Practical Electrical Wiring Standards

IEE BS7671:2008+A1:2011 Edition

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Presents

Practical

Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671:2008+A1:2011 Edition

Revision 7

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Contents
1

Overview

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14

1
1
2
3
3
4
5
5
5
6
7
8
8
9

Growth of Electrical Distribution Systems

11

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

11
11
13
14
22

Introduction
Evolution of electrical distribution
Relevance of Alternating Current (AC) systems
Polyphase circuits
Summary

Earthing of Electrical Systems

23

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

23
24
25
33

3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10

Introduction
An overview of the contents of this book
Why is such a standard necessary?
Objective of the Rules
Scope of the Rules
Exclusions
The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
Fundamental principles of the Rules
Organization of the Rules
Appendices
Guidance notes to the Rules
Harmonization with European Standards
Summary

Introduction
Need for earthing in electrical systems
Supply system (source) earthing
Protective earthing of consumer installations
Common earthing practices in low voltage consumer
installations
More on TN-C-S systems
Sensing of earth systems
Earth electrodes
Equipotential bonding
Summary

42
45
46
47
49
50

Planning of Electrical Installations

53

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

53
54
56
57
58
59
59
60

Introduction
Purpose, supplies and structure
External influences
Compatibility
Maintainability
Safety services
Continuity of service
Summary

Electrical Hazards and Protection

61

5.1
5.2
5.3

61
62

5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8

Selection and Erection of Equipment

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9

Introduction
Electrical hazards
Electrical hazards explanation of codes for degree of
protection by enclosures as per BS EN 60529: 1991
specification (IP code)
Electrical shock hazards and preventative measures
Thermal effects
Protection against overcurrent
Protection against voltage disturbances
Summary

Introduction
Common rules
Wiring systems
Isolation, switching, control and monitoring
Earthing arrangement and protective conductors
Other equipment
Luminaires and lighting installations
Safety services
Summary

64
66
78
79
84
87

89
89
89
92
96
100
103
106
107
107

Inspection and Testing

109

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6

109
109
110
111
112
112

Introduction
Initial verification
Testing
Alterations and additions
Periodic inspection and testing
Summary

Requirement for Special Locations or Installations

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16

115

Introduction
115
Locations containing a bath or shower
116
Swimming pools, fountains and other basins
119
Hot air saunas
122
Construction installations
123
Installations in agricultural and horticultural premises
124
Installations in restrictive conductive locations
124
Electrical installations in caravan/camping parks
125
Marinas and similar locations
125
Medical locations
126
Exhibitions, shows and stands
126
Solar photovoltaic power supply systems
127
Mobile or transportable units
127
Electrical installations in caravans and motor caravans
128
Operating and maintenance gangways
129
Temporary electrical installations for structures, amusement
devices for fairgrounds, amusement parks and circuses,
etc.
129

8.17
8.18

Floor and ceiling heating systems

Summary

130
131

Appendix A

Earthing Electrodes

133

Appendix B

Certification and Reporting

153

Appendix C

Problems

163

Appendix D

Solutions

167

Appendix E

Significant changes due to Amendments 1 & 2

183

1
Overview

This chapter provides overview on the contents of the book and provides introductory information
on the necessity, layout and scope of the manual.

Learning objectives

1.1

To familiarize the readers with the contents of the book and explain its necessity.
To familiarize the readers with the objectives, scope and exclusions of the
regulations.
To familiarize the readers with the fundamental principles and organization of the
regulations.

Introduction
The objective of this book is to familiarize readers with the BS 7671: 2008 - Amendment 1
(formerly known as the IEE Wiring Regulations) (Seventeenth edition) now published as the
British standard BS7671:2008, which covers the requirements for electrical installations of nominal
voltages up to and including 1000 V AC or 1500 V DC. It contains stipulations covering issues of
safety, selection and installation of electrical equipment including those in special locations. The
topics contained in the standard are of interest and relevance to all practitioners of electrical
technology whether they are designers of electrical installations, erection engineers or personnel
responsible for operation and maintenance of the installations.
In order to appreciate the requirements and stipulations contained in the standard better, it is
necessary to have a clear understanding of the fundamental principles that the standard aims to
address. In preparing this book an attempt has been made to give the reader an insight into the
relevance of the stipulations of the standard by first touching upon the basics of the relevant aspects
of electrical theory and then go on to the requirements contained in the standard.

