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RMIT University, School of Business IT and Logistics, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne 3001, Australia
Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history:
Received 14 October 2010
Accepted 29 July 2011
Available online 17 August 2011
E-waste (discarded computers and electronic goods) has become a major environmental issue. It can be
minimized by increasing recovery from the waste stream through reverse supply chains. This paper
proposes a framework for end-of-life (EOL) computer recycling operations. It identies critical factors
for implementing EOL computer recycling operations and investigates the causal relationship among
the factors inuencing computer recycling operations in reverse supply chains using the cognition
mapping process DEMATEL. Results indicate availability of resource, coordination and integration of
recycling tasks and the volume and quality of recyclable materials, are critical for computer recycling
operations. Factors such as government legislation, incentive and customer demand are found to be the
major drivers.
Crown Copyright & 2011 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Australia
Computer
DEMATEL method
Recycling
Reverse supply chain
1. Introduction
E-waste (discarded computers and electronic goods) has
become a major environmental issue that needs national attention. Euromonitor Internationals (2010) estimate shows that
global computer sales are growing. Between 2004 and 2009,
portable computers sold in Australia rose from about 2.53 million
to 3.88 million units, an increase of about 35% (Table 1). When
compared with G8 nations, the percentage growth of computer
use in Australia is higher than Japan and Canada and is at par with
USA, Italy and the United Kingdom. It is evident from Table 1 that
the per capita use of computers in Australia is second highest,
when compared with G8 nations. One in ve people in Australia
has access to a computer, whereas in Italy it is one in 33.
A report by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) shows
e-waste is growing three times faster than regular waste. Australia,
a nation of just over 20.6 million people, had discarded or stockpiled
a total of 8.7 million computers at the end of 2006 (ABS, 2006). This
report predicted that by the end of 2008, 1.6 million computers will
be sent to landll rubbish dumps, while a further 1.8 million would
join the 5.3 million old computers already in storage.
One way of minimizing the environmental impact of e-waste is
to use reverse supply chains to increase the amount of product
materials recovered from the waste stream. Reverse supply chain is
a process by which a manufacturer systematically accepts previously shipped products or parts from the point of consumption
for possible reuse, remanufacturing, recycling, or disposal. Thus
2. Literature review
2.1. Reverse logistics
0925-5273/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright & 2011 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2011.07.019
240
Table 1
Statistics of computers sold and population in Australia and G8 economies.
(Source: Adapted from Euromonitor International (2010) and World Bank (2010)).
Table 2
Reverse supply chain network type (Source: Updated from Rahman (2003)).
Reverse network
Country
Population
(millions,
2009)
Australia
20.60
Japan
127.07
Germany 81.88
Russia
141.37
France
65.07
Italy
60.11
UK
61.39
Canada
34.00
US
305.00
% growth over
No. of
computers sold last ve years
(million units, (Base year 2004)
2009)
No. of person
having access to
single computer in
2009
3.88
13.72
6.42
5.78
10.03
2.01
7.21
7.45
93.10
5
9
13
25
7
33
8
5
3
34.70
14.78
49.32
75.23
64.23
42.55
40.26
26.87
36.41
began in the 1960s and 1970s (Seitz and Wells, 2006). One of the
comprehensive studies in the eld of reverse logistics was
conducted by Kopicki et al. (1993). They observed that in
implementing an environmentally conscious program, companies
typically reect three phases: reactive, proactive and value seeking. Newly introduced environmental standard regulations
usually force organizations to a reactive response to them. These
organizations may examine environmental issues from time to
time, but they do not actively pursue competitive advantage
through environmental practices. Unlike reactive companies,
proactive companies often implement reverse logistics programs,
such as reuse and recycling, and attempt to develop a competitive
advantage by designing effective environmental programs. They
tend to produce products that generally satisfy customers environmental concerns. Value seeking companies, on the other hand,
integrate environmental programs into their business strategy.
Most companies in this phase have advanced environmental
programs with extremely efcient reverse logistics systems.
Research on reverse supply chain has ranged from quantitative
modeling to qualitative case studies. One of the valuable sources
for qualitative case studies is Flapper et al. (2005). They
assembled a number of case studies from a variety of industries,
including pharmaceutical, automotive and cell phone manufacturing and a mail order company. A useful summary of case
studies, which employed quantitative modeling can be found in
Rahman (2003). By categorizing studies into the three recovery
processes of reuse, remanufacturing and recycling, Rahman
(2003) discussed the modeling and solution techniques employed
in these studies. Jayaraman et al. (2003) developed a mathematical model for a reverse distribution of product return ows and
suggested a heuristic solution methodology for this problem.
