IB Physics 2

Forces, Fields and Energy

IB Course Companion: Ch 10

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND FIELD IB COURSE COMPANION, CH 6 PP. 257-264

1. State Newtons Law of Gravitation
Every object attracts every other object with a force proportional to the mass of each object and inversely
proportional to the distance between them squared: F = - GMm/d2
The universal gravitation constant G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2kg-2
2. Define Grtavitational Field
Gravitational field describes the area of influence of a mass, M
To measure the gravitational field we place a test mass, m, at a location in space and measure the force exerted on
m. By definition the gravitational field strength g = F/m = -GM/d2
Gravitational fields always point towards the mass, M, that created them
ELECTRIC FORCE AND ELECTRIC FIELD IB COURSE COMPANION, CH 5, PP. 169-179
3. State Coulombs law.
Students should be aware of the law in the forms F = kq 1q2/r2 and F = q1q2 / 4or2
The form of Coulombs Law is very similar to the form of Newtons Law of Gravitation with one very important
distinction. With the law of gravity we had to insert a negative sign to indicate that the force between masses is an
attraction. We do not need to do this for electricity. If two point charges are similar, the form of the law predicts a
positive force (a repulsion). If the two point charges are opposite, the form of the law predicts a negative force (an
attraction).
The nature of the force constant k depends on the material through which the force acts. For free space it has one
value (9.0 x 109 Nm2 C-2) and for other materials it has different values. The constant k = 1 / 4o. The number is
called the electric permittivity. The value of o (permittivity of free space) is 8.85 x 10 -12 C2N-1 m-2.
4. Define electric field. (Students should understand the meaning of test charge.)
Electric field is the concept used to describe the area of influence around an electric charge. It allows us to
eliminate the concept of action-at-a-distance.
To determine the electric field strength at a location in space, we place a test charge, q o, at that location and
measure the electric force exerted upon it. By definition, the electric field strength at that location is E = F / qo.
Because we are dividing out the value of the test charge, electric field is called the force per unit charge.
Electric fields point in the direction of the net force at that location in
space.
MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC FIELDS IB COURSE COMPANION, CH 5, PP. 227 - 239
5. Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines of an isolated bar magnet.
SS
Magnetic field lines represent the direction of a force exerted on the North
pole of a magnet
Since like poles repel, this means that magnetic field lines will point away
from the North pole of a magnet (the way another north pole would move)
and towards the South pole of a magnet
Magnetic poles do not exist in isolation -- whenever we observe a North
pole it is always accompanied by a South pole. Magnets exist as dipoles
N
N
(two poles). There is no theoretical reason why we shouldn't observe a
magnetic monopole, we have just never found one.
6. Moving charges give rise to magnetic fields.
In addition to permanent magnets, an isolated moving charge will create a magnetic field. Similarly a current
(many moving charges in a conductor) will also produce a magnetic field pattern that surrounds the current.
7. Draw and annotate magnetic fields due to currents.
These include fields around a straight wire, a flat circular coil and a solenoid. Students should recognize that the
magnetic field pattern of a solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet.
The magnetic field due to an electric current can be found using the "Curled Right Hand"
Rule - point the thumb of the right hand in the direction of conventional current in
the wire and the fingers of the right hand will curl around the wire in the direction
I
of the magnetic field -- since there is no isolated pole, the magnetic field lines around a
current have no beginning and no end -- they form continuous circles around the wire
A flat circular coil is an application of the "Curled Right Hand" Rule as well. By
bending the wire into a loop, the magnetic field lines that surround the wire are
concentrated in the center of the loop. At any point around the loop, point the thumb of
the right hand in the direction of current flow and the fingers will curl around the wire in
the direction of the magnetic field.
Taking a coil and giving it some length turns it into a solenoid -- the field lines curl around the entire solenoid, but
because of its extended length, it stretches the circles into ovals leaving a field pattern identical to that of a bar