1.2

An overview of the contents of this book

After this overview we will start with the evolution and growth of electrical power distribution
systems. We will touch upon the reasoning behind the adoption of 3 phase AC as the worldwide
standard in electrical power generation, transmission and distribution.
We will cover the basics of neutral earthing of electrical systems at the source and the need for
protective earthing of electrical installations to ensure safe operation of electrical systems. The
need for establishing earth continuity and equipotential bonding of all building services will be
explained. The incidence of voltage surges in electrical systems due to atmospheric factors and
switching of equipment and the need for lightning protection systems in building and surge

2 Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

protective devices for equipment will be discussed briefly. We will also go through in detail the
types of electrical distribution configurations depending on the type of earthing adopted.
We will discuss the hazards of electricity, primarily electric shocks in detail. This topic is of
importance since safety is the essence of the BS 7671:2008 Amendment 1. The topic of electrical
conductors and cables will be taken up as these components form the backbone of any electrical
distribution system.
The control of electrical power and the need for proper isolation of electrical systems for safety will
be touched upon. This again is a topic which the IET standard discusses in detail being an issue
related to safety of personnel operating not only the electrical systems but also those involved in
the operation and maintenance of the mechanical equipment powered by the distribution system.
Of the BS 7671:2008 Amendment 1 (referred to in this book as the Rules), we will cover the
scope of the standard as well as the exclusions as a part of this overview. The Rules are broad
based and cover every conceivable condition of electrical installations some of which are not
usually encountered in general domestic or industrial installations. It would be impossible to cover
all such stipulations in this book. We will therefore focus our discussions on the most common
types of installations and study the recommendations of the Rules as applicable for such
installations.
We will discuss the need for systematic assessment of system requirements while planning an
installation. We will cover the stipulations of the standard in respect of electrical hazards, the
various protective measures recommended and how they are to be applied in different situations.
This is the central issue of the wiring rules being related to human safety. We will review the
recommendations of the standards in regard to selection and installation of equipment including
those in special locations. The subject of initial verification of any installation for conformity with
the regulations, the periodic inspection and certification requirements will also receive due
mention.

1.3

Why is such a standard necessary?

A standard for equipment, appliance, device or an installation is necessary for the following
reasons:
To ensure proper interfacing between equipment and systems designed/
manufactured/installed by different agencies.
To ensure manufacturing/installation quality and the application of a reasonable
standard of safety, commensurate with available technology and experience.
We will illustrate these concepts further.

1.3.1

Ease of interfacing
Imagine for a moment, that there are no standards for electrical appliances. The result would be that
each product manufacturer might choose a different voltage rating for his product. This means that
we would have electrical heaters, ovens, toasters, etc. that cannot work on a common electrical
system. Your power supply company might have a distribution voltage that is unsuitable for any or
all of your gadgets. This obviously is not a helpful situation.
Thus a standard has to be established and its adherence made mandatory within a national or
geographical entity so that generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electrical energy
are done at stipulated voltages and frequency which will vary only within bands specified for each
parameter.
Such a standard enables the designer of an appliance to select a suitable voltage and frequency at
which the appliance can function and also the variations of these parameters which have to be taken
care of in the design for the operational range of the appliance. It also allows the designer to select

Overview

appropriate conductors and configuration of power supply connectors forming part of the
appliance.
In turn, this enables you to buy an off-the shelf appliance and connect it to the electrical outlet at
home and use it without worrying too much about the suitability of the appliance for the electric
supply provided by the power company. Anyone who has travelled with a device made in one
country and tried to use in another where different standards prevail would certainly appreciate the
convenience which uniform standards provide us with.
Also the use of standards reduces the number of variant appliance designs a manufacturer has to
plan and manufacture; an issue which will have adverse cost implications to the manufacturer and
hence to the buyer. Low cost mass production is thus a direct result of standards.

