FINAL Pea Manual

Pea
Production Manual
Index
2 Plant Description
5 Adaptation
7 Variety Selection
10 Field Selection and Preparation
13 Production
14
14
16
16
20
20
23
23
24
25
25
Method of Seeding
Seed Quality
Seed Treatment
Inoculation
Spring Pre-plant/Pre-emergent Weed Control
Fertility
Seeder (equipment) Setup
Seeding Rate
Row Spacing
Seeding Depth and Time of Seeding
Rolling
26 Disease and Pest Control

27
29
38
43
In-crop Weed Control

Disease Management
Insect Management
Environmental and Herbicide Stress Symptoms
46 Harvest Management
50 Post-Harvest Storage and Handling
Pea Crop Production Manual
Quick Facts
Upon pea germination and seedling
emergence, pea cotyledons and seed
coat remain below the soil surface.
Varieties grown in Saskatchewan are
relatively indeterminate, meaning they
will continue to grow and flower over
an extended period of time until some
stress factor induces maturity.
Plant Description
Pea is an annual plant with slender, succulent
stems, grown in cool temperate zones throughout
the world.
still flat. Over a period of about 24 to 30 days the

pods mature until the dry seed stage is reached.
Pods are 4 to 10 centimetre (cm) long and 1 cm
wide, and usually contain six to eight seeds.
Upon pea germination and seedling emergence,

pea cotyledons and seed coat remain below the
soil surface (Figure 1). The first two scale leaves
are relatively small, and seldom emerge completely from the ground. If the young seedling
is damaged, re-growth is possible from buds at
the base of these scale leaves. The first scale
leaf is located at the first node position. The
second scale leaf develops at the second node
position. Under favourable growing conditions,
basal branches will develop from one or both of
these nodes by the sixth leaf stage. Once both
scale nodes are produced, the shoot continues to
develop and unfolds into the first true leaf at the
third node position and usually consists of one
pair of leaflets and a tendril. An internode follows
and then a second leaf is formed at the fourth
node. Growth is usually rapid by this stage and
under favorable growing conditions; two nodes
can develop in as little as seven days. In semileafless peas, tendrils replace the leaflets. These
tendrils give the pea plant enhanced standability
and reduced lodging.
Varieties grown in Saskatchewan are relatively
indeterminate, meaning they will continue to grow
and flower over an extended period of time until
some stress factor induces maturity. Flowers
begin to be produced at about the 12th to 16th
node stage. Typically one to three flowers, which
are self pollinated prior to opening, are produced
at each flowering node. Pods develop and within
seven to 10 days are fully elongated, although
35
Figure 1. Pea seedling node stages

Source: Pulse Production Manual 2000
Quick Facts
Peas do not tolerate water-saturated or
salt-affected soils.
Peas can tolerate some hot weather
or drought stress during flowering, but
yields may be reduced.
Pulse crop adaptation trials conducted
at seven locations in Saskatchewan
showed pea to be the most widely
adapted pulse crop across the agroecological zones in Saskatchewan.
Adaptation
Pea has a relatively shallow root system. Planting peas on cold, poorly drained soils should be
avoided, as it favours the development of seedling
diseases and root rots. Peas do not tolerate watersaturated or salt-affected soils. Well drained, clay
loam soils are ideal for pea production. Peas can
tolerate some hot weather or drought stress during flowering, but yields may be reduced.
The best growing temperature range is when
daytime highs are between 13C and 23 C.
Field pea has traditionally been considered nondrought tolerant and best adapted to the Moist
Dark Brown and Black soil zones. Flower abortion
can occur at high temperatures. However, when
seeded early, pea has proven to be productive
in most years in the Brown and Dark Brown soil
zones and is now considered relatively drought
resistant. Pulse crop adaptation trials conducted
at seven locations in Saskatchewan showed pea
to be the most widely adapted pulse crop across
the agro-ecological zones in Saskatchewan.
Pea is well adapted to crop rotations with cereals
such as barley, spring wheat, or durum wheat. Research carried out at the Semiarid Prairie Agricultural Research Centre at Swift Current found that
pea roots reach a depth of approximately 0.75 to
metre (m), compared to 1.5 to 2 m for wheat. In
stubble conditions, pea is able to efficiently use
soil moisture when the top metre of the soil profile
has been recharged by fall or spring rains. Soil
moisture below 1 m remains in reserve for the
following crop. In crop rotation trials, spring wheat
and durum wheat grown on pea stubble produced
higher yields and a higher protein percentage
compared to wheat grown on wheat stubble.
Pea can be grown under irrigation, with potential

yield much higher than on dryland. However,
special attention must be paid to prevent losses
due to disease and lodging. Early maturing,
short-vined varieties are best suited to irrigation.
Attention to rotation is more important compared
to dryland due to a more favorable environment
for disease. Early seeding is critical due to longer
maturity in the absence of moisture stress. Ensuring adequate moisture at seeding will promote
quicker emergence. Avoid excess moisture prior to
flowering, as this promotes vegetative growth without contributing to higher yield, and ensure water
is not limiting during the flowering period. Once
flowering is complete, do not irrigate if it results in
excess moisture conditions.
Vine length, maturity, and disease resistance
ratings should be considered when selecting
a variety to grow under irrigation. The CanadaSaskatchewan Irrigation Diversification Centre at
Outlook, Saskatchewan, compares pea varieties
under irrigation conditions and provides recommendations for optimal production of irrigated
pea.
Quick Facts
Both yellow and green cotyledon pea
varieties are grown in Saskatchewan.
Nearly all varieties are semi-leafless leaf
type with tendrils instead of leaflets.
Historically, yellow pea varieties yield
higher than green varieties, but the gap
has narrowed as new green varieties
have been introduced.
Bleaching resistance is an important
consideration when choosing green
pea varieties. Rain and hot sunny days,
especially if interspersed just prior to
harvest, increases bleaching.
Variety Selection
Both yellow and green cotyledon pea varieties
are grown in Saskatchewan. Most pea varieties
have white flowers and are suitable for human
consumption or livestock feed markets. With premiums paid for human consumption pea, these
markets have been far more important than feed
markets in recent years. Nearly all varieties are
semi-leafless leaf type with tendrils instead of
leaflets. The tendrils of adjacent plants intertwine
to provide better support (standability) for the
entire canopy. This can also reduce foliar disease
development and improve harvest management.
Figure 3. Green pea seed sample

Source: David Stobbe
Figure 2. Yellow pea seed sample

Asia. There is some also production of purple

flowered varieties with coloured seed coats (maple and dun pea). The Saskatchewan Ministry of
Agriculture publishes The Varieties of Grain Crops
annually, which includes pea variety descriptions.
Market demand for a particular class or variety
can change over time. Check with buyers to determine their needs. Smaller niche markets may
exist for certain types and varieties, and not all
buyers are interested in handling all varieties.
Specialty varieties are also available. Forage or

silage types may be leafed or semi-leafless and
generally smaller in seed size. Marrowfat types
are blocky, very large-seeded green cotyledon
peas used in specialty snack food markets in
Generally, field pea yields are similar to hard

red spring wheat and about 1.5 times chickpea
and lentil yields. Historically, yellow pea varieties
yield higher than green varieties, but the gap has
narrowed as new green pea varieties have been
introduced.
Figure 4. Forage pea seed sample

pea rotations as the inoculum is primarily provided by infected crop residues.

Figure 6. Dun pea seed sample
Figure 5. Maple pea seed sample

Varieties with good lodging resistance improve

harvestability and reduce soil tag. Taller pea
varieties do not necessarily have weaker straw
strength; research at the Crop Development
Centre (CDC) has shown that taller varieties are
more competitive against weeds. Adding the
semi-leafless characteristic to new varieties has
improved lodging resistance.
Bleaching resistance is an important consideration when choosing green pea varieties. Rain
and hot sunny days, especially if interspersed
just prior to harvest, increases bleaching.
Mycosphaerella/ascochyta blight is widespread
in pea growing areas in Saskatchewan and can
cause significant yield loss. The current best varietal disease resistant levels are fair, which represents an incremental improvement compared to
varieties available 15 years ago. Mycosphaerella/
ascochyta blight risk increases with shortened
Quick Facts
Perennial weeds such as Canada thistle,
dandelion, perennial sow thistle and
quackgrass are very competitive in
any crop and even more so in a noncompetitive crop like pea.
Few herbicides are registered for
broadleaf weed control in pea and incrop control options may not exist for
certain weeds.
Pea appears on the Avadex label
in Canada but only when the liquid
formulation is used in the spring prior to
seeding.
12
10
Field Selection and Preparation

Pods on the pea plant can be close to ground
level, especially if the plant leans or lodges. It is
usually necessary to cut near ground level to capture all the pods so the physical nature of the field
is important. Land rollers and harvest equipment
modifications like adding cutter bar flexibility has
allowed successful pea harvest on a wide range
of fields. Additionally, plant breeding efforts have
produced varieties that have improved stature and
lodging resistance characteristics. Pea does not
handle water saturated soils well, so a field with
good drainage is important.
Perennial weeds such as Canada thistle, dandelion, perennial sow thistle and quackgrass are
very competitive in any crop and even more so in a
non-competitive crop like pea. Herbicides currently
registered in pea have little to no effect on most
of these weeds. It is very important to control
perennial weeds in the year(s) prior to seeding
pea. Good weed control in pea requires a long
term strategy involving the entire crop rotation. A
pre-harvest glyphosate application, in years when
the crop and timing allows, is a key component of
long-term perennial weed control.
Ensure herbicides are available to control non-perennial weeds expected to be competing with the
crop. This requires knowledge of the fields weed
history, including herbicide resistance weeds if
they are present. Few herbicides are registered for
broadleaf weed control in pea and in-crop control
options may not exist for certain weeds. Remember to consider volunteer crops as weeds as well.
Pea is not a competitive crop and if a certain weed
is likely to be present in high numbers, and cannot
be controlled, field selection may have to change.
Fall weed control options, in addition to pre and

post-harvest glyphosate for perennial weed control, should be reviewed to determine if they offer
any advantages.
Late fall application of a phenoxy herbicide such
as 2,4-D or MCPA to control winter annual weeds
such as flaxweed, stinkweed, and shepherds
purse may be helpful. The maximum rate applied
should be 280g ai/ha or 113g ai/ac (8 active
ounces). Since pea is seeded early and spring
application of glyphosate is common, application
of a phenoxy in the fall prior to seeding pea is no
longer a common practice. 2,4-D may be cheaper
compared to glyphosate and also offers a way of
diversifying the herbicide mix on a particular field
over time. This practice may fit in fields where
seeding is delayed or in fields where very early
spring weed growth is expected.
Pea appears on the Avadex label in Canada but
only when the liquid formulation is used in the
spring prior to seeding.
If Group 2 resistant kochia is present, there are
only two herbicides registered with activity on
the resistant biotypes. One is Viper, which suppresses kochia, the other is Authority, but it has
re-cropping restrictions.
Non-herbicide weed management practices
should be integrated where possible. Chaff collection has a significant effect on reducing seed
dispersal. For example, over 70 per cent of wild
oat seeds are ejected from the combine in chaff.
11
Chaff collection should be considered as part of

an integrated weed management program to slow
the spread of weed invasions.
Pea is susceptible to soil residues of many herbicides commonly used in-crop and during pre-seed
in Saskatchewan. The Saskatchewan Ministry
of Agricultures Weed Control Guide provides
a listing of re-cropping restrictions for residual
herbicides in lentil.
If a possibility exists that a soil residual product
might affect pea growth, a test plot should be
planted the year before pea is grown in that field.
The plot should be grown to maturity to ensure
that there are no late season herbicide effects on
yield or crop quality. Another option is to submit
soil samples to a lab for a bioassay. However,
bioassay results from laboratories are only as
good as the sampling protocol used to collect the
soil samples and 100 per cent accuracy cannot
be guaranteed. False positive results do no harm,
but a false negative could mean crop damage or
failure.
Disruption of disease cycles is critical. Pea is
especially susceptible to the mycosphaerella/ascochyta blight complex and careful consideration
must be given to crop rotation to reduce the risk
of this disease complex. A three year interval between pea crops has been suggested to minimize
the effect of disease.
14
12
Quick Facts
Pea fits well into a direct seeding crop
production system.
As stubble height increases, the height
of the lowest pod also increases, which
makes swathing or combining easier and
reduces shattering losses.
Use of high quality seed is the first
step in establishing a rapidly emerging,
vigorous stand, and producing a high
quality, profitable crop.
Seed purity is determined by the nature
and amount of unwanted contaminants
in the pure seed.
Pea inoculated with the proper rhizobium