IB Physics 2 Forces, Fields and Energy

magnet. In addition, there is a neat trick that will enable you to always determine which end of the solenoid coil
acts as the north pole and which end acts as the south pole.
Solenoid coil cut in
half - large block
arrow is current

End-on view of the

solenoid - the ends of the
letters point in the
direction of current flow

MAGNETIC FORCES IB COURSE COMPANION, CH 5, PP. 227-239

8. Determine the direction of the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
9. Determine the direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field.
In both cases, you can use the "Open Right Hand Rule" to determine the direction of the force
There are three mutually perpendicular directions defined by the open hand -- the direction represented by the
thumb, the direction represented by the fingers, and the direction that the palm faces
The force exerted on a moving charge in a magnetic field is determined by the vector product between the velocity
vector and the magnetic field vector -- this product is defined to be perpendicular to the plane that contains both of
these vectors. So, here's how it works --B
1. Point the thumb of the right hand in the direction of conventional current (the
F
way a single positive charge is moving or opposite the way a single negative
charge is moving)
I
2. Point the fingers of the open right hand in the direction of the magnetic field
vector (away from North poles and towards South poles)
3. The palm of the open right hand will face in the direction of the force on the
current or moving charge
10. Define the magnitude of the magnetic field strength B.
This can be defined in terms of the force acting either on a current-carrying conductor or on a moving charge.
The force acting on a moving electric charge is used to define the magnetic field strength as follows:
F = qvB sin
where q is the amount of charge, v is the speed of the charge, B is the magnetic field
strength and is the angle between the velocity vector and magnetic field direction
The force acting on a current carrying wire is used to define the magnetic field strength as follows:
F = ILB sin
where I is the amount of current flowing, L is the length of wire influence by the
magnetic field, B is the magnetic field strength and is the angle between the
direction of the current and the magnetic field direction
Note that if v or I is parallel to B, then the angle = 0 and the force will be 0 as well. There must be some
component of charge motion perpendicular to B to produce a force.
11. Solve problems involving the magnetic forces on currents and moving charges.
Students should be able to calculate the force for situations where the velocity is not perpendicular to the magnetic
field direction. Apply the two equations above.
A special case: if a moving charge enters a region of uniform magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to the
magnetic field direction, then the charge will experience a force that is perpendicular to its velocity. This force will
not change the speed of the charge, only the direction in which it travels. Further, the force will remain
perpendicular to the velocity, with the net result being circular motion. Combining the force relation between the
charge's speed and the magnetic field strength AND the relation for centripetal forces produces some interesting
results.
12. Solve problems involving the magnetic field strength around a straight wire.
The magnetic field around a current carrying wire will vary with distance from the wire. One of Maxwells four
equations (Amperes Law) allows us to predict this field. The math associated with this is beyond the scope of this
class, so we will just state the result.
B = oI / 2R
In this equation, R represents the distance (in a radial sense) from the wire. Since the magnetic field forms a circle
centered on the wire, R is the radius of this circle. I represents the current in the wire and B is the magnetic field
strength. Unlike electricity and gravity, the magnetic field varies as 1/R instead of 1/R 2. The constant o is a
measure of the ability of a material to sustain a magnetic field it is called the permeability of the material. Since
we typically are talking about a wire in air, the constant we use is o, the permeability of free space. It has the
value o = 4 x 10-7 TmA-1. These units produce a magnetic field unit of Tesla (T).
13. Solve problems involving the magnetic field strength within a solenoid.
Students should be aware that B depends on the nature of the solenoid core.
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IB Physics 2 Forces, Fields and Energy

Consider a solenoid coil with an overall length of L that contains a total of N turns of wire. A turn is one complete
circle. The wire contains a current I. Applying Amperes Law gives the following result: B = oNI / L
If we were to place something other than air inside the coil, e.g. an iron bar, then the value of the constant will
change based on the ability of the material to sustain a magnetic field.
Solenoid coils are useful because if we stay away from the end of the coil and near the axis that passes through the
center, we have a uniform magnetic field.

GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY AND POTENTIAL IB COURSE COMPANION, CH 10: PP. 391-425

14. Define gravitational potential energy and gravitational potential. Students should understand that the work done
in moving a mass between two points in a gravitational field is independent of the path taken and that
gravitational potential energy is taken to be zero at infinity.
It turns out that our previous definition of gravitational potential energy (E P = mgh) is only good for a uniform
gravitational field. When we move far enough away from the earth for g to be non-uniform we need to look at
things in a different way. However, the concepts of energy conservation and potential energy as energy stored by
doing work against gravity are still good. So, we need to look at work done against gravity.
The form of the law of universal gravitation suggests that the force exists everywhere in space. However, as
distances become very large, the force becomes very small. So, if we could move things infinitely far apart, no
force would exist between them and no work would need to be done against gravity to move them around. This
sounds like a place where there is no gravitational potential energy. So, we define gravitational potential energy to
be zero when objects are infinitely far apart.
But, we still have a problem -- the force of universal gravitation is not a constant force. So, to calculate the work
done to separate two objects from each other, we must be looking at an area under a force vs. displacement curve.
This area is not a simple area (like a rectangle or a triangle) and requires the rules of calculus. We will just look at
the result:

Work = -

GMm
.
r

Now, let's think about what we know from before and what we know now. Before, when we lifted an object away
from the surface of the earth, its potential energy increased and we could make the potential energy be zero
wherever we wanted. Now, it would be nice if the change in potential energy as objects get farther apart is still
positive (i.e. potential energy increases with distance) and the potential energy is zero when objects are infinitely
far apart. How can we make this work?

The answer is to make the potential energy negative! EP

GMm
. Try it -- if we move two objects from a
r

distance of r apart to a distance of 2rapart what happens? The initial potential energy is - GMm/r and the final
potential energy is -GMm/2r. The change in potential enegy = final - initial = -GMm/2r - (-GMm/r) = +GMm/2r.
The change is still positive, so it works!
Finally, let's think about the work done one more time. The force we are working against always points towards
the center of the stationary mass (the one we aren't moving). Any movement that is perpendicular to this direction
requires no work be done (definition of work is movement parallel to the direction of force). So, we can make all
kinds of crazy paths and it won't matter as long as the net distance from the center of the stationary object is the
same. Another way of saying this is "the work done is independent of the path". It only depends on the starting and
ending distances from the center of the stationary object.
15. State the expression for gravitational potential due to a point mass.
Just like we defined the concept of gravitational field to describe the force between two masses separated by a
distance r, we can define the concept of gravitational potential to describe the stored energy in the gravitational
field when two objects are separated by a distance r.
Gravitational Potential (V) is defined as the gravitational potential energy for a certain separation divided
the mass of the moving object. In equation form: VG

16.

EP
.
m

So, just as force can be thought of as the interaction between a small mass and a gravitational field at a location in
space, gravitational potential energy can be thought of as the interaction between a small mass and the
gravitational potential at a location in space.

E
Gravitational potential can be calculated using: VG P
m

GMm
)
GM
r

m
r

State and apply the formula relating gravitational field strength to potential gradient. (It is sufficient that students
know that g = -V/r).

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IB Physics 2 Forces, Fields and Energy

Suppose a mass is moved a small distance, r, through a potential difference V. The work done to move the
charge is given by W = Fr = mgr. But, the work is also given by W = mV. So, mgr = mV, Rearranging
slight gives: g = V / r.
This result does not tell us the direction of g. To find that, we must think about how a mass moves in relation to
potential. Things move, on their own, to decrease their potential energy. So, if we move in a direction so that V is
positive (Vfinal is greater than Viniital) we know the gravitational field has to point the opposite way. Similarly, if we
move so that V is negative (Vinitial is greater than Vfinal) then the gravitational field points the way we went. So we
will define a positive gravitational field direction as the direction in which V increases. This means that we need to
modify our result as follows: g = - V / r
17. Explain the concept of escape speed.
To talk about escape speed, we first need to look at the total energy of a small mass that is near a larger, fixed
GMm 1 2
mv . Now, we know that as the small object moves away from the larger object,
r
2