Salema et al. (2007) proposed a more generalized model for
designing a capacitated multi-product reverse supply chain network with uncertainty. More recently, Aras et al. (2008) focused
on the collection and reuse aspects of reverse supply chains,
whereas, Teunter et al. (2008) dealt with the question of when
companies should use shared resources for production and
remanufacturing and when they should use specialized resources.
In their study, Zuidwijk and Krikke (2008) considered two
strategic questions in the context of closed-loop supply chains
to establish how much a company should invest in product design
and how much in the production processes to process their
returned products. They formulated the problem as both an
integer linear programming and a rules of thumb-based problem.
A summary of these cases is presented in Table 2, which shows
not only the sources of the studies, but also the types of reverse
logistics networks used.
A reverse logistics network may occur in one of two contexts:
either as a closed-loop or open-loop system. In a closed-loop
Source
Network type
Open-loop
Reuse
Recycle
Remanufacture
Closed-loop
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Table 3
Reverse supply chain practices in the Computer Industry.
Reverse supply chain
activities in Computer
Industry
Source
Reuse
Repair
Refurbish
Recycle
Remanufacture
Resell
Dispose
241
2.3.1. Legislation
Research suggests that government legislation is one of the
main drivers for a rms environmental efforts. Legislation refers
to regulations or Acts passed by government agencies to ensure
rms take back and reuse the products they produce. The major
aim of this initiative is to protect the environment, avoid landll
and prevent contamination of water.
Porter and Van de Linde (1995) argued that a trade-off view
between ecology and economy is wrong. The innovation made by
rms to meet regulation requirements sparks offsets in effective
material usage, better product creation and/or improved product
yields. Walker et al. (2008) stated that environmental regulations
can be seen as a motivator to innovate and reduce the environmental impact at low cost rather than cause for litigation. To
analyze the impact of changes in regulations or law, Tan and
Kumar (2006) developed a decision-making model for reverse
supply chains in the computer industry. Their dynamic model is
capable of analyzing a rms protability and losses due to
242
Table 4
Literature review.
Source
Factor
Broad conclusion
F1: Legislation
F4: Environmental
concern
(f) Incentive
Carter and Ellram (1998), Savaskan et al. (2004), Ferguson and
Toktay (2006), Pokharel and Mutha (2009)
F6: Incentive
F7: Resource
(a) Legislation
Carter and Ellram (1998), Carter and Carter (1998), Bowen
et al.(2001), Knemeyer et al. (2002), Dowlatshahi (2005), Walker
et al. (2008), Tan and Kumar (2006),
(b) Customer demand
Lamming and Hampson (1996), Carter and Ellram (1998), Bowen
(2000), Hall (2001), Carter and Dresner (2001), Alvarez-Gil et al.
(2007), Kapetanopoulou and Tagaras (2010)
(c) Strategic cost/benet
Andel and Aichlmayr (2002), Mason(2002), Teunter and van der
Laan (2002), Dowlatshahi (2005), Ravi et al. (2005), Guide et al.
(2006), Guide and Van Wassenhove (2009)
(d) Environmental concerns
Stock(1998), Dowlatshahi (2005), Tan and Kumar (2006), Guide
and Van Wassenhove (2009), Pokharel and Mutha (2009)
(g) Resource
Stock (1998), Dowlatshahi (2005), Daugherty et al. (2005), Richey
et al. (2005), Pokharel and Mutha (2009), Kapetanopoulou and
Tagaras (2010)
(h) Integration and coordination
Hess and Meyhew (1997), Carter and Ellram (1998), De Brito et al.
(2002), Fleischmann (2003), Daugherty et al. (2005), Yalabik et al.
(2005), Chouinard et al. (2005), Tan and Kumar (2006), Guide and
Van Wassenhove (2009)
243
3. Research methodology
3.1. Method
The effectiveness of decision-making processes for complex
systems depends largely on the ability to understand the causeeffect relationships between variables interacting within the
systems. The Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory
(DEMATEL), originated at the Battelle Memorial Institute, Geneva
between 1972 and 1976. It is an effective procedure for analyzing
problem structure and develop causal relationships between
factors or sub-systems (Fontela and Gabus, 1974). The DEMATEL
methodology has been applied in many elds, such as hospital
service quality (Shieh et al., 2010), sustainable development (Tsai
and Chou, 2009) and alternative fuel selection (Lin et al. 2009).