(bacterial) strain has the potential to
fix up to 80 per cent of its nitrogen
requirement through nitrogen fixation.
Inoculants are available in different
formulations, liquid, powder, and
granular.
Weed management in pea crops should
be kept in mind throughout the rotation,
not just the year it is grown.
The recommended plant population for
pea is 75 to 85/m2.
13
Production
Method of Seeding
Pea fits well into a direct seeding crop production
system. In a six year study of conventional tillage,
reduced tillage, and no-till in Dickenson, ND,
stand establishment and yield of peas following
wheat increased under no-till. No-till consistently
ranked number one in yield in each year of the
trial.
As stubble height increases, the height of the
lowest pod also increases, which makes swathing or combining easier and reduces shattering
losses. Pea sown into standing stubble or heavy
crop residue can be more prone to late spring
frost injury compared to pea grown in fields with
lower levels of residue. This is because bare soil
absorbs more heat from the sun during the day
and then releases it at night. Thus, straw residue
must be spread evenly to minimize potential frost
injury.
Seed quality includes genetic and mechanical

purity, germination and vigour, and levels of seedborne disease.
Seed purity is determined by the nature and
amount of unwanted contaminants in the pure
seed. Impurities include unwanted crop seed,
weed seeds, and inert material. They can adversely impact crop yield and quality, as well as
increase production costs.
Seed Quality
Seed germination tests assess the ability of the

seed to produce a healthy plant under favourable growing conditions. These tests are generally conducted under controlled conditions that
provide ideal moisture, temperature, and light for
a prescribed period of time. Unfortunately, these
tests often over-estimate actual field emergence.
Seed lots with low germination often lack the ability to produce strong, healthy seedlings.
Use of high quality seed is the first step in establishing a rapidly emerging, vigorous stand and
producing a high quality, profitable crop. Proper
inoculation, fertilization, pest control or any
recommended practice will be of limited value if
planted seeds do not produce a healthy, vigorous
stand.
Seed vigour tests, conducted by some seed

testing labs, are conducted under more adverse
conditions than a germination test. Vigour tests
are not standardized and conditions imposed
upon the seed may vary from lab to lab. Vigour
tests are an attempt to more realistically pre-
Pea does not provide much crop residue after

harvest, therefore care must be taken to prevent
soil erosion. For more information about reducing
erosion in crop rotations that include pea, see the
Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture publication,
Securing Low Erosion Risks after Growing Pulses
and Oilseeds.
14
Planting high quality seed should increase tolerance to seedling diseases, promote rapid and
uniform stand establishment, enhance tolerance
to early seasons stresses such as adverse temperature and moisture conditions, promote rapid
root development leading to improved nutrient
and water use efficiencies, result in enhanced
diseases, weed, and insect control, and produce
higher yields and superior seed quality.
dict field seedling emergence. Seed vigour can

decrease due to mechanical damage, immaturity
at harvest, seed age, pathogen (disease) infection, wet harvest conditions, and seed handling
during cleaning and seeding operations. Although
not standardized, vigour tests can provide useful
seed quality information.
Pea seeds are susceptible to mechanical damage during harvesting, handling, storage, and
seeding. Dry pea seed (14 per cent or less seed
moisture) is brittle and difficult to handle without
chipping and splitting the seed. All handling
should be done as gently as possible. Even nearly
invisible seed cracks can result in a reduction in
germination. Seed damaged after a sample is
submitted for germination and/or vigour testing
will not perform as expected based on the results
of the test(s). The final cleaned seed lot should be
re-tested if handling damage is suspected.
Application of certain herbicides prior to harvest

can also effect seed germination and/or vigour.
Seed from fields treated with pre-harvest glyphosate should be avoided. The seed may contain
residue which can reduce germination, vigour,
and normal root development. Any pea crop
having a pre-harvest herbicide applied, whether
it is for weed control or crop drydown, has the
potential for reduced germination.
Contamination from seed-borne diseases should
be as low as possible. Table 1 summarizes guidelines for seed disease levels when considering a
lot for seed.
The use of Certified seed assures high quality
seed with respect to purity, germination and
disease level. A listing of Saskatchewan Pedigreed seed growers by variety is available in the
Saskatchewan Seed Guide, available on line at
www.saskseed.ca.
Table 1. Guidelines for Tolerances of Seed-borne Diseases in Chickpea Seed Intended for Planting
(These are guidelines only and should be considered along with farming practices and level of disease risk for the situation)
Disease (Pathogen)
Tolerance and Factors Affecting the Level
Ascochyta
Up to 10 per cent ascochyta infection should not significantly affect plant establishment and yield, as
long as the seed has good germination, and spring conditions promote quick germination and good
seedling vigour.
(Mycosphaerella pinodes,
Ascochyta pinodella, Ascochyta
pisi)
Seed-to-seedling transmission of ascochyta in pea under field conditions is considered low.

In areas where pea production is common, the primary means of infection is air-borne spores from the
overwintering stage of Mycosphaerella pinodes on pea residues.
Seed Rots and Dampingoff
These are soil-borne diseases and are not tested for at seed testing labs.
Pythium sp. and

Phytophthora sp.
Seed treatment in field peas may be beneficial when planting under cool, moist soil conditions or if
using damaged or cracked seed.
Seed Rots and Seedling

Blights
Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia and Fusarium are primarily soil-borne. Botrytis and Fusarium are also often
seed-borne and can be tested for at seed testing labs.
(Botrytis, Sclerotinia,
Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium
species)
Up to 10 per cent infection (Sclerotinia + Botrytis) may be tolerable, but will result in significant seedling blight if a seed treatment is not used.
The importance of seed-borne Fusarium in seed rot and seeding blight in pulses is not known. Some
labs will notify growers if greater than five per cent Fusarium infection occurs. If present, add the
Fusarium value to the Sclerotinia + Botrytis value above (not to exceed 10 per cent).
Source: Saskatchewan Pulse Growers
15
Seed Treatment
Historically, seed treatment of pea for fungal
diseases was not considered necessary to ensure
good stand establishment. However, one or more
of the following trends may increase the value of
seed treatment compared to past recommendations:
Shortened crop rotations.
Earlier seeding due to increased farm size
(cooler soil temperatures).
More crop residue with minimum till and no-till
practices results in slower soil warming.
Improved efficacy and handling of newer seed
treatment products.
Given the brittle nature of a pea seed, especially
if dry, it is easy to crack or peel. Seed treatment
can make a big difference if seed is slightly
mechanically injured. Fungicide seed treatments
protect the seed, by controlling fungi either on
or in the seed, and controlling fungi present in
the soil or crop residue for the early part of the
plants life. Seed treatments are not a cure for
poor seed.
Seed treatment for control of insect pests in pea
is much more limited compared to treatments
available for disease. Insect pests controlled include wireworm and pea leaf weevil. Refer to the
current Saskatchewan Ministry of Agricultures
Guide to Crop Production for current seed treatment options.
Certain fungicides and insecticides may be
harmful to inoculants. Check the label of both the
inoculant and the seed treatment to ensure compatibility and recommended application method.
Review treatment procedures to ensure maximum
bacterial survival. Generally, it is recommended
to treat the seed with the seed treatment product
first, allow it to dry, and then apply the inoculant
16
immediately prior to seeding. The use of granular

inoculant will avoid any problems with direct contact between seed treatment and inoculant.
Inoculation
Pea inoculated with the proper rhizobium (bacterial) strain has the potential to fix up to 80 per
cent of its nitrogen requirement through nitrogen
fixation. Nitrogen fixation is a symbiotic relationship. Both the rhizobium and the plant benefit
from the relationship. Rhizobium enters the root
hairs of the plant and induces nodule formation.
The plant provides energy and nutrients for the
rhizobium living inside the nodules. The rhizobium, in return, converts atmospheric nitrogen from
the soil air surrounding the roots into a form that
can be used by the plant. Rhizobium are not very
mobile so the inoculant must be placed close
to the seed for maximum nodulation. Maximum
nitrogen fixation occurs if the supply of available
soil nitrogen is low and the soil moisture and temperature levels are good at the time of seeding.
If the soil plus fertilizer nitrogen level exceeds 40
kg/ha, nodulation may be reduced. If the nitrogen
level is 55 kg/ha or higher, nodulation can be
dramatically delayed and fixation greatly reduced
or eliminated.
In addition to fixing a substantial quantity of
nitrogen during the growing season, pea makes
a positive contribution to the overall soil nitrogen
level over multiple years. Agronomic practices
that lead to increased nitrogen fixation in a pulse
crop will contribute to nitrogen accumulation in
the crop rotation. As well, an inoculated plant is
more drought tolerant and higher in protein than
one that is not.
Pea requires the rhizobium species for nitrogen
fixation. Examine the label of the inoculant to
make sure that it is appropriate for pea. There are
many different strains of this rhizobium species
and they vary in terms of their effectiveness. Rhizobium leguminosarum strains will nodulate pea,
faba bean and lentil. If the rhizobia are actively
fixing nitrogen, the nodules will appear visibly
red or pink inside if sliced open. Nitrogen fixation
is synchronized with plant growth, supplying the
crop requirements during rapid vegetative growth.
Manufacturers package the inoculant as either a
mixed strain inoculant that contains a mixture of
the best strain (or strains) for pea or a singlestrain inoculant which contains only the rhizobia
that has been identified as the best strain for a
specific crop.
Once the proper inoculant is chosen, steps
should be taken to ensure maximum rhizobia
survivability.
Rhizobium bacteria (either on the seed or in the
package) die if they are exposed to stress such as
high temperature, drying winds, or direct sunlight.
Inoculant must be stored in a cool place prior to
use and must be used before the expiry date.
Following application of the inoculant, plant the
inoculated seed into moist soil as soon as possible. Rhizobia bacteria on inoculated seed will die
quickly if the seed is placed into a dry seedbed.
Inoculants are sensitive to granular fertilizer.
Banding fertilizer to the side and/or below the
seed is recommended. Never mix inoculant with
granular fertilizer.
Inoculants are sensitive to some seed-applied
fungicides. Check the label of both the inoculant
and seed treatment for compatibility. When using
a combination of fungicide and inoculant, apply
the fungicide to the seed first, allow it to dry, and
apply the inoculant immediately prior to seeding.
Inoculants are available in different formulations