1.3.2

Ensuring quality
Equipment and installations have to deliver functionalities for which they are designed without any
undue hazards to the users or the environment for their entire design life under varying operating
conditions. The provisions of a standard therefore define the parameters for functionality, safety
and maintainability. They also contain stipulations that lay down the tests that the device has to
withstand to either prove a design (by what are called Type tests conducted on prototypes or
selected samples) or ensure that the output and quality parameters are met (by Routine Tests done
on each piece manufactured). Thus when you buy an appliance or equipment that is declared as
conforming to a particular standard, you have an assurance that it will perform under conditions
defined by the standard, is safe to use and will deliver the output or functionalities which the
manufacturer furnishes in accordance with the standard.
An installation standard has a similar objective too. When an installation is carried out in
accordance with a standard, it has to follow the methodologies stipulated in the standard using
recommended accessories which, in turn will ensure that the installation achieves the intended
quality minima, is safe for personnel and environment, and will have adequate provisions for
maintainability. An installation standard also usually lays down the procedures for initial inspection
and testing for certifying that the installation is fit to be put in service and the periodicity and detail
of subsequent inspections and testing to ensure that it is fit to remain in service till the next
scheduled inspection.

1.4

Objective of the Rules

The objective of the Rules is to provide the rules for the design and erection of electrical
installations covered under its scope to ensure safety and proper functioning of the installation.
When use of a new material or invention in an installation results in deviation from one or more
stipulations of the regulations, it should be ensured the degree of safety is not compromised by
such use. The fact of such use shall also be recorded on the electrical installation certificate.

1.5

Scope of the Rules

The requirements of BS 7671 :2008 Amendment 1 are applicable to the following installations:
Industrial, commercial, residential, agricultural/horticultural premises
Prefabricated buildings and caravans
Temporary installations such as those encountered in construction sites, exhibitions,
fares, etc.
Highway power supplies and outdoor lighting installations
Marinas, mobile units, photovoltaic systems, low voltage generating sets, highway
equipment and street furniture.
Medical locations
Operating and maintenance gangways

4 Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

The rules cover the requirements for:

Circuits supplied at nominal voltage up to and including 1000 V AC or 1500 V DC.
Circuits of over 1000 V AC when derived from an installation of less than 1000 V
AC, such as high voltage discharge lighting systems, electrostatic precipitators, etc.
Wiring and cabling systems not forming part of an appliance or equipments internal
wiring and not covered under the standard for the appliance
All consumer installations external to the building
All fixed and External wiring requirements for communication and information
technology systems for power signalling and control
Additions and alterations to an existing installation
The rules may have to be supplemented by the requirements of other British Standards that may be
applicable for an equipment or installation (e.g. neon signs, emergency lighting, installations in
environment containing explosive gases or conductive dust) or by the specified requirements of the
agency ordering the installation.

Note:
Various definitions contained in Part 2 of the Rules have been reproduced in this book at the
appropriate chapters in the manner shown below.

Definition: Supplier
A person who supplies electrical energy, and, where electric lines and apparatus used for that
purpose are owned otherwise than by that person, shall include the owner of those electric lines and
apparatus.

Definition: Suppliers Works

Electric lines, supports and apparatus of, or under the control of, a supplier used for the purposes of
the supply, and cognate expressions can be construed accordingly.

1.6

Exclusions
The following are some of the installations to which the BS 7671 :2008 Amendment 1 are NOT
applicable.
Suppliers Works as defined by the Electricity Safety Quality and Continuity
Regulations:2001
Railway traction, rolling stock and signalling systems
Motor vehicles and equipment on board ships, off shore installations and aircraft
Mines and Quarry equipment covered by other statutory regulations
Lightning protection installations on buildings
Radio interference suppression equipment if not affecting the safety of electrical
installation.
Installations already covered by BS 5655/BS EN 81-1 and electrical equipment of
machines covered by BS EN 60204.
Electric fences covered by BS EN 60335
The standard does NOT cover the requirements for design/manufacture of electrical equipment but
limits itself to their selection and application in electrical installations.
BS 7671:2008 Amendment 1 are non-statutory in nature. In some cases, the requirements of the
Rules will be supplemented by other codes of practice approved under Statutory Legislation such
as Section 16 of Health and Safety at Work etc 1974 Act and Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
(described briefly in the following paragraphs).
For premises on which a Licensing or Statutory authority exercises control, the requirements of
such authorities should be complied in the design and execution of the installation.

Overview

1.7

The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974

The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act covers all work activity and places duties on employers,
the self-employed and employees. The Act is very general in its requirements and is an umbrella
act under which about 40 sets of Regulations have been made including:
Electricity at Work Regulations
The Asbestos Regulations
The Noise at Work Regulations
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
Contravention of these Regulations is a criminal offence and persons can be prosecuted
personally, not just their employers. Employees are duty bound to co-operate with their employers
in helping them fulfil their duties under the legislation.