The DEMATEL methodology is chosen for our analysis because it
is proven to deliver more valuable information for decisionmaking for a problem with complex interdependencies. The
procedural steps of DEMATEL methodology are as follows:
Step 1: Generate direct-relation matrix: suppose there are R
decision-makers (experts) involved in the study and n number
of decision-making factors. Each decision-maker k is asked to
indicate the degree to which a factor i affects factor j. These
pairwise comparisons between any two factors can be denoted
by xkij and given an integer score ranging from 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4,
representing No inuence, Low inuence, Medium inuence, High inuence, and Very high inuence respectively.
The elements for ij are set to zero. Responses from each
decision-maker give rise to a n x n non-negative matrix,
[xkij] Xk, where knumber of decision-makers varying
between 1 and R. An initial direct-relation matrix A with
individual element aij, can therefore can be expressed as
aij nxn
R
1X
xk
R k 1 ij
244
expression:
M
0
; where m max@ max
1rirn
n
X
j1
aij , max
1rjrn
n
X
1
aij A
i1
1
X
Mi
i1
245
Table 7
The degree of inuence of the factors.
Factors
Si
Cj
S i Cj
S i Cj
F1:
F2:
F3:
F4:
F5:
F6:
F7:
F8:
1.964
0.749
0.977
1.318
1.421
0.910
1.260
1.221
0.626
0.641
1.579
1.215
1.428
0.379
2.190
1.639
2.590
1.390
2.556
2.533
2.849
1.289
3.450
2.860
1.338
0.108
0.602
0.103
0.007
0.531
0.930
0.418
Legislation
Customer
Strategic cost
Env. Concern
Volume and Qty
Incentive
Resource
Integ and Coord
Table 5
A summary of the two case companies prole.
Organization
name
Respondent characteristics
Organization characteristics
Position of
respondents
No of
Average year of
respondents experience in
recycling
Year of
Accreditation Components handle
operation
Alliance
% of
reclaimed
materials
10
22
ISO 14001
Dell and
Toshiba
98
Not been
accredited
No
alliance
95 to 98
Table 6
The total-relation matrix.
F1:Legislation F2:Customer F3: Strategic cost F4: Env. Concern F5:Volume and Qty F6:Incentive F7:Resource F8:Integ and Coord
F1:
F2:
F3:
F4:
F5:
F6:
F7:
F8:
Legislation
Customer
Strategic cost
Env. Concern
Volume and Qty
Incentive
Resource
Integ and Coord
0.090
0.206
0.020
0.170
0.079
0.078
0.038
0.033
0.176
0.051
0.013
0.201
0.030
0.027
0.033
0.026
0.196
0.046
0.123
0.121
0.370
0.164
0.274
0.300
0.328
0.170
0.066
0.113
0.128
0.111
0.176
0.137
0.315
0.073
0.141
0.178
0.127
0.174
0.213
0.233
0.141
0.027
0.066
0.032
0.035
0.022
0.042
0.026
0.416
0.105
0.304
0.322
0.347
0.227
0.181
0.318
0.302
0.071
0.244
0.181
0.305
0.107
0.303
0.148
246
5. Conclusion
One way of minimizing the environmental impact of e-waste
is to increase the amount of product materials recovered from the
waste stream through recycling operations. This paper proposed a
framework to implement end-of-life (EOL) computer recycling
operations in reverse supply chains using eight factors. These
factors are legislation; customer demand; strategic cost/benet;
environmental concern; volume and quality; incentive; resource
and integration and coordination.
Previous studies have prioritized the implementation factors/
alternatives for recycling operations, whereas our study attempts
not only to identify critical factors for implementing EOL recycling operations but also to determine the interrelationships
between factors, using case studies. The DEMATEL Methodology
was employed to generate a cognition map of causal relationships
of the factors.
The results show that companies involved in recycling operations in reverse supply chains should pay more attention to the
factors categorized as net dispatchers/drivers (legislation, customer demand, environmental concern) and their impacts on the
receivers (resource, strategic cost/benet, integration and coordination and volume and quality). An assessment of the direct and
indirect impacts through the casual links between factors would
help mangers develop appropriate strategies for further improvement of the EOL recycling operations in reverse supply chains.
This study is conducted using six senior managers from two
companies. Future studies must consider larger sample size to
assess the methodology and the effectiveness of the proposed
solution to enable generalization. Furthermore, the rating of the
scale could be obtained within a specic range, instead of getting
a crisp number for factors, normally considered hard to judge. In
that case, fuzzy DEMATEL could be used and might bring out the
complex interrelationships and intertwining characteristics
among factors under uncertainty. Factors that impact the operation of compliance schemes, i.e., distance and geography, population size and density, cost of labor, length of time in operation and
consumer behavior could also be taken into consideration.
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