Académique Documents
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Advanced Techniques
In
Power System
Protective Relaying
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**********************************************
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Section 6
Section 7
Section 8
Bus Protection
Section 9
Section 10
Transformer Protection
Section 11
Generator Protection
Section 12
Section 13
Section 14
Section 15
Introduction
ELECTRICALPOWER SYSTEM
PROTECTIVE RELAYING
Protective relaying is the Science or Art
of detecting faults on power systems
and clearing those faults from the
power system as quickly as possible.
SEMINAR OBJECTIVES
T0 PROVIDE A PRACTICAL UNDERSTANDING OF:
6HFWLRQ
Power System Faults
1-1
1-2
TYPES OF FAULTS
On a three-phase power system the principal
types of fault are:
a) Phase-to-Ground (or Single Phase)
b) Phase-to-Phase (or Two-Phase)
c) Phase-to-Phase-to-Ground (or Two
Phase-to-Ground)
d) Three Phase, with or without ground
1-3
1-4
By far the most common type of power system fault is the flashover
of insulators on overhead transmission lines, due to lightning. The
number of faults per year is proportional to the length, and is
approximately inversely proportional to the voltage level.
1-5
100,000 A
100,000 A
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
When a fault occurs, a very large current normally flows. This fault
current, if allowed to persist, will cause damage to equipment. On
an interconnected H.V. transmission system, an uncleared fault
can cause instability and system collapse:
i.e. A `blackout' over a very large area.
Faults must therefore be cleared in the shortest time possible.
1-10
1-11
1-12
DETECTION OF FAULTS
All power system elements are equipped
with one or more protection schemes.
The purpose of these protection
schemes is to detect faults on the
system. When the protective relays have
detected a fault, they send trip signals to
the circuit breaker or breakers, which in
turn clear the fault from the system.
1-13
1-14
DEPENDABLE
PROTECTIVE RELAYING SCHEMES MUST BE
VERY DEPENDABLE AND RELIABLE. ALL
POWER SYSTEM FAULTS MUST BE DETECTED
AND CLEARED QUICKLY.
ON HIGH VOLTAGE INTERCONNECTED
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS, AN UNCLEARED OR
SLOW CLEARING FAULT CAN EASILY LEAD TO
A POWER SYSTEM COLLAPSE.
1-15
HIGH SPEED
HIGH SPEED FAULT CLEARANCE IS ESSENTIAL
ON INTERCONNECTED TRANSMISSION
SYSTEMS.
BY HIGH SPEED WE MEAN LESS THAN 0.1
SECONDS.
ON 500 kV AND 230 kV SYSTEMS FAULTS ARE
NORMALLY CLEARED IN 3 OR 4 CYCLES, OR 50
TO 80 MILLI-SECONDS.
CLEARANCE OF FAULTS
Faults on
relaying systems, and cleared from the systems the opening or tripping
of circuit breakers.
Fault detecting relays typically operate in about 1 cycle, or 20 milliseconds, and circuit breakers operate in 3 cycles, or 60 milli-seconds.
On distribution systems, which are usually radial in nature, slower fault
clearance times are permissible. TIME-GRADED overcurrent protection
is often used for fault clearance.
i.e. For high fault currents, there is fast clearance. For lower fault
currents, the fault clearance time is much slower.
The operating time of circuit breakers on distribution systems is typically
5 to 7 cycles, or 100 to 140 milliseconds.
1-16
Z =
R2 + X2
I3phase =
Vphase
Z
I2phase =
V phase-phase
3
= 2
2Z
I3phase
Iground = V phase
Z + ZN
1-17
When using the PER-UNIT METHOD to calculate fault levels the following
formulae are used to convert all impedances to per-unit values.
BASE MVA
ZT %
100
ZOHMS
BASE MVA
TRANSFORMER MVA
BASE MVA
kV2
BASE MVA
TOTAL ZPU
=
BASE MVA
3
kV * ZPU
S.C. MVA
3
kV
1-18
Z
V -
F -
F 3
Z
Z
3 PHASE FAULT CURRENT
V
Z
I3 =
I2 =
V
2 Z
3
I3 PHASE
Z
Z
F - G
ZN
PHASE TO GROUND FAULT CURRENT=
V
Z + ZN
1-19
44KV
Line Impedance
Base = 100
Z = 12.0
44KV / 13.8KV
20MVA
Transformer
Impedance
Z = 7.7%
MVA
Feeder Impedance
Z = 5.0
13.8KV
Fault
100 MVA
350 MVA =
Source PU Z =
44KV Line P U Z =
Transformer P U Z =
12
x 100 MVA
(44KV)2
7.7 %
100
100 MVA
0.620
0.385 pu
2.625 pu
20 MVA
13.8KV Feeder P U Z = 5
100MVA
0.286 pu
13.8 K V
pu
3.916 pu
25.54MVA
=
x 13.8 K V
25.54 MVA
1068A
1-20
6HFWLRQ
Components of Protection Schemes
Components of
Protection Schemes
2-1
C.T.