1.8

Electricity at Work Regulations 1989

Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 covers every aspect of the design, construction, maintenance,
and use of electricity, whatever the voltage. They include all workers, from electricians and
engineers to teachers, typists, doctors, etc. Some important regulations are:

1.9

R 3 Employers and employees have to comply with the regulations in so far as

matters are within their control.
R 4 Covers the construction, maintenance, and use of systems and the suitability of
any protective equipment used.
R 13 Precautions for work on equipment made dead.
Adequate precautions shall be taken to prevent electrical equipment, which has been
made dead in order to prevent danger while work is carried out on or near that
equipment, from becoming electrically charged during that work if danger may
thereby arise.
R 14 Work on or near live conductors. No person shall be engaged in any work
activity on or so near any exposed) live conductor that danger may arise unless
- It is unreasonable in all the circumstances for it to be dead; and
- It is reasonable in all the circumstances for him to be at work on or near it while
it is live; and
- Suitable precautions are taken to prevent injury.
R 16 Persons to be competent to prevent danger and injury
The Electricity at Work Regulations guidance states that competence can be made up
of the following:
- Adequate knowledge of electricity.
- Adequate experience of electrical work..
- Adequate understanding of the system to be worked on and practical
experience of that class system.
- Understanding of the hazards which may arise during the work and the
precautions which need to be taken..
- Ability to recognize at all times whether it is safe for work to continue.

Fundamental principles of the Rules

The fundamental principles contained in Chapter 13 of the Rules are essentially an outline of the
issues it addresses. These will be individually covered in this manual in the coming chapters and
therefore not being given in detail here. The issues are:

Ensuring safety during normal and fault conditions, protections against thermal
effects, over current, fault current and over voltage.

6 Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

1.10

Aspects that need to be considered in the design such as characteristics of available

supply, nature of demand, emergency supplies for safety services, environmental
considerations, conductors to be used, type of wiring, protective equipment,
emergency control, isolation and switching, accessibility for operation, etc.
Selection of electrical equipment in order to suit the voltage, current capacity and
frequency of the supply system.
Erection of equipment using good workmanship and proper materials, use of
conductors with proper sizing and rating, proper jointing and connections at terminal
points, installations in a manner not to cause temperatures in excess of the design
temperatures and verification and testing of equipment periodically to avoid
degradation.

Organization of the Rules

The Rules are organized into the following parts:
Part 1 covers the object, scope and fundamental principles, which we have briefly touched upon in
the preceding paragraphs.
Part 2 contains definitions of the terms used in the Rules.
Part 3 sets out the assessment of general characteristics of an installation. The general purpose for
which the installation is to be used, the maximum demand in amperes which it will draw from the
supply, the earthing arrangement, the nature of power supply source/s and their parameters,
ascertaining their suitability to the installation under consideration, special requirements for
installations used for safety services or standby services, need for change over arrangements to a
redundant source or considerations for parallel operation of sources etc. will be the prime
characteristics that will receive due attention.
Part 4 deals with the issue of protection for safety. This part covers basic protection i.e. protection
against normal conditions and protection against fault conditions. It deals with thermal effects
during normal operation, protection against over currents, over voltage, under voltage etc. The need
for proper isolation and switching of installations and their role in safe operation of the installation
are also covered.
Part 5 covers the rules for selection and erection of wiring systems, switchgear, earthing
arrangements, other equipments (such as low voltage generating sets, rotating machines,
transformers, luminaires), safety services (such as emergency lighting, fire protection applications),
etc.
Part 6 deals with inspection and testing of installations. This includes the requirements for initial
verification and testing after an installation is completed as well as after additions and alterations to
an existing installation. Requirements for periodic inspection are also stipulated. Sample formats
for the issue of Electrical Installation Certificates for different types of inspection carried out as per
this part are also included in Appendix 6
Part 7 contains the details of special installations where safety issues are of vital importance. This
includes installations in baths, showers, swimming pools, saunas, construction sites, caravans and
caravan parks, marinas, exhibitions, shows and stands, solar photovoltaic power systems, mobile
units, temporary electrical installations, medical locations, operating and maintenance gangways
floor and ceiling heating systems, and so on. In all these cases the environment with high humidity,
presence of water, high temperature with particular requirements occur and special steps need to be
taken to ensure that the installation will remain safe and in good order over an extended period of
time.
The arrangement of BS 7671 may be better understood by considering the plan illustrated in Figure
1.1.

