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Compression failure of thin concrete walls during 2010 Chile
earthquake: lessons for Canadian design practice1
P. Adebar
Abstract: Numerous thin concrete walls failed in compression during the 2010 Chile earthquake. Experiments on small wall
elements indicate that thin concrete walls without tied vertical reinforcement may fail very suddenly at uniform compression
strains as low as 0.001 due to the thin layer of concrete between two layers of reinforcement becoming unstable. A test on a wall
subjected to axial compression and strong-axis bending demonstrated that unlike a tied column, a thin concrete wall can
suddenly lose all axial load-carrying capacity. Nonlinear response history analysis of a typical Chilean high-rise shear wall
building indicates small global drift demands and correspondingly small curvature and compression strain demands when
subjected to the ground motions measured in Santiago, which explains why most buildings were not damaged. Nonlinear nite
element analysis of a typical wall step-back irregularity indicates the increase in maximum compression strains due to a
reduction in wall length is much larger than predicted by a sectional analysis. Based on all the results of the current study, a
number of signicant changes are proposed for the 2014 edition of CSA A23.3 to avoid compression failures of thin concrete
walls, including limiting the axial compression force applied to thin bearing walls, accounting for unexpected strong-axis
bending of thin bearing walls, and limiting the compression strain demands on thin concrete shear walls.
Key words: building codes, compression, concrete walls, earthquake damage, high-rise buildings, nonlinear analysis, seismic
design, testing.
Rsum : Plusieurs murs minces en bton ont dfailli par rupture en compression lors du sisme de 2010 au Chili. Des
expriences sur des petits chantillons de mur indiquent que les murs minces en bton sans renforcement vertical attach
pouvaient dfaillir trs soudainement a` des contraintes uniformes en compression aussi faibles que 0,001 en raison de la mince
couche de bton entre deux couches darmature qui devenait instable. Un essai sur un mur soumis a` une compression axiale et
en exion dans laxe principal a dmontr quun mur mince en bton, contrairement a` une colonne attache, peut soudainement perdre toute sa capacit de charge axiale. Une analyse historique de la rponse non linaire dun immeuble de grande
hauteur typique au Chili, bti en utilisant des murs de contreventement, indique des petites demandes de glissement globales
et des petites demandes correspondantes de contraintes en courbure et en compression lorsque ces murs sont soumis aux
mouvements de sol mesurs a` Santiago. Cest ce qui explique pourquoi la majorit des immeubles na pas t endommag. Une
analyse non linaire par lments nis de lirrgularit typique de retrait dun mur souligne que laugmentation des contraintes
maximales en compression cause par une rduction dans la longueur du mur est beaucoup plus grande que celle prvue lors de
lanalyse sectionnelle. En se basant sur tous les rsultats de cette tude, plusieurs changements importants sont proposs pour
ldition 2014 de la norme CSA A23.3 an dviter les dfaillances en compression des murs minces en bton, incluant la
limitation de la force axiale en compression applique a` de minces murs porteurs, tenant compte dune forte exion inattendue
de laxe principal des murs porteurs minces et limitant les demandes de contraintes en compression des murs de contreventement minces en bton. [Traduit par la Rdaction]
Mots-cls : codes du btiment, compression, murs de bton, dommage de sisme, immeubles de grande hauteur, analyse non
linaire, conception sismique, essais.
Introduction
Although only a few buildings completely collapsed during the
magnitude M8.8 earthquake that occurred in the Maule region of
Chile on 27 February 2010, many buildings were badly damaged
and subsequently had to be demolished. A common type of damage to high-rise concrete buildings was compression failure of
shear walls. Figure 1 shows some examples. A description of the
damage in one of these buildings is provided by Sherstobitoff et al.
(2012).
A common form of high-rise residential construction in Chile is
to make every partition between rooms a concrete shear wall. The
thickness of these walls typically ranges from 120 to 200 mm, with
older buildings having thicker walls and newer buildings often
712
Fig. 1. Compression failures of thin shear walls during 2010 Chile earthquake.
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
(e)
provided). These walls are very similar to the thin walls that failed
in compression during the 2010 Chile earthquake. Conventional
(Rd = 1.5) shear walls are commonly used for buildings in lower
seismic regions and are permitted in buildings up to 30 m high
(about 12 stories) in the highest seismic regions in Canada. In
addition, the current requirements are such that a very tall building in the highest seismic regions in Canada can have thin walls
that have been designated as bearing walls even though these walls
may be subjected to signicant strong-axis bending due to the
seismic deformations of the designated seismic-force resisting
walls.