liquid, powder, and granular.
Liquid based products offer convenience and better control of application rate, compared to other
forms. However, they are also more susceptible
to damage from environmental extremes prior to
seeding than other inoculant forms. Recommended time from application to seeding is as little as
six hours for some liquid products. Air velocity
settings in air seeders need to be at minimum
settings to reduce desiccation of the bacteria.
If seeding into dry soils or virgin legume land,
double rates should be used. If treated seed is
planted immediately into a moist seedbed, liquid
formulations perform well.
Limited research to evaluate liquid inoculant
applied as a soil treatment when dribbled into
the seed row or side-banded has shown positive
results. But questions remain about its effectiveness under dry conditions or in low organic matter fields. Using liquid as a soil applied inoculant
is not a common on-farm practice at this time.
Powder formulations are more durable and less
prone to desiccation and seed treatment damage, compared to liquid formulations. The bacteria, can still be killed by desiccation so the same
precautions should be taken as with liquid.
Peat based powder inoculants require the use of
a sticker. The application method involves use of
a slurry to slightly damp seed. These products are
not very convenient to use and are not used in
any significant amounts. Ensure stickers are not
detrimental to the rhizobia if using this method.
Self-sticking powdered peat inoculants are peatbased powder inoculants with a sticker incorporated into the formulation. These inoculants are
far more convenient than peat based powder
17
formulations and application rates are easier to

control. Adhesion to the seed can be enhanced if
the seed is slightly damp during inoculation. This
can be accomplished with a small backpack type
pressure sprayer emitting a very fine mist to the
seed during auguring and inoculant application.
Alternatively, wet the seed in the truck overnight
with the deck tilted to facilitate drainage. This allows the seeds to swell and stay slightly moist, assisting in inoculant adhesion. This procedure may
also prevent seed splitting and chipping, which
may be a problem if the seed moisture content is
low (less than 13.5 per cent). Some growers use
a liquid inoculant to dampen the seed when applying the peat based self stick inoculants.
All inoculant formulations will perform equally
well if the inoculant is properly applied and if
environmental conditions are ideal because all
are simply carriers for rhizobia. Under less than
ideal conditions (toxic seed treatments, low pH
soils, cold soil, dry soil, extended treated storage),
the best performing formulation should be granular, followed by peat, and then liquid.
Strain antagonism results from competition for
infection sites. If an inferior strain of rhizobium
infects first, it blocks the best crop specific strain
from infecting. Generally, native soil strains of
Rhizobium leguminosarum are not the optimum
strains. This reinforces the recommendation
to inoculate each time pea is seeded. Western
Canadian research indicated a significant yield
response to inoculation of grain legumes in 30 to
50 per cent of the cases.
Pre-inoculated seed is treated with a peat based

inoculant and encapsulated with a seed coating.
Pre-inoculated seed, treated four weeks prior to
planting, has been shown to provide effective nitrogen fixation. Keep in mind that most inoculant
companies do not back the use of their products
this way.
Pea crops should be inoculated each time they
are grown. This ensures sufficient numbers of
the correct strain of highly effective rhizobia are
available where they are needed. Inoculation is
economical relative to its potential benefits and
nitrogen fertilizer replacement. The risk of poor
nodulation is too great to not inoculate each time
the crop is seeded.
The effectiveness of inoculation may also be
influenced by previous pulse crops in rotation. Testimonial evidence suggests that when
planting inoculated pulse seed on fields with a
repeated history of pulse production, response to
inoculation is sometimes limited. It may be that
indigenous background rhizobia can effectively
nodulate the crop. However, just as different
varieties of pea have slightly different characteristics; different rhizobium strains may differ in their
ability to fix nitrogen. Indigenous rhizobia may
be very effective in forming nodules on legume
plants, but may be inefficient nitrogen fixers. Applying a high quality inoculant at seeding helps
ensure that high numbers of efficient nitrogen
fixing bacteria will occupy the limited number of
infection sites.
Table 2. Granular Inoculant Rates with Different Seed Row

Row Spacing
Rate
Source: Gary Hnatowich
18
The effectiveness of inoculation can be checked

by examining the pulse crop in early summer. It
may take three to four weeks after seed germination before nodulation reaches a point where it
can be evaluated. Although pea is an excellent
nitrogen fixer and the nodules can be easily seen
when a plant is pulled from the ground, the best
way to check for nodulation is to dig a plant and
gently remove the soil from the roots by washing in a bucket of water. Nodules are fragile and
readily pull off if the roots are pulled out of the
soil. Nodules should show as swollen bumps that
develop near the stem close to the soil surface
(Figure 7). Seed applied inoculant should result
in nodules forming on the primary root near the
crown. If the inoculant was soil applied (granular),
nodules should be found on primary and secondary roots. If nitrogen fixation is active, the nodules
will be pink or red on the inside. Lack of nodules
indicates rhizobia did not infect the pulse plant.
Lack of a pink colour (usually green or cream
coloured) indicates the rhizobia are not fixing
nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation declines once plants
begin pod formation and seed development.
Figure 7. Nodulated pea plant
Source: Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture
Handling and application is critical to ensure

maximum survivability of the rhizobia. When applying an inoculant during auguring, operate the
auger at half capacity to allow adequate mixing
and seed coverage. If using a liquid inoculant,
shake the inoculant bag aggressively to evenly
disperse the rhizobia before adding the inoculant
to the seed in the auger.
If seeding is delayed more than one day for
peat based inoculants, check manufacturers
recommendation for re-inoculating. Some liquid
inoculant manufacturers suggest re-inoculation if
the delays from the time of application, to when
the seed is planted exceeds six hours.
Inoculated seed flows through seeding equipment
slowly, so calibration of the seeder is more accurate if it is done using inoculated seed. Anything
that negatively impacts plant growth will also
restrict nitrogen fixation.
If the crop is harmed by such things as herbicide
residue, inappropriate herbicide application, or
poor timing of post-emergent herbicide applications, nitrogen fixation will decline.
If the legume crop is not supplied with adequate
plant nutrients, especially phosphorus, fixation
will be reduced. If seed contains residual traces
of glyphosate, root development (particularly root
hair development) will be abnormal and nodules
are unlikely to develop. Cool, cloudy weather early
in the growing season will delay nodulation.
Rhizobia do not tolerate saline soils, contact with
damaging fertilizers (primarily due to the fertilizer
salt effect), or extremes in soil pH. Fixation of
some pulses can be dramatically reduced in soils
where soil pH levels are near 5.5. On low pH soils,
increasing the inoculation application rate or using a granular inoculant is recommended. Pulse
19
inoculants and pre-inoculated seed products are

supplements, as defined by the Fertilizers Act,
and are subject to registration and monitoring for
quality control.
Spring Pre-plant/
Pre-emergent Weed Control
Weed management in pea crops should be kept
in mind throughout the rotation, not just the year
it is grown.
A spring glyphosate application, either pre-seed
or pre-emergent, is recommended. This provides
early season weed control and may provide control of weeds for which no in-crop control is available. Pea is slower to emerge, so a wider window
between seeding and emergence allows more
time if a post-seed/pre-emergent glyphosate application is planned. However, with good growing
conditions and shallower seeding, emergence
can be quicker than expected, so timing must be
watched closely. Seedlings can be damaged as
early as soil cracking as they are emerging and
come into contact with glyphosate.
More recent herbicides registered for pre-seed
or pre-emergent weed control in pea include
CleanStart and Heat. They can offer enhanced
weed control of certain weeds (eg: glyphosate
tolerant canola, wild buckwheat) and may result
in faster weed burndown.
Non-herbicide options may be considered as well.
Tillage can have a beneficial effect for control of
some weeds while having the opposite effect on
others.
Tillage may be a tool to reduce kochia populations. Kochia appears well adapted to no-till with
germination beginning at 50 cumulative growing
degree days (well before other common weed
species). Burial of kochia seed to at least one cm
20
or deeper can result in reduced germination or

death of the germinated seed prior to emergence.
Tillage to bury kochia seed should not be overlooked as a part of an integrated weed strategy of
control for kochia. However, this has limited value
where minimum or no-till is practiced.
Spring tillage, even minor, significantly increases
the burial and resulting germination of false
cleavers and catchweed bedstraw. Farmers
should consider limiting spring tillage as part of
an integrated weed management program for
cleavers.
Fertility
As with other crops, a soil test should be used
to plan a fertility program for pea. If soil nitrogen
levels are unusually high, nodulation and nitrogen fixation may be adversely affected. Nodule
formation and subsequent nitrogen fixation
are very sensitive to external nitrogen sources,
including fertilizers and available soil nitrogen.
As the supply of nitrogen from soil and fertilizer
increases, the amount of nitrogen fixed by the
plant decreases.
High moisture, coupled with high soil nitrogen in
fallow will produce excessive vegetative growth
at the expense of pod set and seed production.
Maturity will also be delayed, especially for late
maturing varieties.
Pea does not tolerate saline soils and should only
be grown on non-saline soil. Low pH can inhibit
nodulation, reducing nitrogen fixation and plant
growth. Most Saskatchewan soils have a pH
range suitable for pea growth.
Sufficient soil phosphorus is required for nitrogen
fixation and promotes earlier maturity. If using
nitrogen for maturity management, it is critical to
know the starting soil nitrogen levels to increase
success rates. Other macronutrients potassium,

and sulphur may limit optimal yields.
Fertility requirements for pea are not well-defined.
Micronutrients are not likely to limit chickpea
yield but should be measured periodically. Any
abnormal growth should be noted and if symptoms point to a possible micronutrient deficiency,
it should be investigated thoroughly.
Generally, nitrogen fertilizer is not required if
nitrogen fixation is optimized. Well nodulated pea
plants can derive 50 to 80 per cent of their nitrogen requirement through fixation under favorable
growing conditions. The remainder comes from
soil nitrogen available in the soil at seeding, plus
nitrogen released from the soil during the growing
season.
Low levels of available nitrogen should have
little impact on nodulation and nitrogen fixation.
However, when the combined levels of soil and
fertilizer nitrogen reach 28 to 40 kg N/ha, any
additional nitrogen will reduce nodulation and
nitrogen fixation. Combined levels of soil and
fertilizer nitrogen greater than 55 kg N/ha can
dramatically delay nodulation and reduce or eliminate nitrogen fixation. It can take up to three to
four weeks after planting before nodules are fully
functioning.
In soils with nitrogen levels less than 11 kg N/
ha, early plant growth may be poor and plants
may appear yellow for a period of time due to a
nitrogen deficiency. This early nitrogen deficiency
can be corrected by adding low levels of starternitrogen at seeding. Similarly, if nitrogen fixation
is not optimized due to unfavourable growing
conditions (e.g. relatively dry seedbed), pea may
benefit from low rates of starter-nitrogen in some
years. If the available soil nitrogen level is very
low (less than 17 kg N/ha) at planting, a small
amount (20 kg N/ha) of starter-nitrogen fertilizer

may benefit the crop in some years. Although
high levels of starter-nitrogen may appear to help
the crop overcome a nitrogen deficiency during
early crop growth stages, final seed yield may not
increase.
Consider the following points when deciding if
starter-nitrogen should be used:
In fields where pea is grown for the first time,
starter-nitrogen may be useful, particularly on
low nitrogen soils. In the dry soil zones this
should not cause excess growth. Pea is sensitive to seed placed nitrogen so starter-nitrogen
should be kept away from the seed, especially
with narrow seed openers.
Since the growing season is too short to allow
conversion of extra biomass to seed yield, maximizing vegetative growth with nitrogen fertilizer
is of little to no benefit.
Low temperatures, drought, or excessive moisture can inhibit nodulation.
Addition of fertilizer nitrogen in excess of 34 kg/
ha will likely reduce biological nitrogen fixation.
Starter-nitrogen usually enhances vegetative growth and in a wet year this can lead to
increased disease pressure because of a more
favorable environment for fungal diseases. It
may also delay maturity. These risks are a bigger factor in the Moist Dark Brown, Black, and
Thin Black soil zones or in years where excess
moisture is received.
Side-banded or seed-placed monoammonium
phosphate provides small amounts of starternitrogen needed for early plant growth. This may
provide all the starter-nitrogen required.
Harvest operations may be improved if starternitrogen promotes the growth of a taller plant
with lower pods a bit higher off the ground.
21
Phosphorus is an important plant nutrient for pea