mass. E = EP + EK =

its kinetic energy will decrease and its potential energy will increase. When the objects are infinitely far apart, the
potential energy will be zero, the force between the objects will be zero, and the kinetic energy will maintain the
value that it had when the force became zero.
So, escape speed is then defined as the initial speed necessary to launch an object so that it will reach infinity and
stay there. This means that its final speed will be exactly zero, or some value larger than zero. We usually take the
escape speed to be the value necessary to exactly arrive at infinity with no kinetic energy remaining.
18. Derive an expression for the escape speed of an object from the surface of a planet.
Using our definition of escape speed from above, it's not too hard to work this out. We will start out with our small
object located at the surface of the planet. Let R be the radius of the planet. Then, the two masses can be thought
of as initially separated by a distance R (because all of the mass of the planet is thought to be located at its center).
GMm 1 2
mv .
R
2

So, the initial energy of our small object is Ei

And, by definition the final energy of the small object when it reaches infinity will be Ef = 0.
Conservation of energy allows us to set these two equations equal to one another.

GMm 1 2
1
GMm
mv 0 So, mv2
R
2
2
R

And, v

2GM
. This is the initial speed necessary to escape the
R

gravitational field of the planet.

19. Derive expressions for the kinetic, potential and total energy of an orbiting satellite.
GMm

GMm
1
GMm
mv2
. This means that mv2
. Finally, then, KE = mv2
R
2
2R
R

For circular motion,

From our last unit, we know that PE =

Energy against orbit radius

GMm
.
R

So, total energy will be: E =

40

GMm GMm
GMm

2R
R
2R

20

20. Draw graphs showing the variation of the

kinetic energy, gravitational potential
energy and total energy with orbital
radius of a satellite.
See diagram to the right

Energy

00
-20 0

10

-40
-60

KE
PE
E

-80
-100
orbit radius

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IB COURSE COMPANION, CH 10, PP. 391-425
21. Define the electric potential energy difference between two points in an electric field. (Calculations are to be
confined to uniform electric fields.)
Uniform electric fields are hard to create because the term uniform refers
B
both to magnitude and direction a uniform electric field has a constant
value and always points in the same direction. A way to create a uniform
E
field is place two large metal plates with opposite charge a small distance
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IB Physics 2 Forces, Fields and Energy