Overview

Part 1: Scope, Object and Fundamental Principles

Part 3:

Part 4:

Part 5:

Assessment of
General
Characteristics

Protection
for Safety

Selection and
Erection of
Equipment

Part 6:

Part 7:

Inspection

Special

and Testing

installations or
locations

Part 2: Definitions
Figure 1.1
Organization of the Rules

Part 1 gives the overriding requirements and is therefore placed at the top.
Part 2 gives the underlying Definitions, and is therefore placed underneath.
Note that where Special Installations or Locations as described in Part 7 are involved the general
requirements are supplemented or modified. At each stage the designer must therefore check for
that involvement.

1.11

Appendices
The Rules also contain the following fifteen appendices. The Appendices do not form part of the
Rules, but provide need to know information.

Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4

Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
Appendix 8

Appendix 9
Appendix 10
Appendix 11
Appendix 12
Appendix 13

Appendix 14

Appendix 15

British Standards to which reference made

Statutory regulations and associated memoranda
Time/current characteristics of over current protective devices
Current-carrying capacity and voltage drop for cables and flexible
cords
Classification of external influences
Electrical Installation Certificate and Periodic Inspection Report forms
Harmonized cable core colour
Current-carrying capacity and voltage drop for busbar trunking and
powertrack systems
Definitions -multiple source, DC and other systems
Protection of conductors in parallel against overcurrent
Effect of harmonic currents on balanced three-phase systems
Voltage drop in consumers installations
Methods for measuring the insulation resistance/impedance of floors
and walls to Earth or to the protective conductor system
Measurement of earth fault loop impedance: consideration of the
increase of the resistance of conductors with increase of temperature
Ring and radial final circuit arrangements

8 Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

1.12

Guidance notes to the Rules

The IET has published a series of seven Guidance Notes to aid users of the Rules.
1. Selection an erection of Equipment
2. Isolation and Switching
3. Inspection and Testing
4. Protection against Fire
5. Protection against Electric Shock
6. Protection against Over current
7. Special Locations
Guidance Notes 1 and 3 are of most interest to installers and inspectors. The NICEIC requires its
contractors to possess these
There is also an On-Site Guide for small installations which enables simple designs to be done
with minimal calculations.
These are non statutory and are targeted mostly at designers of installations.

1.13

Harmonization with European Standards

Definition: Harmonized Standard
A Standard which has been drawn up by common agreement between national standards bodies
notified to the European Commission by all member states, details published in the Official Journal
and published by each member state under national procedures.
To comply with European Union directives, and thereby assist free trade without technical barriers,
member states are required to harmonize their technical standards. To do this, committees are
formed, drawn from the standards committees of the different states. The European Mechanical
Engineering standards body is CEN and the Electrical Engineering standards body is CENELEC.
The first step is a Harmonization Document (HD), which is a standard containing most of the
general requirements of each state in a common format. There is provision for each state to have its
own variations on this. The next stage is to produce a Euro Norm; this is a standard agreed by all
member states, the details being published in the Official Journal which then must be published in
every member country with any conflicting national standard being withdrawn. A BS EN is a
British Standard based completely on an EN. This will be identical in every respect with other
European normalized standards. A Many European electrical standards are based on international
standards as produced by IEC the International Electro-technical Commission. If a CENELEC
standard is based on an IEC standard it takes the number as part of its own: e.g. IEC 439 was
adopted by CENELEC and became EN 60439. Our BS 5486 became BS EN 60439.
The Wiring Rules since the 15th Edition has been based on IEC 60364. The 17th edition saw the
adoption of the IEC numbering system, in which the component parts of a Regulation number are
separated by a decimal point, as an aid to implementing changes to the requirements given in the
International (IEC) and European (Cenelec) base documents.
A number of the requirements contained in BS 7671:2008 Amendment 1 are particular to the
United Kingdom. To show where this is the case, a 100 component has been introduced to the
numbering system. For example, Regulation 522.2.100.