and it has a relatively high requirement for the
nutrient. Phosphorus promotes the development
of extensive root systems and vigorous seedlings.
Encouraging vigorous root growth is an important
step in promoting good nodule development.
Phosphorus also plays an important role in the
nitrogen fixing process and in promoting earlier,
more uniform maturity. Pea grown on soils testing low in available phosphorus may respond
to phosphate fertilizer. However, dramatic yield
responses are not always achieved. Even if seed
yield increases are not achieved every year, a pea
crop may benefit from improved stress tolerance
as a result of phosphorus application.
The maximum safe rate of actual phosphate
applied with the seed is 16.8 kg P2O5/ha in a 2.5
cm spread and 22.5 cm row spacing under good
to excellent moisture conditions. This assumes
use of monoammonium phosphate, the most
common source of phosphate fertilizer used in
Saskatchewan. Diammonium phosphate is much
more toxic to seedlings and caution is needed if
used.
Rates of seed-placed fertilizer must be reduced if
the seedbed has less than ideal moisture. Higher
rates of P2O5 fertilizer placed with the seed can
damage the emerging seedlings and reduce the
stand. If higher P2O5 rates are required, banding
the fertilizer away from the seed (side-band or
mid-row band) is recommended. Even low rates of
P2O5 fertilizer can reduce the stand, but the benefit due to increased seed yield usually outweighs
the loss due to stand reduction.
To minimize the chance of seed injury, some
growers apply extra phosphorus with the crop
seeded the year before pea. They will then either
not apply phosphorus the year of seeding pea,
or reduce the amount of phosphorus the year of
22
seeding pea to reduce the chance of seedling

injury. If soil levels of phosphorus are higher due
to previous years applications, Jumpstart may be
able to solubilize enough early season phosphorus to provide the starter effect in the absence
of phosphorus fertilizer.
Potassium is usually not required in most
Saskatchewan soils, but deficiencies may exist,
especially in sandy Black and Grey soils found
in northern Saskatchewan. Soil tests should
indicate whether a shortage exists. Even when
deemed adequate, the crop may not access the
potassium due to other factors. Peas have a high
demand for potassium; about 138 to168 kg K2O/
ha for a 50 bu/ac crop. Generally, potassium
fertilizer should be used any time soil tests show
levels are too low. When soil test levels are very
low, at least a small amount should be seedplaced. However, seed-placing potassium may
cause seedling damage. As with phosphate, a
wider opener may allow for slightly higher safe
seed-placed rates.
The sum of seed-placed potassium (K2O) plus
P2O5 must not exceed the recommended safe
seed placed rate for P2O5.
Sulphur is required in a relatively significant
amount. A 40 bu/ac pea crop requires about the
same amount of sulphur as a 40 bu/ac wheat
crop, approximately 9 to 11 kg/ha. Soils testing
low in available sulphur should have this deficiency corrected by side-banding, mid-row banding, or broadcasting ammonium sulphate, which
contains sulphur in a plant available form. Adding
fertilizer sulphur for pea is not a common practice
through most of Saskatchewan.
Micronutrient deficiencies for pea production
have not been identified as a problem through
pea growing areas of Western Canada, although
no research has been conducted to access

micronutrient requirements of pea. If a micronutrient deficiency is suspected, it is advisable to
analyze soil and plant samples within the suspect
area and compare the analysis to soil and plant
samples collected from a non-affected area of the
same field. If the analysis confirms a micronutrient deficiency at a relatively early growth stage, a
foliar application of the appropriate micronutrient
fertilizer may correct the problem.
Seeder Setup
Pea seed is susceptible to mechanical damage
during harvest, handling, or seeding. Dry seed
(less than 13.5 per cent moisture) is brittle and
can easily crack or chip, leading to reduced
germination. The Prairie Agricultural Machinery Institute (PAMI) has produced a fact sheet,
Moisturizing Pulses to Reduce Damage, on this
subject.
Even non-visible minute damage to the seed can
result in a substantial loss in germination. Seed
bounce should be minimized. Use the lowest possible air speed setting for fans while still allowing
movement of seed through the hoses. It may be
beneficial to have an air release opener designed
to reduce damage to seed. Reduced speed while
seeding often results in pea better stands.
Seeding Rate
The recommended plant population for pea is
75 to 85/m2. Crop stands of this density provide
good competition against weeds and result in
higher yields compared to thinner stands.
Surveys of commercial pea crops in Saskatchewan revealed that this target population is rarely
achieved. Thinner stands, 55 to 70 plants/m2,
(5.2 to 6.6 plants/ft2), with uniform plant-to-plant
spacing are capable of producing high yields
provided that weed control is excellent and soil
moisture conditions are good. As soil moisture increases or as weed competition increases, yields
may not be maximized at these thinner stands. At
the other end of the range, crop stands of greaterthan-recommended density may increase the risk
of foliar disease infection (especially in wetter
areas).
The optimum seeding rate for each seed lot varies depending on its seed size. Larger seeded
varieties (higher 1000 seed weight) will require a
higher seeding rate to achieve placement of the
same number of seeds per unit area compared to
a smaller seeded variety. For example, CDC Mozart, with a weight of 220 grams per 1000 seeds
will have approximately 2064 seeds per pound.
Compare this to CDC Centennial with a weight of
270 grams per 1000 seeds, which will have approximately 1681 seeds per pound.
Seed cleaning to a uniform seed size will allow for
the most uniform crop establishment as seeds
of differing sizes will emerge at different times.
This is most evident if moisture is limiting in the
spring.
There are different ways of calculating the target
seeding rate for an individual seed lot.
Average 1000 seed weight for specific pea class
and variety can be found in the Varieties of Grain
Crops annual publication. Seed lots of the same
variety can differ in seed size depending on
growing conditions. To determine the 1000 seed
weight of a pea seed lot, count out 1000 seeds
and weigh them using a gram scale.
Survival percentage is calculated by subtracting
expected field mortality the from germination
rate. The germination per cent should be obtained through a germination test at an accredited lab. Field mortality is commonly 10 to 30 per
23
cent, depending on harshness of spring seedbed

conditions. A seed lot with 95 per cent germination and an expected field mortality of 15 per cent
would have an expected emergence or survival of
80 per cent.
Row Spacing
It is not necessary to adjust seeding rates when
using wider row spacing. The wider rows will have
more plants per foot of row, but this does not
have a negative effect.
Seeding rate recommendations are not influenced by row spacing. Narrower row spacing will
result in faster canopy closure and reduced soil
moisture loss through evaporation between the
rows. Narrower row spacing encourages quicker
rooting exploitation of the soil between the rows
and subsequent use of mid-row soil moisture.
Narrower rows leave less standing stubble and
residue clearance is more of an issue. Wider
rows disturb less soil and preserve more standing stubble. Wider row spacing can be used in
high moisture regions to reduce the risk of a thick
crop canopy, leading to poor pod set and lodging.
Wider row spacing may also reduce disease pressure if the micro-climate within the crop is kept
drier due to the wider spacing.
Row spacing in general has little impact on pea

because of the crops ability to develop additional
basal branches. Pea will compensate if light,
water and nutrients are adequate. Pea is a poor
competitor with weeds and narrower row spacing
may be an advantage in competing with weeds.
Table 3. Pea Seeding Rate (lb/ac) For a Target Population of 8 Plants/Square Foot
Survival %
Seed Weight
(g/1000 seeds)
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
150
200
185
171
160
150
141
133
160
213
197
183
171
160
151
142
170
227
209
194
181
170
160
151
180
240
222
206
192
180
169
160
169
190
253
234
217
203
190
179
200
267
246
229
213
200
188
178
210
280
258
240
224
210
198
187
220
293
271
251
235
220
207
196
230
307
283
263
245
230
216
204
240
320
295
274
256
240
226
213
250
333
308
286
267
250
235
222
260
347
320
297
277
260
245
231
240
270
360
332
309
288
270
254
280
373
345
320
299
280
264
249
290
387
357
331
309
290
273
258
Source: Saskatchewan Pulse Growers
24
Seeding Time and Depth

Pea should be seeded early (mid-April to midMay), as soon as the soil temperature at seeding depth is 5C or greater, and the soil is not
excessively wet. Early seeding should advance the
maturity of the crop and may result in the flowering period occurring prior to high summer time
temperatures. This will help avoid flower abortion
caused by higher mid-summer temperatures.
Pea seedlings have survived temperatures of
-4C to -6C. Frost survival depends on how low
the temperature gets, how long the freezing conditions last, how much cold conditioning the crop
received, soil moisture content, and the growth
stage of the crop when frost hits. Even if the frost
is severe enough to kill the main shoot, the pea
plant can re-grow from one of the scale nodes at
or below the soil surface.
Seeding depth for pea of 3 to 8 cm is advised.
It is critical that seeds are placed into moist
soil. Deep seeding is not necessary when seed
is placed in moist, firm soil at a shallow depth.
During germination a pea seed swells to twice
its normal size. The larger the seed, the more
water it must take on prior to germinating. Larger

seeded varieties are seeded deeper for this
reason since they have the ability to emerge from
deeper depths.
Rolling
Rolling does not increase pea yield directly,
rather improves harvest efficiency and maintains
quality. Pea fields should be rolled to provide
a smooth and level surface to improve harvest
efficiency and reduce earth tag. The best time
to roll is immediately after seeding, as soon as
the soil surface is dry. However, if the surface is
very dry it will become more erosion prone. Land
rolling after crop emergence can be successfully
completed up to the fifth to seventh node stage
without significant yield loss. Land rolling past this
stage can damage plants, increase the spread
of foliar diseases, and reduce yield. Best results
are obtained if rolling is done when plants are
slightly wilted and the soil surface is dry. Rolling
should not be done on wet soils or when the crop
is damp or stressed (or expected to be stressed in
the three to four days following rolling) by extreme
heat, frost, or herbicide application.
Table 4. Influence On Leaf-Type and Row Spacing On Yield of Peas in the Brown Soil Zone
Source: Pulse Production Manual 2000
25
Quick Facts
Pea is a poor competitor against weeds.
Crop scouting plays a vital role in
developing a comprehensive weed
control program.
A few examples of herbicide resistant
weeds that are particularly troublesome
for pea growers include Group 2
resistant kochia, Group 1 and Group 2
resistant wild oat, and Group 2 resistant
wild mustard.
Become familiar with node stage
counting, as some herbicides have
limited staging guidelines.
Use integrated control methods through
the rotation such as higher seeding
rates, promoting quick crop emergence,
and using herbicides only when
economic thresholds are reached.
Pea crops are subject to a number of
diseases that can reduce yield and
quality. Infection can come from a
variety of sources. Seed-borne, soilborne and residue-borne diseases can
be minimized through preventative
management.
26
Mycosphaerella blight, a fungal

disease, is the most common and
economically significant disease of pea
in Saskatchewan.
Seedling blight, root rot and seed rot
are caused by several root rotting fungi
including Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Botrytis,
and Fusarium species.
Septoria leaf spot disease attacks aging
leaves, meaning it does not usually
reduce yield.
As with herbicides and weed resistance,
managing fungicide use to prevent
or slow the development of fungicide
resistance is in the long term interests
of all pea growers.
Pea crops have relatively few insect
pests of economic importance, but the
few that can affect pea plants must be
monitored to prevent yield loss.
Disease and Pest Control

