodical documents on the Internet
Stand-alone document, no author identified, no date
GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/
If the author of a document is not identified, begin the reference with the title of
the document.
Document available on university program or department Web site
Chou, L., McClintock, R., Moretti, F., Nix, D. H. (1993). Technology and education:
New wine in new bottles: Choosing pasts and imagining educational futures.
Retrieved August 24, 2000, from Columbia University, Institute for Learning
Technologies Web site:
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/papers/newwine1.html
If a document is contained within a large and complex Web site (such as that for a
university or a government agency), identify the host organization and the relevant
program or department before giving the URL for the document itself. Precede the URL
with a colon.
Other Electronic Sources
Electronic copy of a journal article, three to five authors, retrieved from database
Borman, W. C., Hanson, M. A., Oppler, S. H., Pulakos, E. D., & White, L. A.
(1993). Role of early supervisory experience in supervisor performance.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 443-449. Retrieved October 23, 2000,
from PsycARTICLES database.
When referencing material obtained by searching an aggregated database, follow
the format appropriate to the work retrieved and add a retrieval statement that gives the
date of retrieval and the proper name of the database.
Note-Taking
After choosing a particular topic, what do researchers do next?
They start to look for materials, such as books, journals, magazines and
newspapers on the subject.
Browse over the materials.
Select the relevant and discard those which are unrelated and unimportant.
Look the materials in details.
Taking notes.

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Note taking is not mere copying. It is a process of closely examining a material,
separating essential information from secondary details and organizing these notes in
ways the researcher can understand.
Strategies in the note-taking:
* Before taking notes:
1. Use 3 X 5 index cards.
useful
can be reshuffled, arranged, retrieved or discarded.
2. Do not write on the backside of the index card.
3. One item of information per card.
If not enough, use another one.
4. Use a separate card for each reference material.
5. Make a full record of the source:
Title of the book, authors name, page numbers, publisher, volume number
and date of publication.
Example:
James Yap
Modern Biology
Manila: Star Publishing
1999
p. 603 605
*While note-taking:
1. Survey the text of the chosen materials.
To acquaint researchers
2. Read the text again, take note of the main points.
3. Information may be a diagram, a map or a simple listing.
Note-taking strategies
1. Condensing = writing key elements and delete unnecessary words and phrases.
2. Symbols and abbreviations
Ex.
=
equal
therefore
#
number
impt important
w/o
without
3. Summarizing or paraphrasing
= is the process and condensing information containing the key points or
the main ideas.
4. Writing quotation
5. Outlining
6. Use of graphic organizers

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7. Study mapping
= visual note-taking that uses shapes, pictures, lines and arrows to signify
relationships of the main ideas to their supporting details.
8. Tree diagram
9. Flow plan
*After taking notes:
1. Arrange the note cards.
2. Translate the notes into sensible sentences
3. Highlighting
use marker/highlighter.
use pen to underline
Conducting a Survey
Survey is the most common method to gather opinions, current conditions,
preferences, health care needs, attitudes or any information that might be
useful in any purposive undertaking.
It is the most common way of gathering data from the field.
Survey research
studies large and small populations (or studying samples chosen from the
population to discover the relative incidents, distributions and interrelations of
sociological and psychological variables.
sample surveys
frequency appears in the education milieu.
* Survey is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation.

Types of survey
1. personal interview
2. panel
3. telephone surveys
4. mail questionnaire
5. survey by electronic mail (e-mail)
How to conduct a survey?
1. Start with the objectives. The general and specific problems that are to be solved
are as carefully and as completely stated as possible.
2. List each step to be taken.
3. End with a final report.
Steps in conducting a survey research

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1.
2.
3.
4.

Identify the need for the research.