The current study was undertaken to better understand compression failures of thin concrete walls. An experimental investigation was undertaken on concrete wall elements with a variety
of reinforcement and subjected to a variety of load histories. The
experimental results provide new information on the compression strain capacity of thin concrete walls. To investigate the
compression strain demands on shear walls in typical high-rise
residential buildings in Chile, nonlinear response history analysis
was done on an example 18-story building using ground motions
Published by NRC Research Press
Adebar
Experimental study
A two-phase experimental study was conducted to understand
compression failures in thin concrete walls. In the rst phase,
many small wall elements were subjected to cyclic axial compression. The main parameters were wall thickness (which varied
from 140 to 250 mm), number of layers of horizontal wall reinforcement (no horizontal reinforcement, one layer or two layers),
clear cover to horizontal reinforcement, whether the wall had any
cross ties (out-of-plane reinforcement), and the height (slenderness) of the wall elements. In the second phase, a 140 mm thick
wall, reinforced similar to a typical Chilean shear wall, was subjected to axial compression combined with reverse cyclic lateral
load. Signicant details will be presented from the Phase 1 tests,
while only a brief summary will be presented from Phase 2.
The Phase 1 wall elements were either 610 or 910 mm high. A
schematic diagram of the four basic types of specimen cross sections are shown in Fig. 2a, while the details of the specimens are
summarized in Table 1. All vertical reinforcing bars, which were
welded to small steel plates at the top and bottom of the specimens to ensure full development, had a nominal diameter of
10 mm. The horizontal reinforcing bars had a diameter of 9.5, 10, 15
or 20 mm as given in Table 1. In Canada, walls up to 210 mm thick
can have a single layer of reinforcement, while the 140 mm thick
walls that failed in Chile typically had two layers of small diameter reinforcing bars. Type 1 specimens had a single layer of horizontal reinforcement and usually a single vertical reinforcing bar.
Specimens 10 and 11 had 180 hooks on the two ends of the horizontal reinforcement and two vertical bars within each hook
(called Type 1-H). All other specimens had the single layer of
713
714
Type
Thickness
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
4
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
152
152
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
203
254
254
254
254
203
Diameter
(mm)
Vertical
spacing (mm)
Cover
(mm)
No. of vertical
bars
Height
(mm)
fc-max
(MPa)
fc-max/
fc'
Strain
capacity
Strain
at failure
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5
10
10
10
10
15
15
20
20
20
15
15
15
15
10
10
15
15
15
15
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
150
150
150
150
150
150
300
150
300
200
200
150
300
150
300
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
60
60
20
60
20
50
80
20
20
40
40
20
20
20
20
40
40
40
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
4
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
910
610
910
910
910
610
910
610
910
910
31.7
33.4
31.3
30.0
32.2
30.8
26.4
26.9
33.4
30.8
32.3
33.6
33.8
33.5
33.7
33.9
33.2
30.0
31.8
33.1
30.1
31.6
32.9
31.6
32.4
33.1
26.8
1.05
1.10
1.03
0.99
1.06
1.02
0.87
0.89
1.10
1.02
1.07
1.10
1.11
1.10
1.11
1.11
1.09
0.98
1.04
1.09
0.99
1.04
1.08
1.04
1.06
1.08
0.88
0.0035
0.0035
0.0035
0.0035
0.0035
0.0035
0.0015
0.0010
0.0033
0.0035
0.0020
0.0028
0.0030
0.0035
0.0033
0.0028
0.0035
0.0015
0.0025
0.0023
0.0035
0.0030
0.0030
0.0018
0.0035
0.0020
0.0015
0.0043
0.0043
0.0044
0.0046
0.0039
0.0039
0.0017
0.0013
0.0033
0.0037
0.0023
0.0029
0.0031
0.0039
0.0034
0.0030
0.0039
0.0016
0.0026
0.0026
0.0038
0.0031
0.0032
0.0020
0.0038
0.0023
0.0017
Adebar
715
(a)
35
Average (LP1,LP2)
Specimen 6
30
Stress (MPa)
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.5
1.5
Strain
(b)
3.5
4
x 10
-3
30
Specimen 8
25
Stress (MPa)
2.5
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.5
1.5
Strain
2.5
3.5
4
x 10
-3
Specimen 1 was subjected to the standard protocol until reaching a compression strain of 0.002 and then was subjected to 30
cycles at 0.002 and 10 cycles at every strain level beyond that until
failure (total of 60 cycles at a compression strain 0.002). Specimen 4 was subjected to one cycle of loading to standard target
strains and then was subjected to 55 cycles at a strain of 0.003.