In-Crop Weed control
Pea is a poor competitor against weeds. As previously discussed, weed control in pea must be
considered through the rotation, not just in the
year of growing. In-crop weed management is the
final step. Managing perennial weeds, knowing
your fields weed history and anticipating in-crop
weeds are keys to a successful weed control
program.
Crop scouting plays a vital role in developing
a comprehensive weed control program. This
includes scouting every year so an inventory
of weeds is recorded. One to two weeks after
applying herbicide, scout for both weed control
efficiency and crop injury symptoms. If the weeds
are not completely dead, look for symptoms of
herbicide activity such as yellowing, purpling,
twisting, cupping, or bleaching. Timely post-spray
audits may leave enough time to perform a rescue treatment if necessary.
Competition and subsequent yield loss is not the
only reason to control weeds. Volunteer wheat
and barley are difficult to clean from small-seeded pea. Weeds that germinate late in the season
interfere with harvesting and increase dockage,
staining, and moisture levels in the harvested
seed.
Crop choice the year prior to growing pea may allow the use of herbicide to control a troublesome
weed that has no herbicide available for in-crop
control in the pea crop. Herbicide options in pea
are much more limited than in cereal and oilseed
crops.
Herbicides used in rotation should take into account herbicide rotation to slow the development
of resistant weeds. Resistant weeds can have
a huge impact in pea crops simply because it
is a less competitive crop. A review of herbicide
resistance and strategies to prevent or slow its
development is important in any crop rotation, but
is magnified when crops in rotation are less competitive and have in-crop herbicide limitations.
A few examples of herbicide resistant weeds that
are particularly troublesome for pea growers
include Group 2 resistant kochia, Group 1 and
Group 2 resistant wild oat, and Group 2 resistant
wild mustard.
Early weed removal pays. Research in northeast
Alberta and the Peace River region showed pea
yields were higher and more consistent with
spraying at the second node stage. Spraying at
the second node stage compared to the eighth
node stage produced yield increases (22 to 125
per cent) seven times out of 10. Smaller weeds
were also easier to control. Annual weeds were
removed from pea crops at intervals of one, two,
three, and four weeks after crop emergence. Pea
yields did not decline after one week, declined
seven per cent after two weeks, 12 per cent after
three weeks, and 26 per cent after four weeks.
Earlier herbicide application means weeds are
well exposed, are smaller (generally weeds are
easier to control at a younger stage) and the
crop is less susceptible to injury. All these factors
should increase the level of overall weed control.
27
Pea can be damaged easily by some herbicides

registered for other crops. Sprayer tanks should
be thoroughly cleaned before applying any crop
protection product to pea and care taken not to
drift herbicides from other fields onto pea fields.
During periods of crop stress (heat, drought, frost
or after land rolling) the ability of the pea crop to
tolerate herbicide application may be reduced.
Crop injury can be reduced by waiting approximately four days after the crop stress occurs
before applying herbicide, by maintaining water
volumes at label recommendations, and by applying the product during the evening.
Become familiar with node stage counting as
some herbicides have limited staging guidelines.
Short stature varieties or any variety grown under
adverse growing conditions could be at the fifth
node stage and only 7.5 cm tall.
Because weeds left uncontrolled can cause
significant yield loss and interfere with harvest,
maximizing sprayer efficiency can pay big dividends. Ensure the herbicide hits the target, water
volume is adequate, nozzles provide good coverage, and travel speed is reasonable to ensure a
good spray pattern.
Management to delay or reduce the occurrence
of herbicide resistant weeds is important for all
crops in rotation. It is of particular importance to
pea growers due to the limited in-crop herbicide
choice and the non-competitive nature of the pea
plant. Familiarity of herbicide resistant weed management is crucial.
Preventing kochia from setting viable seed for
one or two years greatly reduces kochia populations in a field because the seed is short lived in
the soil.
28
A suggested herbicide usage pattern in a four

year rotation that avoids too frequent use of
Group 1 and group 2 chemistries is in Table 5.
Table 5. Pea Herbicide Rotation to Minimize Herbicide
Resistant
Year
Crop
One
Wheat
Two
Canola
Three
Wheat/Barley
Four
Pea
Adapted from 2011 Guide to Crop Production
Resistance can build with each application;

applications do not have to be consecutive year
after year. Therefore, with herbicides in Groups 1
and Group 2, the longer you can rotate away from
these chemistries the better. Using these chemistries frequently can quickly lead to resistance. On
average, if a grower has applied Group 1 or Group
2 herbicides more than 10 times in a field, there
is a high risk of resistance developing among one
or more weed species. BASF recommends that
Group 2 products be applied no more than twice
in a four year period, and never twice in the same
year.
Research indicates that alternating between two
modes of action for wild oat control will double
the number of years for resistance build-up,
and alternating with a third mode of action will
increase the time of resistance build-up to four
times as long as for a single mode of action for
wild oat control.
Use integrated control methods through the
rotation, such as higher seeding rates, promoting
quick crop emergence, and using herbicides only
when economic thresholds are reached.
Alternatives to Chemical Weed Control
Harrowing between seeding and emergence of

the pea crop can control newly emerged weed
seedlings and remove weeds that escaped previous tillage operations. Harrowing should be avoided during crop emergence and for several days
afterwards to permit effective rooting and stand
establishment. A higher seeding rate should be
used to offset the plant losses due to harrowing.
Post-emergent harrowing should be done under
warm, dry conditions to improve weed control and
to prevent the spread of diseases.
Research at Scott, SK from 1999 to 2001
compared sequential double pass harrowing,
combined with a seeding depth of 2.5 cm to
sequential double pass rod-weeding with a deep
seeding of 7.5 cm as post-seeding weed control
methods for peas. Deep seeding and rod-weeding
were better as a weed control strategy, compared
to shallow seeding and harrowing.
Disease Management
Pea crops are subject to a number of diseases
that can reduce yield and quality. Infection can
come from a variety of sources. Seed-borne,
soil-borne and residue-borne diseases can be
minimized through preventative management.
Early diagnosis of disease symptoms is important. This will limit yield loss if fungicides are
available to control the disease and are applied in
a timely manner.
Mycosphaerella blight, a fungal disease, is the
most common and economically significant
disease of pea in Saskatchewan. It is one of the
ascochyta diseases often referred to as the ascochyta disease complex. Three fungi cause various
leaf, stem and foot rot. In the field, the symptoms
caused by infection of these fungi can be difficult
to distinguish from each other. This has led many
to lump them all together and refer to them as

ascochyta. In Saskatchewan, the most common
species is Ascochyta pinodes. The sexual stage
of this fungus is Mycosphaerella pinodes and
is the reason this disease is also referred to as
mycosphaerella blight. Losses attributed to this
disease have been reported as high as 80 per
cent. Although losses of that magnitude are not
common, it does show the potential effect this
disease can have. In 2010, field surveys reported
mycosphaerella blight was found in 100 per cent
of the pea fields surveyed in Saskatchewan,
except for the southwest where it was found in 96
per cent of the fields. Two-thirds of those fields
had moderate to severe symptoms in the lower
canopy.
The other fungi involved in this complex are Ascochyta pinodella, causing foot rot and Ascochyta
pisi causing leaf and pod spot. Ascochyta pisi has
been considered a minor problem in the past, but
appears to becoming more common the last few
years. In the same survey referenced earlier, 52
per cent of pea fields surveyed in the southwest
showed symptoms of ascochyta leaf and pod
spot. The per cent was lower in other regions of
the province. More research is needed to determine if these differences in regional observations
are due to varietal differences, or environmental
conditions.
Most ascochyta symptoms observed in the field
will be those of mycosphaerella blight. Early
symptoms will be found mostly under the plant
canopy on lower leaves, stems and tendrils. Conditions in the lower canopy are more humid and
conducive to disease development. Symptoms
first appear as small, purplish-brown, irregular
shaped spots or flecks that can enlarge and
coalesce and eventually cause blighting of the entire leaf. Severe infections may lead to girdling of
the stem near the soil line, which is known as foot
29
30
rot. Girdling weakens the stem and often results

in crop lodging. Under prolonged moist conditions, or if the crop has lodged, pod lesions will
form and expand and can cause pod senescence
and seed quality loss. The Saskatchewan Ministry

of Agriculture fact sheet, Ascochyta Blight of Field
Pea, contains more detailed information.
Figure 8. Ascochyta blight complex mycosphaerella; lesions

on stems, leaves and pods of pea plants
Figure 10. Mycosphaerella blight; pod lesions

Courtesy of the Canadian Phytopathological Society
Figure 9. Ascochyta foot rot/mycosphaerella blight;

extensive blighting and foot rot
Figure 11. Mycosphaerella blight; foot rot from infected

seed; healthy (L) infected (R)
27
Figure 12. Ascochyta blight; early lesions, leaf symptoms

Figure 14. Severely discoloured by ascochyta or

mycosphaerella
Figure 13. Ascochyta blight; pod lesion

Figure 15. Ascochyta foot rot; stem lesion

Infested crop residue is the primary source of

infection. Infected seed is not considered a major
source of inoculum, but may play a role in introducing the disease to new areas. Mycosphaerella
pinodes is the only ascochyta species that forms
a sexual spore stage. Those spores result in airborne ascospores allowing transmission of the
disease over longer distances. As well, the fungus

is capable of living in the soil for long periods of
time. This means extended crop rotations do not
guarantee low levels of this disease, although
it is still an important component of managing
ascochyta and other diseases.
31
Figure 16. Ascochyta foot rot; pod lesion

plant stand will indirectly reduce the impact of

ascochyta infection. Research findings include:
Depth of seeding does not affect the development of mycosphaerella blight in pea.
Plant injury plays a minor role in the infection
of peas by Mycosphaerella pinodes.
Improved lodging resistance is associated with
reduced mycosphaerella blight severity .
Although seed-to-seedling transmission is considered low, guidelines suggest using seed with less
than 10 per cent infection. Levels higher than 10
per cent can reduce germination and vigour. Seed
with significant levels of seed-borne ascochyta
should be treated with a fungicide prior to seeding.
Reduced tillage and the resulting increased surface residue does not appear to affect ascochyta
levels. Weather and canopy closure appear to
be the most influencing factors. Increased plant
density, increased vegetative growth, and lodging
all lead to denser canopies, resulting in higher
humidity.
The impact on yield depends on the timing of the
initial infection and on weather conditions (wet). If
the infection originates within the same field, the
disease can develop early and the likelihood of
loss is greater. If the initial infection occurs at the
base of the plant, foot rot can occur and the plant
may prematurely lodge and die.
Any agronomic practice resulting in a healthier
32
Fungicides are registered for control of ascochyta

blight. Maximum effectiveness of the fungicide
occurs if applied at early flowering. Thorough
penetration of the canopy with good leaf coverage
is essential. Fungicides work by preventing infection of healthy green plant material. It will not
repair plant damage that has already occurred.
The timing of infection, yield potential of the crop,
weather conditions and value of the harvested
seed will all influence the economics of fungicide
application.
Begin scouting for disease during the vegetative
stage. Continue to scout into the early flowering
stage to observe whether disease symptoms are
moving upwards in the plant canopy and are present on tendrils and flowers. If symptoms do not
move beyond the lower third of the plant canopy
by the flowering stage, large yield losses would
not be expected.
Fungicidal control may be warranted if at least 50
per cent of the bottom third of the crop canopy is
showing symptoms and symptoms are progressing into the middle third of the canopy, the weather has been humid and rain is in the forecast, if
high yield is expected that would justify the cost
of the fungicide.
Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development
developed an ascochyta scoring system for field
pea. Based on crop canopy, leaf wetness at noon,
Table 6. 2008 Ascochyta Scoring System Field ID ________________