Formulate the objectives of the research.
Determine the information to be gathered.
Identify the method of data collection to be used: historical, experimental,
descriptive.
5. Design a sample. Select the respondents to be included in the study.
6. Design the data collection form. Pretest its validity and reliability.
7. Revise and finalize the questionnaire.
8. Collect data. Administer the questionnaire.
9. Analyze the data through statistical means.
10. Write the results.
11. Submit the research paper.
*Study sample questionnaire from previous theses.
Computer-assisted survey
Surveys can be accessed through the computer.
Potential of the computer is great.
Purpose: increasing speed and accuracy of gathering results.
Reducing labor and costs.
Increasing user satisfaction.
Problems:
o cost and maintenance of the technology
o organization of the computer program
o increases the risk of data loss
Example of survey (vis--vis with purpose)
1. poll survey
2. market survey
3. community survey
4. census
5. school survey
Text Citations and Quotations
Text citations
Source material must be documented in the body of the paper by citing the
author(s) and date(s) of the sources. The underlying principle is that ideas and words of
others must be formally acknowledged. The reader can obtain the full source citation
from the list of references that follows the body of the paper.
1. When the names of the authors of a source are part of the formal structure of the
sentence, the year of publication appears in parentheses following the
identification of the authors. Consider the following example:
Wirth and Mitchell (1994) found that although there was a reduction in
insulin dosage over a period of two weeks in the treatment condition

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compared to the control condition, the difference was not statistically
significant. [Note: and is used when multiple authors are identified as
part of the formal structure of the sentence. Compare this to the example
in the following section.]
2. When the authors of a source are not part of the formal structure of the sentence,
both the authors and years of publication appear in parentheses, separated by
semicolons. Consider the following example:
Reviews of research on religion and health have concluded that at least
some types of religious behaviors are related to higher levels of physical
and mental health (Gartner, Larson, & Allen, 1991; Koenig, 1990; Levin
& Vanderpool, 1991; Maton & Pargament, 1987; Paloma & Pendleton,
1991; Payne, Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991).
[Note: & is used
when multiple authors are identified in parenthetical material. Note also
that when several sources are cited parenthetically, they are ordered
alphabetically by first authors' surnames.]
3. When a source that has two authors is cited, both authors are included every time
the source is cited.
4. When a source that has three, four, or five authors is cited, all authors are included
the first time the source is cited. When that source is cited again, the first author's
surname and "et al." are used. Consider the following example:
Reviews of research on religion and health have concluded that at least
some types of religious behaviors are related to higher levels of physical
and mental health (Payne, Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991).
Payne et al. (1991) showed that ...
5. When a source that has six or more authors is cited, the first author's surname and
"et al." are used every time the source is cited (including the first time).
6. Every effort should be made to cite only sources that you have actually read.
When it is necessary to cite a source that you have not read ("Grayson" in the
following example) that is cited in a source that you have read ("Murzynski &
Degelman" in the following example), use the following format for the text
citation and list only the source you have read in the References list:
Grayson (as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996) identified four
components of body language that were related to judgments of
vulnerability.
7. To cite a personal communication (including letters, emails, and telephone
interviews), include initials, surname, and as exact a date as possible. Because a

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personal communication is not "recoverable" information, it is not included in the
References section. For the text citation, use the following format:
B. F. Skinner (personal communication, February 12, 1978) claimed ...
Quotations
When a direct quotation is used, always include the author, year, and page number
as part of the citation.
1. A quotation of fewer than 40 words should be enclosed in double quotation marks
and should be incorporated into the formal structure of the sentence. Example:
Patients receiving prayer had "less congestive heart failure, required less
diuretic and antibiotic therapy, had fewer episodes of pneumonia, had
fewer cardiac arrests, and were less frequently intubated and ventilated"
(Byrd, 1988, p. 829).
2. A lengthier quotation of 40 or more words should appear (without quotation
marks) apart from the surrounding text, in block format, with each line indented
five spaces from the left margin.

The Interview
Interview - is a meeting in which information is obtained from the interviewee.
- It is a face-to-face meeting of individuals interacting together purposely to
get information regarding a research topic.
- Important survey instrument.
- Results of the interview usually support, complement or supplement the
results of the questionnaire.
Types of interview
* According to purpose:
1. Standardized interview (formal interview)
- With substantially uniform and well-established questions without variation
from the interview schedule.
- Conducted in same way as the other types of interview.