apart. In the region between the center of the two plates you will find a uniform electric field.
Suppose a proton is moved from a point near the negative plate (A) to a point near the positive plate (B a total
distance of d). The work done to move the charge is the force exerted on the charge x the distance moved. Work =
qEd. This work represents the increase in potential energy of the proton as it is moved near the positive plate.
22. Determine the change in potential energy or change in kinetic energy when a charge moves between two points
at different potentials.
For a positive charge, distance from the negative plate is similar to distance from the earth for a mass. The greater
the distance, the more potential energy it will have.
As the positive charge moves (falls) towards the negative plate it is losing potential energy and gaining kinetic
energy again, just like a mass in a gravitational field.
23. Define the electronvolt. (Students should be able to relate the electronvolt to the joule.)
Because the quantity of charge carried by an electron or proton is so small, it is often convenient to work with a
different unit of energy. The electronvolt is a unit of energy.
1 electronvolt (1 eV) is the amount of energy an electron gains when it moves through a potential difference of 1
Volt. 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J.
24. Define electric potential difference.
It is often convenient to describe a situation in terms that would make it less specific to a particular problem. For
example, we defined electric field to be able to discuss the force on any charge at some location rather than the
force on a specific charge at some location.
Similarly, it is useful to define a quantity that describes the difference in energy between two places for any
charge, rather than for a specific charge. So, like we did with electric field (E = F / q o) we will define the quantity
electric potential difference (or just potential difference) as V = (PE) / qo.
The unit of electric potential is the Volt. Looking at our definition, we can write 1 Volt = 1 JC -1
Since we know that (PE) = Work done, we could also write that V = W / qo.
Then to find the work done to move a charge, qo, through a potential difference of V we can use W = qoV.
Finally, if we take V = W / qo and substitute for W (= qEd) we get V = qoEd / qo = Ed. This is true whenever we
have a uniform field.
25. Define electric potential. (Students should understand the scalar nature of potential and that the potential at infinity is
taken as zero.)
In the last section we found out how to calculate the difference in electric potential in a uniform electric field. If
we move away from a uniform field situation, the math gets a little more involved. Just like we did with gravity,
we will make some arguments about the nature of electric potential and state the answer rather than trying to
derive it mathematically.
Because of the form of the force between isolated point charges (Coulombs Law) we can see that the force never
becomes zero, no matter how far apart we get the two charges. However, we also see that if we get them really far
apart the force becomes very small (so that if we get them infinitely far apart there would be no force). If there is
no force, then the energy of the charges will not change. So it seems logical to make the PE = 0 when they are
infinitely far apart.
So, if two charges start out together and one, q o is moved a distance r away, then the force between them,
F = q qo / 4or2. To find the work done to move them that far apart, we would multiply F * d = Fr = q q o / 4or.
Finally, to find V we divide by qo to get: V = q /4or
This quantity describes the electric potential at a distance r from the charge q.
Since this quantity is associated with energy, it has no direction. If the charge q is positive, the electric potential is
positive. If the charge q is negative, then the electric potential is negative.
26. Determine the electric potential due to various charge configurations. (This includes single point charge,
collections of point charges and the potential outside a charged sphere. Students will not be expected to derive the
equation V = q / 4or)
Determine the electric potential due to each separate point charge. Then simply add them (they are not vectors).
27. State and apply the formula relating electric field strength to potential gradient. (It is sufficient that students
know that E = -V/x).
Suppose a positive charge is moved a small distance, x, through a potential difference V. The work done to
move the charge is given by W = Fx = qEx. But, the work is also given by W = qV. So, qEx = qV,
Rearranging slight gives: E = V / x.
This result does not tell us the direction of E. To find that, we must think about how a charge moves in relation to
potential. Things move, on their own, to decrease their potential energy. So, if we move in a direction so that V is
positive (Vfinal is greater than Viniital) we know the electric field has to point the opposite way. Similarly, if we
move so that V is negative (Vinitial is greater than Vfinal) then the electric field points the way we went. So we will

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IB Physics 2 Forces, Fields and Energy

28.

29.

30.

define a positive electric field direction as the direction in which V decreases. This means that we need to modify
our result as follows: E = - V / x
Describe the similarities and differences between gravitational fields and electrical fields.
Gravity
Electricity
Acts on mass (+ only)
Acts on charge (+ or -)
F = -GmM/r2 (attracts only)
F = kqQ/r2 (attracts or repels)
Infinite range
Infinite range
g = -GM/r2
E = kQ/r2
V = -GM/r
V = kQ/r
Work done is independent of path
Work done is independent of path
Work done = m V
Work done = q V
PE = -GmM/r
PE = kqQ/r
Relative strength = 1
Relative strength = 1042
Describe and sketch patterns of equipotential surfaces. (This should include patterns due to isolated point objects
(masses or charges), two point objects and uniform field situations.)
Just as we can draw diagrams to map out the field pattern in all of space, we can draw diagrams showing how
potential behaves.
The idea is to connect all points around an object that have the same potential. This surface is called an
equipotential surface.
The interesting thing about an equipotential surface is that no work is required to move an object around on such a
surface (because V = 0).
Explain the relation of equipotential surfaces to field lines.
One can argue that for any static situation, the field lines must be perpendicular to the surface as follows: static
means that there is no motion. If there is a component of the field parallel to the surface, then this field would
accelerate masses or charges. Since the objects dont move, there can be no component of the field parallel to the
sirface.
Since the surface is an equipotential surface (by definition) it therefore follows that fields are perpendicular to
equipotential surfaces.

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