Overview

1.14

Summary
We had an overview of the contents of this book in this chapter. We discussed the need and
relevance of standards for engineering products and installations. We also covered the objectives
and scope of the BS 7671:2008 Amendment 1. We had a look at the fundamental principles of
the Rules and the organization of the Rules. The movement towards harmonization of the rules
with European Electrical standards was also brought out.
This book is not intended to replace BS 7671:2008 Amendment 1 as a work of reference but is
merely an introduction to it. In case further information is required it is recommended that the
participants study the standards as well as other references such as the Guidance notes issued by
IET. A lot of published literature is available on these topics by industry bodies and reputed
manufacturers of electrical equipment as well as on the Internet and can be referred for assistance
in solving specific problems one may come across.

10 Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

2
Growth of Electrical Distribution
Systems

This chapter provides details for the development of electrical distribution systems with special
reference to alternating current systems and polyphase circuits.

Learning objectives

2.1

To familiarize the readers with the growth of electrical distribution systems

To familiarize the readers with the relevance of AC systems and polyphase circuits

Introduction
In this chapter, we will learn about the growth of electrical power distribution and how three phase
AC system has become the de-facto standard for electrical networks all over the world. We will
also see the possible types of connections between three phase sources and three phase loads. We
are sure that most readers are aware of these fundamental facts but all the same, these facts have
been added to the book in the interests of comprehensive coverage.

2.2

Evolution of electrical distribution

When Michael Faraday invented the first electricity generator, he could have hardly imagined that
an entire new technology will follow his invention and electricity would become an integral part of
our daily life. Today, it is difficult to carry on with most of our routine activities without electricity
being available. This has naturally given rise to an extensive electrical network in all parts of the
globe for generation and distribution of electric power.
In its most simple form, an electrical circuit (Figure 2.1) consists of:
A source
A load
Conductors that carry the load current from the source to the load

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Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

Conductors

Source

Figure 2.1
A Simple Electrical Circuit

The source could be a primary or secondary battery, a generator driven by a prime mover or a
photovoltaic cell. The load is an energy-consuming device which converts electricity into some
other form of energy. It can be a motor which converts electrical to motive energy, a lamp which
converts electricity into light energy, a heating element converting electricity into heat or a
chemical reactor such as an electrolytic cell. Conductors are materials which carry the electrical
current from the source to the load and back thus completing the electrical circuit and are made of
materials such as copper or aluminium. Although most metals conduct electricity to some extent
their electrical resistance is much higher than the above two materials.
This simple circuit is not a very practical system and needs other devices to work properly. Rarely
a source feeds just a single load. Also the loads need to be connected and disconnected as and when
required. So we now have an improved version of the basic circuit (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2
An improved version of electrical circuit

The source needs to be isolated from the distribution system too. And also the distribution system
needs to have a single point control. With these facilities added the system now looks like the one
in Figure 2.3.

Growth of Electrical Distribution Systems 13

Figure 2.3
A more practical version of electrical circuit

When you have hundreds of large power sources and millions of loads separated by long distances
and all of them interconnected in some way to ensure that a load can be fed by more than one
source, it adds a lot of complexity to the distribution system. The simple systems shown above are
no longer adequate.

2.3

Relevance of Alternating Current (AC) systems

The systems we saw above show the loads being directly connected to the source. In other words,
the source and loads operate (nearly) at the same voltage. When the quantity of power to be
handled increases, the conductors which carry this power have to operate at higher and higher
currents (as per the formula Power =Voltage x Current, assuming a pure resistance to be the load)
the voltage being a constant value decided by the consuming appliances.
Any electrical conductor has a critical value of current beyond which the power loss in the
conductor (computed by the formula P = I x I x R, I being the current and R the resistance of the
conductor) will cause the conductor to attain excessive temperatures. The equilibrium temperature
that the conductor attains is decided by the following factors:
Power loss as calculated above converted to heat. (It is worth noting that the
resistance of the conductor material is not constant but will increase with temperature
according to the temperature coefficient of resistance for the material).
Heat dissipation from the conductor to the environment through conduction,
convection and radiation decided by the conductor geometry. In the case of insulated
conductors and cables, the heat dissipation will have to be done through the layers of
insulation.
Capacity of the conductor to store the heat (decided by the specific heat of the
material and the mass of the conductor).
The temperature attained by the conductor is limited by the value which the insulating material
used to insulate the conductor (or in the case of bare conductors to support it) can tolerate without
suffering failure of insulation. An insulating material has a negative coefficient of resistance and
beyond a critical temperature the insulation can become conductive. It may also lose mechanical
strength in the process of heating up. The resulting fault would cause much higher currents due to
the short-circuit faults which will result. In extreme cases, the conductor itself can attain
temperatures close to its melting point and melt away.
Another factor to be considered is the efficiency of transmission; more the loss in
transmission/distribution, the lower the overall system efficiency.