Although both specimens degraded somewhat due to the additional loading cycles, the amount of degradation was surprisingly
small suggesting that the large number of cycles that occurred
during the Maule Earthquake accelerations exceeding 5% g
lasted up to two minutes in some regions of Chile may not have
been a signicant factor in the compression failures of thin walls.
Specimen 11 had a single layer of horizontal reinforcement at
the middle of the wall and was subjected to uniform compression
strain. At a maximum compression strain of 0.0023, the specimen, with no prior indication of damage, suddenly split into two
along the central layer of horizontal reinforcement. This brittle
failure is important because of the compression failure of a similar wall in the Pyne Gould Building in Christchurch, New Zealand
and because of the many such walls that exist in older Canadian
buildings. Additional results from the wall element tests are reported by Adebar and Lorzadeh 2012.
716
1.6 m
6m
5m
5 m analysis strip
5m
(a)
200 mm
4 22 mm bars (each end)
5m
8 mm bars E.W. & E.F.
(b)
ment bent around the end of the wall acted as cross ties, concrete
crushing occurred at a large compression strain at the edge of the
wall. The most notable result from the test is that the wall completely collapsed after a small portion of concrete at the end of the
wall crushed in compression. Figure 6 shows how the wall looked
after the failure. Unlike the tied columns with square cross sections that were tested, which have a signicant core of undamaged concrete within the tied vertical reinforcement, thin
concrete walls can suddenly lose all axial load carrying capacity
because the undamaged concrete between the two layers of reinforcement is very thin. This is an important issue that must be
accounted for in the design of thin walls. Another observation is
the 90-degree bends on the horizontal reinforcement did not open
(see bottom right corner of wall in Fig. 6) as was observed in the
small element tests.
6m
Adebar
717
Fig. 8. Bending moment curvature relationships for T-shaped wall with maximum axial compression P = 5500 kN at base of wall and zero
axial compression at top of wall; for both case of ange of wall in tension and ange of wall in compression. Nonlinear curves and
trilinear approximations.
35000
Flange in tension; P = 5500 kN
30000
25000
max. fibre strain = 0.001
20000
Flange in comp.; P = 5500 kN
15000
Flange in tension; P = 0
10000
Flange in comp.; P = 0
5000
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
Curvature (rad/km)
1.5
2.0
718
0.4
(a) 50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
40
50
60
70
80
90
Height (m)
Curvature (rad/km)
0.3
100
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
Time (s)
(1)
t
lw hw
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
Displacement (m)
0.40
0.5
1
1.5
Curvature (rad/km)
(b) 50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Height (m)
N-S
E-W
N-S
E-W
N-S
E-W
N-S
E-W
N-S
E-W
N-S
E-W
18.0
18.0
34.1
21.1
26.8
30.0
37.3
25.8
28.1
22.0
28.0
26.2
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.005
0.006
0.006
0.008
0.006
0.006
0.005
0.006
0.006
0.37
0.35
1.30
0.39
1.56
1.25
1.75
0.95
1.41
1.57
1.31
2.13
Adebar
719
720
Conclusions
The conclusions from the three parts of the current study are
summarized below beginning with the conclusions from experiments on thin concrete walls:
1. When subjected to a signicant strain gradient, the maximum compression strain that concrete can tolerate is greatly
increased because the undamaged concrete subjected to
lower compression strains stabilizes the damaged concrete
subjected to the maximum compression strain. This observation, which has been made in many previous studies, was
reafrmed by the current tests. Conversely, when concrete is
subjected to uniform compression strain, it may become unstable at lower compression strains the slenderness of the
concrete element inuences the strain at which concrete may
become unstable.
2. Thin concrete walls without any cross ties were found to fail
at uniform compression strains as low as 0.001. Concrete
crushing occurs very suddenly with little prior damage. A
140 mm thick wall with two layers of horizontal reinforcement had the lowest compression strain capacity, while
200 mm and 250 mm thick walls with two layers of horizontal reinforcement had compression strain capacities as low as
0.0015 and 0.0018, respectively. Failure occurs when the thin
layer of undamaged concrete between the two cages of reinforcement becomes unstable.