1200:5A
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
OVERCURRENT
RELAY
TRIPPING
RELAY
TRIP BREAKER
2-2
2-3
2-4
The relay characteristic is such that for very high fault currents the
relay will operate in it's Minimum time of 0.2 seconds. For lower
values of fault current the operate time is longer. For example, at a
relay current of 16 Amps, the operating time is 0.4 seconds. The relay
has a definite minimum pick-up current of 4 Amps. This minimum
pick-up current must, of course, be greater than the maximum load
on the feeder. The induction disc relay normally has various current
tap settings, and an adjustable time dial. This gives the relay a very
wide range of setting characteristics, and allows the relay setting to
be coordinated with other protection devices, such as fuses, on
adjacent power system elements. As with the instantaneous
overcurrent relays, there are now many electronic timed and Inverse
Definite Minimum Time overcurrent relays on the market. Their
characteristics are very similar to the electro-mechanical versions.
Many overcurrent relays have an instantaneous element, and a timed
element, both built into the same relay case.
The application of overcurrent relays to feeder protection will be
covered later in this seminar.
2-5
2-7
than
their
electro-mechanical
counterparts.
Relay
2-9
2-10
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The circuit breaker is the device that actually interrupts the
flow of fault current, and isolates the faulted element (feeder,
transformer, etc.) from the remaining healthy components of
the power system. The circuit breaker rating must be high
enough for it to interrupt the maximum fault current that is
possible to flow.
A typical 230kV circuit breaker rating is 70kA or 25GVA
(25,000MVA). As stated earlier, circuit breakers must be
capable of interrupting the fault current in very short periods of
time. Typical circuit breaker operating times are:
500 kV - 2 cycles or 40 milli-seconds. (50 Hz system)
230 kV - 3 cycles or 60 milli-seconds. (50 Hz system)
33 kV - 6 cycles or 120 milli-seconds. (50 Hz system)
These are the times from when the trip signal is sent to the breaker,
to when the fault current is interrupted.
Almost all high-voltage circuit breakers that are being built today are
either SF6 BREAKERS or VACUUM BREAKERS. SF6 circuit
breakers may be AIR-INSULATED for outdoor installations, or SF6
GAS-INSULATED for indoor installations. Until recent years the
types of high-voltage circuit breakers that were being installed were
mainly AIR-BLAST BREAKERS or BULK-OIL BREAKERS.
2-11
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Current Transformers, or C.T.'s, are used to
step down the power system primary currents,
from many hundreds or thousands of AMPS,
to more manageable values to supply relays.
It is necessary for the C.T. to provide
insulation between the power system primary
voltage, and the relay circuit. A typical C.T.
with a ratio of 1200 : 5A for a 44kV power
system is shown next.
2-12
C.T.
1200:5A
300A
44kV
1.25A
1.25A
RELAY
Note that the C.T. polarity markings are shown as spots on the
primary and secondary sides of the C.T.
Also, it is important that the C.T. secondary circuit be grounded, and
grounded at one point only.
2-13
SECONDARY
WINDING
PRIMARY
CONDUCTOR
IRON CORE
2-14
TEN EQUAL
CAPACITORS
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Voltage Transformers are used to step the power system primary voltage from,
say 50 kV or 25 kV to 120 volts phase-to-phase, or 69 volts phase-to-ground. It is
this secondary voltage that is applied to the fault detecting relays, and meters.
The voltage transformers at primary voltages of up to about 100 kV are normally
of the WOUND type. That is, a two winding transformer in an oil filled steel tank,
with a turns ratio of say 417:1 or 275:1.
On higher voltage systems, such as 230kV and 500kV, CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMERS, (or CVT's) are normally used.
A CVT is comprised of a capacitor divider made up from 10 equal capacitors,
connected in series from the phase conductor to ground, with a voltage
transformer connected across the bottom capacitor.
This V.T. actually measures one-tenth of the line voltage, as illustrated in the
diagram above.