Characteristic
Time Period
Prediciton Score
1 2 3 4 5 6
Estimation Risk Scale
1. Crop canopy
Thin
0
Moderate
10
Mod/Heavy
15
Heavy
30
2. Leaf wetness/humidity/dew at noon
None
0
Low
10
Moderate
20
High
40
3. Percent of plants
(crop), showing symptoms
None
0
Low
(<20%)
15
Moderate
(20-50%)
25
High
(50-100%)
40
4. 5 day weather forecast
Dry
0
Unset
10
Showers
15
Wet
20
TOTAL
The estimated risk value is 1+2+3+4= estimated risk value. If the estimated risk value is less than 65, no fungicide application is
deemed necessary, but field inspections should continue on a bi-weekly basis. If the estimated risk value is +65, the fungicide spray
application is recommended.
Source: K. J. Lopetinsky1 and S Strydhorst2 2002
1
Ag Research Division, AAFRD, Barrhead 2University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
plant symptom development and five day weather

forecast, a score is estimated for a field. Based
on the score, guidelines for fungicide application
are derived (Table 6).
Seedling blight, root rot and seed rot are caused
by several root rotting fungi including Pythium,
Rhizoctonia, Botrytis, and Fusarium species.
These soil-borne fungi can attack any part of the
root system up to a short distance above the soil
surface and can attack any time between germination and maturity. Young seedlings infected
with root rot may not emerge, and if they do they
will usually appear yellow and stunted, often dying at an early stage.
These fungi are common in the soil, and infection
is more likely if the soil around the seed is excessively wet. Warm and moist conditions generally
favour these diseases, but cold and wet soil is
also detrimental because the cool temperatures
slow plant development and add additional stress
to the plant.
Crop rotations that include cereal and oilseed
crops can prevent the build-up of soil-borne

fungal organisms, although other broadleaf
crops can be infected by some of these fungi.
Continuous production of broadleaf crops in the
same field can lead to a build-up of root rot and
seedling rot diseases.
Root rot was especially problematic in many pea
fields in 2008, especially in southern Saskatchewan. Samples collected by the Saskatchewan
Ministry of Agriculture and researchers in North
Dakota isolated numerous Fusarium species, all
capable of causing root rot. This higher incidence
may be explained by low soil temperatures resulting in nodulation inhibition. The stress of the
resulting poor nutrition, combined with excess
moisture related stress may have left the plants
susceptible to infection over a long period of time.
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni [pisi]),
although widespread across Western Canada, is
now rarely of significance because most commonly grown varieties of pea are resistant to this
disease. Without this built in resistance, yield
losses can be high (in excess of 60 per cent).
33
Figure 17. Seedling blight of pea plants

Figure 19. Fusarium wilt; yellow, wilted leaves

Figure 18. Stem rot; girdling caused by Rhizoctonia solani

Powdery mildew thrives under warm and dry daytime conditions with nights that are cool enough
to cause dew formation. Rain showers actually
disrupt the spread of powdery mildew. Symptoms include the development of white, powdery
spots on lower leaves, and stems that can quickly
spread to the entire plant. Severely affected crops
are covered in a white mat of powdery spores and
may appear to have a bluish or silvery sheen. The
underside of infected leaves turn yellow below the
powdery infection. The disease can reduce yield,
delay maturity, and reduce uptake of desiccants.
Infection of susceptible pea varieties usually begins about mid to late July. By this time, pea crops
seeded in early spring have often progressed
past the stage of economic impact since pods
and seeds are already formed. Delayed seeding
of susceptible varieties increases the risk of an
economic impact.
34
In the pea growing regions of the United States, a

second causal organism causing powdery mildew
in peas has been identified as Erysiphe trifolii.
This second distinct powdery mildew pathogen
can account for inconsistent performances of resistant varieties in some geographic areas. This is
not a breakdown of the resistant gene to E. pisi,
but rather a new pathogen. If powdery mildew appears in a resistant variety this may be the cause.
If fungicides are required, application should take
place at the onset of symptoms.
Sclerotinia stem rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) disease attacks many broadleaf crops and is usually
more severe on sunflower, dry bean, and canola,
compared to pea. Rotations including higher
Figure 20. Powdery mildew; on pea plant pod
frequencies of broadleaf crops can lead to higher

levels of sclerotinia. High yield losses in pea due
to sclerotinia are not common but can occur. The
hard sclerotia body produced by this disease can
also contaminate harvested pea seed and cause
downgrading.
Overwintering sclerotia (small, black resting bodies that remain viable for three to five years in the
soil) produce spores that can infect the current
seasons crop. Infection can take place in two
ways. First, when in close contact with the pea
root, sclerotia may germinate and cause infection
at the base of the plant. Secondly, under a dense
plant canopy, sclerotia will germinate and develop
tiny mushroom like structures that produce
spores. These spores colonize dead plant material such as fallen flower petals or hail damaged
leaves. Spores can be scattered by the wind, so
planting peas next to previously infected fields
can assist in spreading the disease.
Figure 21. Powdery mildew; severe pod and foliar symptoms

Once infection has occurred, it can spread very

quickly by plant to plant contact, especially when
there is moisture under a heavy crop canopy. If
infection occurs late in the growing season there
may be little effect on yield. However, the build-up
of sclerotia in a pea field in this scenario may
have a negative impact on broadleaf crops following in rotation.
Once symptoms are noted in a pea crop, it is
too late to apply a fungicide. Fungicide application has to be based on a forecast of risk. Plant
breeding has produced many new varieties that
are shorter, more erect, and semi-leafless. This
reduces the humidity in the crop canopy and subsequent sclerotinia infection and progression.
35
Figure 22. Sclerotinia plant lesions on pea stems

pea fields included in the survey. Symptoms are

fluffy, greyish growth on the undersides of leaves
and can cover the entire leaf underside surface.
The top of the leaf becomes yellow and brown
opposite to the infected area. Systemic infection,
resulting from spores in the soil or on infected
seed, causes stunting and distortion. The secondary disease cycle of plant to plant spread originates from these stunted plants and is favoured by
moist weather.
A two to three year rotation will reduce the soilborne inoculum, but not completely eliminate it
as spores can be long lived in the soil, sometimes
over 10 years. Presently, there are no fungicides
registered to control downy mildew.
36
Figure 23. Sclerotinia stem rot; white mycelium

Figure 24. Downy mildew; systemic infection

Downy mildew (Peronospora viciae) fungal disease

is common but does not usually cause serious
losses unless cool, wet, and humid conditions
exist. Alberta has been having increased problems
with this disease and it is increasing in importance
in Saskatchewan. In 2009, field disease surveys
showed this disease occurred in 30 per cent of the
Septoria leaf spot disease attacks aging leaves,

meaning it does not usually reduce yield. Symptoms
are yellowish areas on the leaves that turn straw
colored with a lighter center. In older lesions, black
pinpoints of spores are visible and may show concentric dark markings. The disease overwinters in
crop residues and spores are moved by rain splash.
Figure 25. Bacterial blight; brown lesions on leaves and

pods
of controlling this disease. Symptoms start as

small, water soaked spots on leaves, stems, and
pods. During wet weather, creamy white ooze may
appear on the spots. When this material dries,
the spots become dark brown and may appear
shiny. When held up to the light, these leaf spots
appear translucent. The bacteria are spread by
rain-splash. Hail or other physical injury to the
plant may favour infection.
Pea seed-borne mosaic virus is rare in Saskatchewan. It can be introduced from infected seed
produced elsewhere and can then be spread
further by aphids.
Figure 26. Bacterial blight; pod lesions

Anthracnose is not a significant disease of peas

in Saskatchewan. However, the anthracnose
isolates attacking lentil in Saskatchewan also
cause disease symptoms on faba bean and field
pea under field conditions. Therefore, rotation of
these host crops is not an alternative in breaking
the cycle of lentil anthracnose disease.
As with herbicides and weed resistance, managing fungicide use to prevent or slow the development of fungicide resistance is in the long-term
interests of all pea growers. Use foliar fungicide
only when disease risk and potential loss are considered to be economically damaging (i.e. greater
than the cost of control).
Infections of bacterial blight (Psuedomonas

syringae pv. pisi) disease are not common in Saskatchewan. The disease is primarily seed-borne
so planting seed free of bacterial blight limits the
disease. The bacteria can also overwinter on crop
residues, so crop rotation is an important method
Headline EC and Quadris are members of the

strobilurin group of fungicides. Development of resistance of several fungal pathogens to this group
of fungicides in other crops has been reported
in Europe and in Saskatchewan, and is of great
concern. No more than two applications per year
of any strobilurin fungicide should be made to the
same field, as disease resistance could develop.
The continuous use of strobilurin fungicides without fungicide rotation greatly increases the threat
of disease resistance.
37
Any fungal pathogen population may contain

some strains naturally insensitive to various fungicides. A gradual or total loss of disease control
may occur over time if these fungicides are used
repeatedly in the same fields.
The following strategy should be considered and
implemented to delay fungicide resistance/insensitivity:
Use a fungicide rotation - rotate the use of fungicides with others from different groups that
control the same pathogens.
Tank mix fungicides that have a high risk of
developing insensitivity with other fungicides
from a different group.
Do not apply more than the maximum number of applications listed on the label. Avoid
consecutive sprays of the same fungicide,
or other fungicides in the same group, in a
season. Fungicides belonging to the strobilurin
group should not be applied more than twice a
season in the same field.
Fungicide application should be based on an
integrated pest management (IPM) program
that includes scouting and accurate recording
related to pesticide use and crop rotation.
Monitor treated fungal populations for signs of
fungicide insensitivity. If disease continues to
progress after treatment with a product, do not
increase the use rate. Discontinue use of the
product and switch to another fungicide with a
different target site of action.
38
Table 7. Fungicide Groups Based on Mode of Action and