3. Thin walls with a single layer of reinforcement where found
to fail in a very brittle manner; but at higher compression
strains than thin walls with two layers of reinforcement, presumably because the total thickness of undamaged concrete
is larger in walls with a single layer of reinforcement.
4. A light cage of reinforcement with widely-spaced transverse
reinforcement as required in gravity-load columns is sufcient to stabilize the concrete in a thin wall subjected to
uniform compression strains so that it will not become unstable prematurely and the compression response of the concrete will be similar to a standard cylinder.
5. When walls contain cross ties or boundary zone reinforcement
that stabilizes the damaged concrete, the compression strain
capacity of the walls do not appear to be signicantly inuenced
by the increased number of cycles that occur in a typical subduction earthquake such as the 2010 Chile earthquake.
6. The 90-degree hooks around the end vertical reinforcing bars
were never observed to open, as has occurred in column tests
when the concrete is subjected to signicant compression
strains after cover spalling. Thus the 90-degree hooks provided adequate anchorage of the horizontal wall reinforcement.
7. Unlike tied columns with square cross sections, which have a
signicant core of undamaged concrete within the tied vertical reinforcement, thin concrete walls can suddenly lose all
axial load carrying capacity because the undamaged concrete
within the vertical reinforcement is very thin.
The conclusions from the nonlinear response history analysis of an example Chile high-rise residential shear wall building can be summarized as follows:
8. The example 18-story residential shear wall building with a
height-to-fundamental period ratio of 65 m/s, which is very
typical of Chilean buildings, was found to have very small
global drift demands (0.4%) when subjected to the ground
motions measured in Santiago during the 2010 Chile earthquake. As a result, the maximum curvature demands in the
walls were found to be small.
9. The shear walls in the example building are such that the
axial compression strain is small when the exural tension
reinforcement rst yields, including the walls with large tension ange and no compression ange. The curvature demand on the walls has to increase signicantly beyond rst
yielding before the concrete will fail in compression. This
explains why most high-rise residential shear wall buildings
in Santiago were not damaged during the 2010 earthquake.
10. Typical high-rise residential shear wall buildings in western
Canada have fewer thicker shear walls and as a result, have a
longer fundamental period than a typical building of the
same height in Chile. As a result, the Canadian buildings
would experience larger displacements, larger curvatures,
and larger compression strain demands.
The conclusions from the nonlinear nite element analysis of a typical wall step-back irregularity can be summarized as follows:
11. When a shear wall suddenly reduces in length going down the
structure, there is signicant magnication of concrete compression strain demands at the compression edge of the
shorter length shear wall that supports the overhanging
shear wall above. Plane-sections analysis, which can be used
to calculate the exural capacity of the shorter length wall,
cannot be used to estimate the maximum compression
strains in the shorter length wall.
12. The magnication of compression strains is larger than what
is determined from a linear FE analysis; but a reasonable
estimate can be made using linear FE analysis.
13. If the critical section for bending moment occurs at a wall
step-back, as was the case in the example building, failure
may result from a concentration of inelastic demands over a
small height of wall. This can be avoided by ensuring that
yielding of the wall (the critical section) occurs above the
irregularity.
In most concrete buildings, there are additional concrete shear
walls below grade and a linear analysis assuming the oor diaphragms are rigid will indicate that the bending moments in the
tower shear walls reduce very quickly below grade (large negative
shear forces in tower walls below grade). Caution is needed when
applying the results of such an analysis to determine the critical
section in the shear wall as the calculated bending moments are
very sensitive to the stiffness assumptions. A complete methodology for designing shear walls below grade, including recommenPublished by NRC Research Press
Adebar
721
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to his graduate students who made important contributions to the work reported in this paper. Amir
Lorzadeh conducted the small wall element tests under cyclic
compression, while Helen Chin conducted the large shear wall
test. Ehsan Dezhdar conducted the NRHA using OpenSees. Stephen Mercer conducted pseudo three-dimensional analysis with
VecTor2 to investigate shear lag in the thin wall anges. Funding
to undertake the research was provided by the Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) to the
Canadian Seismic Research Network (CSRN).
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