14

Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

One way to prevent excessive conductor heating is to increase the conductor size and put a number
of conductors in parallel. This again has physical limits beyond which the conductor capacity
cannot be increased.
Alternatively, the system voltage can be increased so that the current value for a given quantum of
power transmitted will reduce in inverse proportion. This will necessitate use of thicker insulation
in the appliances sufficient to withstand the higher voltage, which in turn will make the appliances
more expensive. This method also has practical limits beyond which voltage cannot be increased
without compromising economy and safety. The ideal solution is therefore to use a mix of voltages
so that transmission, distribution and consumption, each with an optimum value decided by
economic considerations appropriate to the application.
AC systems give us an easy way to achieve this using a transformer, which can either step up or
step down the voltage as required. Transformers step up the voltage for transmission of power over
long distances and near the loads, the voltage can be stepped down again to a value convenient for
consuming appliances.
Generators are capable of generating various waveforms but the requirement to be able to
transform voltages leads to the choice of a sinusoidal wave. This is the only waveform which will
transform into another sinusoid. The sinusoidal primary current produces a sinusoidal magnetic
field within the transformer which induces an emf in the secondary which is proportional to the rate
of change of the magnetic field (i.e. the differential). The differential of a sine wave is another sine
wave - just shifted by 90 degrees.
AC systems have thus become a standard all over the world for electrical systems. Figure 2.4
illustrates the basic configuration of an AC system.

Figure 2.4
A simple example of an A.C. power system

In most cases, transmission as well as distribution is done at more than one voltage to make the
system more efficient (in other words, reducing the power loss in the conductors). This is done
depending on the quantum of power transferred and the distances over which it is done.

2.4

Polyphase circuits
As you would have noticed, the circuits shown above have two conductors, one going to the load
and one returning from the load. This is called a single phase system in AC. A single-phase supply
is suited to certain types of loads such as Lighting and heating. But when it comes to rotary electrodynamic equipment, such as a motor, it has some disadvantages. This prompted the use of a
different type of a system where more than two conductors are used.
Figure 2.5 shows the winding (on the stator or the fixed portion) of a simple electrical generator
and two adjacent poles on the rotor (rotating part) of the generator.

Growth of Electrical Distribution Systems 15

N
E

Note
N and S are the poles of the rotor magnetic
System
A and B are terminals on the stator winding
One pole pitch apart
C is the mid-point of the winding
D and E divide the winding into three
Equal parts
Figure 2.5
Theory of polyphase generator

The voltage generated across A and B is the resultant of the voltages in each turn whose phasors lie
along the semicircle with diameter A and B in Figure 2.6.

16

Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

D
60
45

Notes
1. AB, AC, CB, AD, DE and EB are voltage phasors between the
Corresponding points on the winding shown in Fig 2.6.
2. Angle C is 900
3. AC= CB=(AB)/ 2
4. AD=DE=EB
5. AX=1/2(AD) = BY
AB=AX+BY+DE = 1/2(AD) + 1/2(AD) + AD = 2AD
Therefore, AD= DE=EB=(AB/2)
AB is the voltage phasor of a single Phase system (of voltage value V1).
The voltage phasors of two phase system are AC and CB Having A
Value V1/ 2
AD, DE and EB are the voltages of a three Phase system of voltage
value V1/2
Figure 2.6
Voltage phasors of a poly-phase generator

This resultant can thus be represented by the phasor AB which is the diameter of the circle. Now
let us take another point C on the winding being the midpoint between A and B. The voltage
phasors now are AC and CB. The voltage phasors are 90 Degrees apart. This is known as a twophase supply system. Similarly points D and E dividing the winding into three equal parts will
produce voltage phasors AD, DE and EB giving rise to a three-phase supply system.
The box below shows a comparison of power handled for single phase, two-phase, 3-phase and mphase systems. It can be seen from the comparison that the power output of a two phase system is
41.4% higher than that of the single phase system and for the three phase system it is 50% higher
than the single phase system. Beyond this, the increase obtained by increasing the no. of phases to

Growth of Electrical Distribution Systems 17

higher values becomes marginal. Even for an infinite no. of phases the additional output is only 7%
higher than the 3-phase system. A generator thus works at a power output near the theoretical
maximum value when it feeds a three-phase system.