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2. Non-standardized interview (informal interview)
- Involves the use of a set of questions organized by the interviewer according
to a specific pattern of questions and method appropriate to the situation or
condition.
- Interviewer is given liberty to organize questions and the manner of asking
the interviewees.
3. Semi-standardized interview
- Combination of the standardized and non-standardized interviews.
4. Non-directive interview
- Interviewees can talk freely on the questions asked.
5. Focused interview
- In-depth interview; formal interview.
- Interviewer focuses on the asking questions on specific topic that are to be
investigated in-depth.
* According to format:
1. Standardized or structural interview
2. Semi-standardized or semi-structural interview
3. Unstructured or non-standardized interview
* According to style
1. Formal interview
- With standard set of questions.
2. Informal interview
- Without standard set of questions.
Important points to consider in the conduct of an interview
1. Preparing for the interview
- Workout an interview guide
- Interview schedule
- Strategy
- Dress-code
- Mastery / art of questioning
2. Knowing the appropriate place and time for the interview
- Select an ideal, comfortable place and suitable time to conduct interview.
- The place free of noise and distractions.
3. Developing rapport
- Develop harmonious, friendly and cordial atmosphere with the interviewee
at the start of interview.
4. Sustaining the interview
- Converse smoothly
- Provide key words to help sustain the interview
5. Recording the interview
- Tape recording may be used - to accurately document the interview.
- Permission to use recorder must be requested.
- Be objective, fair and impartial.
- Clarify vague or doubtful statement.

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6. Closing the interview
- Stop the interview if the interviewer feels.
- Express gratitude and appreciation for the time, effort and generosity of the
interviewee.
Note: When writing the body of the research paper, see to it that all pertinent data
gathered from the interview and results of survey are incorporated.
Formulating a Thesis Statement

A thesis statement presents the main idea of the research paper.


All other ideas in the research paper must relate to the thesis statement.
It is often the last sentence which is written at the end of the final introductory
paragraph, although sometimes the thesis statement may appear in the beginning.

Points to remember in formulating a thesis statement


1. Draft the thesis statement in 3 sentences or longer.
2. Make sure you have enough facts, examples, details or reasons to support the
statement.
3. Include your thesis sentence in the introduction of your research paper.

The ways of supporting the thesis statement in expository writing varies


depending on the content of the thesis. Not every technique is used in every
research paper. Use only those applicable to your particular topic.
Specific methods for developing a thesis statement (Lester, 1991)
1. Stating an argument for or against an issue,
2. Offering advice or giving directions,
3. Suggesting consequences,
4. Giving instructions,
5. Offering personal judgment, and
6. Making an interview.
Writing the Body
Preparatory steps in writing the body
1. Writing the first draft
2. Revising the draft
3. Editing the draft
4. Preparing the documentation
5. Formulating the presentation/lay-outing
6. Proofreading
First Draft
Incorporating all the data gathered in an organized way.

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Begins by writing brief, exploratory ideas.


Develop the composition into a well-organized prose (writing style).
Consider original expression of the writers mind.
Maybe handwritten, typewritten or encoded in a word processor.

Revising the draft


A good composition is one that has undergone several revisions.
A well-revised composition is an art the outcome of cutting, discarding and
reshaping words, sentences and paragraphs.
Made easy with the computer where paragraphs can easily be changed, cut or
deleted and rephrased.
Editing the draft
To be checked:
1. sentence clarity
2. coherence (consistency)
3. choice of words / diction
4. sentence structure
5. mechanical errors in spelling
6. punctuation
7. typographical errors

Editing made easy because of computer features.

Format
1. Outline
2. Introductory chapter
3. Review of related literature and studies
4. Research design, methods and procedures
5. Presentation, analysis and interpretation of data
6. Summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations
7. Reference materials
8. Bibliography
9. Appendices

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