2-15
6HFWLRQ
Current Transformers & Voltage Transformers
3-1
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
& VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
TYPES OF C.T. AND V.T. CONSTRUCTION
The most common type of C.T. construction is the
`DOUGHNUT' type. It is constructed of an iron toroid, which
forms the core of the transformer, and is wound with secondary
turns.
Secondary Winding
Primary Conductor
Iron Core
3-2
Oil Circuit
Breaker Bushings
Current Transformers
Fixed Contact
Moving Contact
3-3
3-4
3-6
TEN EQUAL
CAPACIATORS
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Voltage Transformers are used to step the power system primary
voltage from, say 50 kV or 33 kV to 120 volts phase-to-phase, or
69 volts phase-to-ground. It is this secondary voltage that is applied
to the fault detecting relays, and meters.
The voltage transformers at these primary voltages of 50 kV and 33
kV are normally of the WOUND type. That is, a two winding
transformer in an oil filled steel tank, with a turns ratio of 416.6:1 or
275:1. On higher voltage systems, such as 230kV and 500kV,
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS, (or CVT's) are
normally used.
A CVT is comprised of a capacitor divider made up from typically
10 equal capacitors, connected in series from the phase conductor
to ground, with a voltage transformer connected across the bottom
capacitor. This V.T. actually measures one-tenth of the line voltage,
as illustrated in the diagram above:
3-7
3-8
KNEE POINT
3-9
= 1 OHM
= 2 OHMS
= 2 OHMS
= 5 OHMS
If the fault current is 12,000 Amps, and the C.T. ratio is 1200 : 5A,
then the C.T. secondary current is 50 Amps. At this secondary
current and the above C.T. burden of 5 OHMS, the C.T. must
produce a terminal voltage of 250 volts. For the C.T. to operate with
good accuracy, without saturating for the maximum fault current,
the knee point must be well above 250 volts.
3-10
3-11
CAUTION:
When C.T.'s are in service they MUST have a continuous
circuit connected across the secondary terminals. If the
C.T. secondary is `open circuit' Whilst primary current is
flowing, dangerously high voltages will appear across
the C.T. secondary terminals. Extreme care must be
exercised when performing `on load' tests on C.T.
circuits, to ensure that a C.T. is not inadvertently `open
circuited'.
3-12
C.T. ACCURACY
A typical protective relaying C.T. has it's accuracy
specified as:
2.5
2.5%
L 800
RELAYING
3-13
O.3%
METERING
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
The accuracy for a typical voltage transformer is
specified as:
0.6
0.6%
Z
VA BURDEN
3-14
3-15
VARIABLE
120v A.C.
SUPPLY
(VARIAC)
3-17
3-18
3-19
3-20
3-21
C. INSULATION RESISTANCE OF
WINDINGS
The insulation resistance of the secondary
and primary windings should be measured. A
reading in excess of 50 Meg-Ohms is normal.
THE V.T. SECONDARY CIRCUIT IS TO BE
GROUNDED AT ONE POINT ONLY. THIS IS
NORMALLY AT THE RELAY PANEL.
3-22
6HFWLRQ
Power System Neutral Grounding
-4 1
Ungrounded Systems
Solidly Grounded Systems
Resistance Grounded Systems
Reactance Grounded Systems
Typical Resistance Grounded
Systems in Industrial Plants
Ground Fault Detection on
Resistance Grounded Systems
Ground Fault Detection on
Ungrounded Systems
-4 2
For most power system elements (such as feeders, lines, buses &
transformers) it is usual for ground faults to result in an excessive
current flow. The protection relays or fuses respond to this overcurrent
condition to clear the fault from the system.
However, for some power system elements, notably generators, the
neutral point is normally grounded through a high impedance (usually a
distribution transformer with a resistor connected across the secondary
terminals) which limits the fault current to about 10 Amps.
-4 3
-4 4
-4 5
UNGROUNDED SYSTEMS
-4 6
-4 7
A value sometimes chosen for the grounding resistor is one that limits
the ground-fault current, for a fault at full phase-to-neutral voltage, to a
value equal to the rated current of the transformer winding whose
neutral it grounds.
A typical value of neutral grounding resistor for utility power systems at
10 to 50 kV is about 1 OHM.
For a 4.16 kV system a 6 OHM neutral grounding resistor may be used
to limit the ground fault current to about 400 amps.
-4 8
-4 9
-4 10
-4 11
-4 12
Ground-Fault Detection on
Ungrounded Systems
On ungrounded systems, a
single ground-fault will not
result in the flow of any faultcurrent
-4 13
GENERATOR NEUTRAL
GROUNDING
-4 14
-4 15
If the resulting stator ground fault current is high there will likely be
considerable damage to the generator, resulting in a lengthy outage to
repair the machine.