The three-phase system has thus been widely adopted for use in electrical systems all over the
world. Even when single-phase loads are to be fed they are essentially fed from taking the supply
from any one phase of the three-phase system. The three-phase system are represented by phasors
and waveforms as shown in Figure 2.7.

18

Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

Phasors
VA

120

1200

120

VC

VB

Wave Form

360 Represents one voltage cycle.

For 50 HZ frequency the time per cycle
= 1/50 seconds
= 20 m seconds
Phase B follows phase A by 120 degrees (6.66 m seconds) and
Phase C follows phase B by an equal angle / time
Figure 2.7
Voltage phasors and wave forma in a 3-phase system

One of the main advantages of a three-phase system is the simplicity of motors designed to run on
it. The reason is as follows. A single phase motor can be electrically represented by the Figure 2.8.
The winding is in fact a fixed coil energized with an AC voltage. It produces a magnetic field
which is alternating too as represented by the wave form in Figure 2.9.

Growth of Electrical Distribution Systems 19

Figure 2.8
Voltage phasors and wave forma in a 3-phase system

20

Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

V : Voltage
: Magnetic
Field

10
0

15

20 m secs
25

Time

Figure 2.9
Single phase motor magnetic field waveform

The intensity of the magnetic field varies in magnitude and direction along the axis of the coil.
When a rotor is placed in such a field, it does not experience any torque. Thus a single phase AC
motor is not self starting. Of course, one can use commutators and split windings to make the
motor self-starting but these arrangements introduce complexities in the system.
On the other hand, a three phase motor can be represented by three coils 120 degree apart each
energized by one phase of the supply system which are also 120 degree apart electrically. It can be
shown that this arrangement produces a magnetic field which is of constant magnitude and rotates
in the physical space at a speed decided by the supply system frequency and the number of virtual
poles in the winding. A magnetic rotor placed in the system will lock into the rotating field and
rotate with it. This makes a three phase motor self-starting without adding any complexities.
A three phase system has thus the following advantages:
For a given size of a motor power output is higher than a single phase system.
Similarly, when a given amount of power is transmitted by a three system at a given
voltage over a given distance, the least amount conductor material is used for
achieving the same efficiency.
Single phase motors are not self starting but three phase motors are. Also three phase
motors produce uniform torque which is ideal for the loads being run from such a
system.
It is difficult to operate single phase alternators in parallel since the synchronizing
torque is much lower.

Growth of Electrical Distribution Systems 21

Two types of connections are possible in a three-phase system as illustrated in Figure 2.10. This is
applicable both for a source and a load. Possible combinations of source and load are shown in
Figure 2.11.

Star Connection
(Neutral Optional)

c2

A
a1

c1

a2
b2

b1

B
C

a1-a2 , b1-b2 and c1-c2 are the windings of each phase connected as
shown above to form Star or Delta connection
Figure 2.10
Star and delta configurations

Most systems use the star connection at the source, which gives them a flexibility to feed both three
phase and single-phase loads. This is a de-facto distribution system standard in most parts of the
world for low voltage distribution systems and unless otherwise stated, will be the one that will
figure in our discussions further. A 3-phase 4-wire system is necessary when single-phase loads
(loads across one phase and neutral) are supplied by the system. In this case the neutral of the
source and the load will have to be connected by a neutral conductor. When the current in each of
the phases have equal magnitude and phase angles the system is said to have a balanced load. In a
balanced 3-phase 4-wire system the neutral current is zero. In case only three phase equipment such
a motors are fed from the system the middle conductor can be dispensed with, in which case, the
system becomes a 3-phase 3-wire system. A source may feed a combination of loads requiring a 3wire and 4-wire system.

22

Practical Electrical Wiring Standards IEE BS7671: 2008+A1:2011

3Phase- 4Wire System

Source Star
Load Star
Neutrals Connected

3Phase- 3Wire
Source Delta
Load Star
(Can also be Delta)
Neutral- not available
from Source

Figure 2.11
Three phase system connections

2.5

Summary
In this chapter, we discussed the evolution of electrical distribution systems and the advantages of
using AC systems. We also saw how a poly-phase AC system is better than a single phase system.
We briefly touched upon the connections possible in a three phase system.