Risk Rating for Resistance
Mode of
Action
Group
Risk of Developing
Resistance
HIGH
HIGH
22
Low to Medium
Medium
11
HIGH**
21
Medium to High
29
Low
Medium
Medium to High
12
Low to Medium
28
Low to Medium
40
Low to Medium
Medium
27
Low to Medium
Various
LOW
Biofungicide
N/A
Insensitivity or resistance is already present in the Ascochyta

fungus species.
Adapted from Saskatchewan Ministry of Agricultures 2011
Guide to Crop Protection
Insect Management
Pea crops have relatively few insect pests of
economic importance, but the few that can affect
pea plants must be monitored to prevent yield
loss.
The pea aphid has recently been recognized as
a yield threatening pest in pea. The population
must reach threshold levels prior to the plant
nearing maturity to cause damage. The pea aphid
is blown in from the United States. If it arrives
early enough and the environment is conducive
for rapid reproduction, multiple generations of
the insect eventually result numbers high enough
to cause economic losses. Economic threshold
is considered to be 30 to 40 aphids per 180
sweep of a 38 cm net when few natural predators
are present and aphid numbers do not decline

over a two day period. If the majority of the pea
seeds are close to full size, the aphid is less likely
to cause significant damage.
Economic loss can occur if there are more than
10 aphids per plant during the period between
formation of the tenth node, and the appearance
of the first flower. Population estimates should be
calculated by averaging the counts taken from at
least five separate areas of the field.
To scout for insects, shake the upper portion of
plants with one hand, while holding the other
hand below. Aphids will fall out of flowers onto
your hand.
The suggested threshold is in the range of 10
aphids per plant during the period between formation of the tenth node, and the appearance of
the first flower.
Figure 27. Pea aphids on pea pods
If an insecticide application is needed, delaying

application until late flowering (if populations
allow time to wait) should eliminate the need to

spray again. One application per season should
give satisfactory control. Pea aphid populations
usually begin to decline in mid-to-late August due
to drying of the crop, parasitic wasps, diseases,
and other factors. Numerous insecticides are
registered to control aphids on pea. Insecticides
with both contact and systemic action can be
advantageous.
The pea leaf weevils field feeding activity was
first confirmed in Saskatchewan in 2007 in southwest Saskatchewan, following a few years of reports of feeding in pea fields in southern Alberta.
Since 2007, the pea leaf weevil has moved
eastward but not significantly northward. This has
also been observed in Alberta as well as most
activity is south of highway one (this may be due
to failure to survive harsher winter conditions as
you move north).
The adult weevil feeds on pea vegetation but it
is the damage the larvae does under the ground
that is the cause for concern. The pea leaf weevil
produces one generation per year.
The adult (light grayish-brown colour with three
stripes on the back and on the wings) overwinters in alfalfa, other perennial legumes, or tree
shelters. In May through June, eggs are laid on
or near developing pea plants. The adult moves
(up to a few kilometers) mainly by flying when
temperatures are above 17C, but can also walk
short distances. The larvae hatch in one to three
weeks and feed on the nodules on the roots.
Once the larval stage is complete, the insect
pupates and emerges as an adult once again in
late July through September. It will search for any
legume plants, including pea and other pulse
crops, and continue to feed until it finds an overwintering spot.
39
Figure 28. Adult pea weevil

Source: H. Goulet (AAFC, Ottawa) Project 2007, (ACIDF)
The adult feeding on pea makes a very distinctive

U shaped notch (also described as scalloped)
on the leaf. It is this feeding characteristic that is
used to monitor for the pest. The adult can also
feed on the growing point of the plant, but most
years the plant can outgrow this feeding. However, if populations are heavy while the plant is
small, the vegetative feeding can cause damage.
The adult is a nocturnal feeder and hides in soil
cracks during the day. Combined with its colour,
this makes it very difficult to observe adults feeding during the day.
tic feeding notches caused by the adult weevil.

Scouting should begin at the second or third
node stage by checking five sites along the field
edge (adults will move in from the outside and
begin feeding on field margins) and another five
sites within the field. At each site check for the
notches on the clam leaf of 10 plants. Check only
the clam leaf; if the notches occur on the lower
leaves but not on the clam leaf, then the weevil
has likely already laid its eggs and it is too late
for any type of in-crop control measures. There is
no need to count the number of notches on the
clam leaf, just note whether or not there are any
notches present. If one or more feeding marks
occur per three clam leaf pairs, the threshold
has been reached. If 30 per cent of the seedlings
have damage on the clam leaf the threshold has
been reached. A warm spring will encourage the
adult weevils to leave their wintering sites earlier
and result in earlier egg laying and plant damage.
Figure 29. Characteristic notching from adult feeding
Source: H. Goulet (AAFC, Ottawa) Project 2007, (ACIDF)
The larvae are a white shiny colour and, when examining the roots of an infected pea plant, can be
found consuming the nodules. This reduces, and
can completely eliminate, the plants ability to fix
nitrogen. This leads to lower yield as the plant has
reduced nitrogen uptake. Damage is unlikely to
be consistent across the field since the larvae will
feed close to where eggs are laid. Damage can
also vary from field to field.
Determining the potential damage from this
insect is based on scouting for the characteris-
40
Foliar application of a registered insecticide is

recommended when the threshold is reached.
Foliar control results have been non-consistent
in research to date. Reasons for this may include

difficulty in applying the insecticide at the proper
time, hot conditions in the spring that may lower
the threshold, continued adult weevil migration
into the field after application, and eggs laid,
or larvae hatched, prior to application are not
controlled.
the various stages of the weevil. In treated areas,

adults have been observed to be on their backs,
kicking their legs. How this effects egg laying is
still not documented. As well, researchers are
convinced it has an effect on the larvae stage as
well, just how and to what degree has not been
proven.
Figure 30. Pea weevil larvae

Source: C. Herle (AAFC, Lethbridge) Project 2007, (ACIDF)
Figure 31. Nodules damaged from larval feeding

Source: AAFC
Research has also shown if the weevils arrive no

sooner than the seventh or eighth node stage
(which they will in a cool spring), the crop is not
going to suffer significantly.
Agronomic practices can influence the amount of

damage suffered from this pest.
Researchers also emphasize spraying for the

adult should only occur if the threshold has been
reached. There are beneficial insects, such as
predatory ground beetles, which can reduce the
weevil population by feeding on their eggs. The foliar sprays will kill the beneficial insects as much
as they kill the pest.
If growers know theyre in a high-risk area for pea
leaf weevil, a seed treatment may be considered.
It is not fully known how the insecticide works on
Earlier seeded fields are likely to sustain less

damage compared to later seeded fields under the same conditions. The larger plants can
withstand more feeding damage before yield loss
occurs.
Pea leaf weevil research in Alberta using isolation
cages has shown that pea supplied with starternitrogen of 67 kg N/ha suffered only a three per
cent yield loss, while low nitrogen soil without
starter-nitrogen resulted in yield loss up to 17
per cent. Farmers should review their risk for pea
leaf weevil by consulting the current distribution
41
map and local information on weevil frequency in

order to take preventative measures at seeding.
Starter-nitrogen can compensate for the loss of
the nitrogen fixing nodules to weevil larvae feeding. However, this must be weighed against the
economic advantage of using inoculants to obtain
nitrogen from the air.
Figure 32. Below ground feeding cutworms

Source: J. Gavloski, MB Ag Food & Rural Initiative
At times, the adult pea leaf weevil may be noted

in harvested grain on combine tables. But this
does not mean they overwinter in grain bins.
There is no record of the weevil surviving in
stored grain.
Cutworms can cause damage to newly emerged
pea seedlings, and at times may require insecticide application. Below ground feeding cutworms
cut plants off at or near the soil surface. The pale
western and red-backed cutworms are two of the
species most frequently found in Saskatchewan
soils. Damaged seedlings can dry up and disappear quickly, so frequent field scouting is critical
in determining the cause of the damage.
Figure 33. Foliar feeding cutworm (Dingy)

The economic threshold for cutworms in lentil

is 2 to 3/m2 (0.2 to 0.3/ft2) in the top 7.5 cm of
soil. Pea crops can often recover from cutworm
damage if cool, moist growing conditions occur.
However, plants are set back four days and may
not be competitive.
Foliar feeding cutworms have also been noted occasionally in Saskatchewan in the last few years.
Dingy cutworms have been found in eastern
regions and army cutworms have been reported
in western regions. Dingy and army cutworms
feed above ground, consuming the plant foliage.
Typically, these cutworms are more likely to cause
damage on hilltops, south facing slopes, and in
drier areas of a field.
42
Grasshoppers generally do not favour pea foliage.

They are capable of causing severe damage to
a pea seedling, but pea is not a preferred food
source. There are more than 80 species of grasshoppers on the prairies, but only about 10 cause
problems in agricultural crops and of those, only
three species are likely to cause problems in
Saskatchewan crops. Although unlikely to cause

much damage in pea crops, grasshoppers will
feed on pea plants if no other food source is
available. They can chew through young shoots
even if they do not eat the plant. Damage is most
likely to affect seedlings along ditches and road
allowances. Often weeds within the crop will be
a more preferred food source. Usually, grasshopper infestations of 10/m2 and less do not cause
economic losses in pea.
Wireworms are the immature stage or larvae of
click beetles. Wireworms tend to be more abundant in moist soils and in lower, damper areas of
a field. Although wireworms prefer grassy plants
(cereal crops), wireworm damage has been noted
in other crops including canola, chickpea, and
potato. Wireworms tend to shred the plant tissue
below the soil surface. Initially, symptoms may
show up as wilting in the central leaves of the
main stem, but can eventually cause death of the
plant. Damage may not be noticed early enough
in the season to reseed. There is no established
economic threshold for wireworm in lentil and
there is no in-crop insecticide available to control
wireworm. Controlling wireworm requires the use
of an insecticidal seed treatment.
Environmental and Herbicide

Stress Symptoms
Frost damage in the fall is not common since pea
is an early maturing crop. But since plants mature
from the bottom toward the top, fall frost injury
may be greater near the top of the plant. If this
occurs, seeds in pods near the ground may have
little frost damage and care should be taken to
focus harvest efforts on those pods.
During early pod fill, a frost can cause discoloration and deformation of seeds. Frost damaged
pods and seeds will be water soaked and no
longer firm as they start to leak. Heavily damaged
pods will have a rubbery wilted appearance. Pea
pods with medium frost injury will show a white
patch-work effect a few days following the frost;
seeds following frost will abort.
Figure 35. Frost damaged pods
Figure 34. Wireworm larvae

Pea crops should be monitored after a frost to

determine the level of injury to the pods and
seeds. If the majority of the seeds are not damaged, harvest should continue as planned. If the
great majority of pods and seeds are damaged,
43
consider harvesting the crop for feed, keeping in

mind the risk of nitrates. If a medium level of frost
has occurred, monitor the crop for possible pod
breakage and consider swathing if pods appear
to be splitting open.
Figure 37. Hail damage

Other soil and environmental stresses include

salinity stress, drought damage, and nitrogen
deficiency.
Figure 36. Drought damage
Peas are sensitive to low doses of several herbicides, resulting in herbicide injury. This can be a
result of improper sprayer clean-out, soil residuals, untimely application, non-label use, or spray
drift.
Figure 38. Phenoxy herbicide damage
Source: F.A. Holm CDC
If early-season hail damage destroys a pea seedling it should grow back from dormant buds within
one to two weeks.
Hail damage on a pod will show as a slight white
blemish to a pitted area penetrating the entire
pod to the seed. When damage to the inside of
the pod is visible, the pod is unlikely to fill and
mature properly. The opening allows fungi to develop and destroy the pod and immature seeds.
44
Figure 39. Clopyralid herbicide damage

Source: Eric Johnson AAFC Scott
Figure 41. Aschochyta damaged pea seed sample

Figure 40. Group 2 herbicide damage

Source: F.A. Holm CDC
45
Quick Facts
Pea plants mature from the bottom to
the top, and are near maturity when the
bottom 30 per cent of pods are ripe, the
middle 40 per cent of pods and vines
are yellow-coloured, and the upper 30
per cent of pods are turning yellow.
Pea seed samples containing excessive
amounts of foreign material or seeds
that are cracked, peeled, or discoloured
are suitable only for the feed market.
Earth tag may occur during combining
when moisture from weeds or heavy dew
causes soil or dust to stick to the seed.
46
Swathing will hasten drying and prevent

shattering, but pea swaths are extremely
susceptible to damage from wind.
Chemical desiccation to burn-off crop
foliage and weeds will reduce the time
from maturity to threshing readiness and
reduce shatter loss.
Harvest Management
Pea plants mature from the bottom to the top,
and are near maturity when the bottom 30 per
cent of pods are ripe, the middle 40 per cent
of pods and vines are yellow-coloured, and the
upper 30 per cent of pods are turning yellow. This
is the stage to swath or desicate if either of these
harvest methods is chosen. Harvesting too soon
will result in immature seeds in the sample and
can cause downgrading. Waiting too long can result in excess shattering and increase the chance
of weathering damage. In green pea, the vein
pattern in the upper-most pods should be easily
recognizable and 75 to 90 per cent of the pods
should have turned to yellow tan. Pea can also be
left to straight cut without desiccation. Pea crops
are mature when seeds in the bottom pods are
detached and loose in the pods and when the
upper pods are turning yellow. Once the crop is
mature it can dry down very quickly if the weather
is warm and dry.
under cool, wet conditions. Apply glyphosate for

pre-harvest weed control and not for desiccation.
Do not apply glyphosate to pea crops destined for
planting seed because irregular germination and
seedling development can occur. Applying glyphosate too early can reduce yield and seed size, and
may result in levels of glyphosate in the seed that
exceed maximum allowable levels.
Care should be taken when harvesting pea for human consumption. Pea seed samples containing
excessive amounts of foreign material or seeds
that are cracked, peeled or discoloured are suitable only for the feed market. Soil adhered to the
seed is called earth tag and is a common factor
in down-grading dry pea. Earth tag may occur
during combining when moisture from weeds or
heavy dew causes soil or dust to stick to the seed.
Chemical desiccation to burn-off crop foliage

and weeds will reduce the time from maturity to
threshing readiness and reduce shatter loss. It
will also result in improved quality if the crop is
harvested before being exposed to wet weather,
compared to a crop left to mature on its own and
being subjected to wet weather. Timing of the
application is critical because it has immediate
dry down effects. Application too early will reduce
seed size and yield of pea. Compared to swathing without chemical desiccation, the benefits
of chemical desiccation is the opportunity to
have the crop harvested sooner, reduce risk of
exposure to wet weather, and eliminate the risk
of swath movement from wind. Standing desiccated crops will also dry more rapidly after a rain,
Once maturity is reached there are choices to

be made. If applying pre-harvest glyphosate, apply when the crop has 30 per cent or less grain
moisture (75 to 80 per cent of pods are tan). This
treatment will provide some crop dry down, but
this benefit is inconsistent and is unlikely to occur
Swathing will hasten drying and prevent shattering but pea swaths are extremely susceptible to
damage from wind. Swathers should be equipped
with vine lifters (pick up guards) and/or a pick
up reel to ease the harvest of lodged or tangled
crops. The swather can also be used to cut the
crop at full maturity. If cut at full maturity, the
combine should follow immediately behind to
prevent swaths from being damaged or moved
by wind. Shattering loss can be high using this
method.
47
compared to a crop in swath. Germination of seed

is not affected unless applied in advance of the
recommended stage. If some areas of the field
are immature it is better to go around those areas
when desiccating if the goal is the highest quality
seed production. Powdery mildew and heavy
weed infestations can reduce the effectiveness of
the desiccant due to coverage reductions. Chemical desiccation can be very effective for green
pea, reducing the time to harvest and resulting in
a good green coloured seed.
Straight combining without desiccation can be
successful, however, there is a risk of shatter loss
and the crop must be uniformly mature across
the field before threshing can be completed.
Shattering can be reduced by harvesting during
the humid part of the day and by reducing the
reel or pick up speed to keep the action against
the crop to a minimum. This harvest method
can be very successful if the crop is at the
same stage through the field, maturity has been
reached relatively early, and the weather is hot
and dry at harvest. The crop should be combined
at approximately 18 to 20 per cent moisture. If
using a straight cut header, it should be equipped
with vine lifters (pick up guards) and/or a pick
up reel to ease the harvest of lodged or tangled
crops. Flex headers, Rake-up and modified
Sund pickups have all been used successfully.
Although not commonly used in Saskatchewan,
stripper header research has shown increased
yield, lower harvest loss, and less soil contamination of the seed sample compared to straight cut
or pick up headers. These advantages are even
greater when harvest is delayed and/or the crop
is lodged. Stripper headers have the advantage
of being able to strip off ripened pods while green
leaves are still on the plants.
Swathing a pea crop can be challenging since it
is often leaning or lodged by the time the crop
48
is mature enough to cut. As well, shattering and

susceptibility to wind movement must be considered. Some tips that may make the operation
more successful include:
Do not wait for lower areas to reach maturity
before swathing. The majority of the field will
be jeopardized. If necessary, swath around the
less mature areas.
Rolling the swath may be helpful if it reduces
the overall height without causing shattering.
Wider swaths will facilitate drying. There is
very little stubble to keep the swath off the soil
surface so rapid drying is important.
In short crops, swath a little on the green side
so the pick-up reel will have more material to
work with.
If a crop is heavy and tall, reduce the width of
the swath.
Cut at a right angle to the direction the crop is
leaning.
Slow down if it means laying a more uniform
swath.
Adjust the table and/or reels to prevent piles
from being formed.
The shorter and thinner the crop, the closer
together the vine lifters may need to be.
If field topography is variable, a narrower
swather may follow the contour better than a
wider one.
Gauge wheels should prevent the cutter bar
from digging into the ground and maintain a
more uniform cutting height.
A steeper pitch to the table will allow cutting
closer to the ground and better crop flow.
Threshing pea at 18 to 20 per cent seed moisture
content is recommended to lower the risk of seed
cracking or peeling and reduce shatter losses.
47
This also results in an earlier harvest and can

reduce weathering loss. Threshing over 20 per
cent can increase the amount of earth tag. Low
combine cylinder or rotor speeds are required to
reduce seed cracking. Speeds of 300 to 600 rpm
are normally used, depending on the moisture
content of the pea sample. An initial concave setting of 0.6 to 1.5 cm clearance at the front and
1.2 cm at the rear is recommended. Combine and
grain augers should be operated full and at low
speeds to reduce cracking and splitting of seeds.
General recommendations for settings include
low cylinder speeds, ample concave clearance,
and maximum wind velocity.
is being used for livestock feed, it should be

removed soon after combining to retain feed
quality. If not, pea straw should be chopped and
evenly spread during harvest. Bunched and piled
pea straw can cause extensive plugging of seeding equipment the following spring. Direct seeding
equipment with narrow openers and good residue
clearance can seed directly into pea residue,
provided the straw has been chopped and evenly
spread the previous harvest.
When combining a swathed pea crop, match the

pick-up speed to the ground speed of the combine. Keep the swath moving uniformly to match
combine capacity to reduce seed damage and
shatter losses.
If straight cutting a pea crop consider that:
If the crop is leaning or lodged, modifications
to the combine header similar to the swather
table may be advised.
The crop should be dry to the soil surface for
best operation.
Height control is important to avoid picking up
dirt.
Lodging resistant crops can be cut at 5 to 10
cm from the soil surface to leave stubble for
snow trapping.
Keep in mind there is an increased risk of combine fires when harvesting a powdery mildew susceptible pea variety covered in spores. However,
since nearly all varieties are now resistant to this
disease, the risks have been greatly reduced.
Pea residue must be handled properly to reduce
seeding problems the following year. If the straw
49
Quick Facts
Storage moisture levels up to 16 per
cent and temperatures below 15C are
considered safe for pea.
Pea seeds often respire or go through a
sweat after being placed in storage.
Even if moisture content is low, pea
seeds should be cooled soon after
binning if the seed is warm.
Moulds can grow in stored pea seed.
Cooling the grain and reducing the
humidity will help prevent mould growth.
50
Post-Harvest Storage and Handling

Pea can be safely stored for long periods under
cool dry conditions.
Samples containing green weed seeds and other
high moisture materials should be cleaned as
soon as possible to prevent heating. Storage
moisture levels up to 16 per cent and temperatures below 15C are considered safe for pea.
The use of aeration fans to reduce moisture and
temperature levels will improve storage.
If supplemental heat drying through a dryer is
necessary, air temperatures should not exceed
45C to preserve germination. The sample
should not be dried more than four to five percentage points per pass through the dryer. Large
pea seeds dry slowly and if greater than 10 per
cent moisture is to be removed, it may be best to
do it in two passes with a minimum of eight hours
between passes. This will allow the moisture in
the seeds to equalize. Temperatures up to 70C
should only be used for drying feed pea.
Pea seeds often respire or go through a sweat
after being placed in storage. Extra care should
be taken to monitor the grain inside the bin for
moisture build-up or spoilage. Aeration fans can
be used to cool the grain in the fall, and warm it
in the spring to reduce moisture condensation in
the bin. Pea seed is more susceptible to cracking
and peeling if handled at temperatures below
-20C.
A few additional points to keep in mind when storing pea include:

Even if moisture content is low, pea seeds
should be cooled soon after binning if the seed
is warm.
Pea offers 75 per cent less resistance to airflow
compared to wheat so in-bin air drying systems
can dry (and over dry) pea seed relatively
quickly.
If high dockage is harvested with the pea seed,
it may concentrate in the center of the bin.
Localized storage problems can occur if this
happens.
Moulds can grow in stored pea seed. Cooling
the grain and reducing the humidity will help
prevent mould growth.
If long term storage is required, seed should be
cooled slowly (to about 0C) heading into winter
and warmed slowly (to about 10C) heading
into summer.
Table 8. Number of Weeks for Safe Storage of Peas at the
Specified Grain Moisture Content and Storage Temperature
Storage
Temp. ( C)
Moisture content (%)

12
14
16
18
21
2
26
31
16
20
55
28
13
16
100
50
20
12
10
200
95
38
20
21
370
175
70
39
20
Source: Sokhansanj, 1995
51
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57

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Pea

26 Disease and Pest Control

In-crop Weed Control

Pea Crop Production Manual

Pea Crop Production Manual

still flat. Over a period of about 24 to 30 days the

Upon pea germination and seedling emergence,

Pea Crop Production Manual

Figure 1. Pea seedling node stages

Pea Crop Production Manual

Pea Crop Production Manual

Pea Crop Production Manual

Pea can be grown under irrigation, with potential

Pea Crop Production Manual

Figure 3. Green pea seed sample

Figure 2. Yellow pea seed sample

Asia. There is some also production of purple

Specialty varieties are also available. Forage or

Pea Crop Production Manual

Generally, field pea yields are similar to hard

Figure 4. Forage pea seed sample

pea rotations as the inoculum is primarily provided by infected crop residues.

Figure 5. Maple pea seed sample

Varieties with good lodging resistance improve

Pea Crop Production Manual

Pea Crop Production Manual

Field Selection and Preparation

Fall weed control options, in addition to pre and

Pea Crop Production Manual

Chaff collection should be considered as part of

Pea Crop Production Manual

Pea inoculated with the proper rhizobium

Pea Crop Production Manual

Seed quality includes genetic and mechanical

Seed germination tests assess the ability of the

Seed vigour tests, conducted by some seed

Pea does not provide much crop residue after

Pea Crop Production Manual

dict field seedling emergence. Seed vigour can

Application of certain herbicides prior to harvest

Tolerance and Factors Affecting the Level

Seed-to-seedling transmission of ascochyta in pea under field conditions is considered low.

Seed Rots and Dampingoff

Pythium sp. and

Seed Rots and Seedling

Source: Saskatchewan Pulse Growers

Pea Crop Production Manual

Pea Crop Production Manual

immediately prior to seeding. The use of granular

Inoculants are available in different formulations

Pea Crop Production Manual

formulations and application rates are easier to

Pre-inoculated seed is treated with a peat based

Table 2. Granular Inoculant Rates with Different Seed Row

Source: Gary Hnatowich

Pea Crop Production Manual

The effectiveness of inoculation can be checked

Handling and application is critical to ensure

Pea Crop Production Manual

inoculants and pre-inoculated seed products are

Pea Crop Production Manual

or deeper can result in reduced germination or

success rates. Other macronutrients potassium,