-4 16
With this arrangement stator ground faults are detected by the use of an
overcurrent relay supplied from a current transformer measuring the
neutral-grounding resistor current.
-4 17
-4 18
The value of the resistor is chosen to limit the ground-fault current, for
phase-to-ground faults on the stator winding, and ground faults external
to the generator, to about 5 amps. Consequently, if a stator ground fault
does occur the fault current will not cause any further damage to either
the winding or the core, and the generator may be allowed to continue
running until alternative generation is brought into service.
The generator could run indefinitely with a single stator ground-fault, but
if a second ground fault occurs there would be very high fault current
and serious damage to the machine would result.
-4 19
The value of this resistor is chosen to limit the ground fault current, for
phase-to-ground faults on the stator winding, to about 5 amps. A
Voltage Relay is connected across the resistor to detect stator ground
faults.
-4 20
6HFWLRQ
GroundPotential-Rise During Power System
Faults
GROUND-POTENTIAL-RISE
DURING POWER SYSTEM
GROUND FAULTS
Calculation of Ground-Potential-Rise
5-1
Safety of Personnel
Equipment Protection
System Operating Requirements
Safety of Personnel
The grounding system must ensure that accessible non-current-carrying
metal structures and equipment are maintained at the same voltage and
that hazardous step and touch voltages do not occur.
Equipment Protection
The grounding system must be designed to limit the level of transient
voltages on station equipment by providing a low impedance path for
lightning surges, fault currents, and other system disturbances.
System Operating Requirements
The grounding must be designed to ensure that there is proper
operation of the protective devices such as protective relaying and
surge arresters. The grounding system has an influence on the levels of
power system overvoltages and fault current, and the choice of
protective relaying.
5-2
WHAT IS GROUNDING?
5-3
WHAT IS BONDING?
5-4
5-5
This voltage gradient will mean that different points within the station
will be at different voltages during the period of time that fault current is
flowing. Hazards to persons working in the sub-station exist because
different parts of the human body can bridge across points where a
voltage difference exists during the flow of fault current.
5-6
Ik =
0 .116
Amps
t
for the range of 't' between 0.030 and 3.0 seconds, and a frequency of
50 and 60 Hz.
This equation applies for a person weighing 50 kg.
Ik =
0.157
Amps
t
5-7
If a person is exposed to
hazardous voltages for much
greater lengths of time, such as
when they touch live equipment,
the resulting currents passing
through the body would have the
following effects:
2 mA to 10 mA
10 mA to 20 mA
20 mA to 70 mA
70 mA to 100 mA
5-8
5-9
Touch Voltage
Touch voltage is the voltage difference shunted by the human body for
a touch or hand-to-foot contact. If the object touched were grounded
immediately below it, the maximum ground potential-difference shunted
would be the normal maximum horizontal reach, assumed to be 1
Metre.
5-10
Transferred Voltage
Transferred voltage contact is a special case of touch voltage. It occurs
when a person standing on the ground touches a conductor grounded
only at a remote point; or a person standing at a remote point touches a
conductor connected only to the ground grid.
Here the touch voltage may be essentially equal to the full voltage rise
of the ground grid under fault conditions, and not the fraction of this total
that is encountered in the usual `step' or `touch' contacts. This
transferred voltage condition is extremely hazardous and care must be
taken to ensure that this situation is avoided.
An example of transferred voltage is where communication cables run
between a sub-station and a telephone company office. This hazard is
controlled by routing all telephone company circuits through a
neutralizing transformer, or optic isolation equipment, as they enter the
high voltage sub-station for sites where the ground potential rise is high.
5-11
= 3K
where:
K = 1.0 for soil immediately beneath the feet
which is homogeneous for more than 500 mm.
K = 0.74 for 150 mm of crushed stone.
K = 0.57 for 80 mm of crushed stone
Crushed stone may be assumed to have s = 3,000
.m when wet.
5-12
V S = I K ( R K + 2 R F ) Volts
Where Rk is the electrical resistance of the human
body, and normally taken as 1,000 .
VS=
116 + 0.7K S
Volts
t
RF
V T = I K RK +
2
VT=
116 + 0.17K S
t
5-13
Calculation of Ground-Potential-Rise
Ground Potential Rise, or GPR, is the
maximum voltage, during a power system
fault, that a station ground grid may attain
relative to a distant grounding point
assumed to be at the potential of remote
earth.
The ground potential rise for a station is calculated as the product of the
station ground resistance, and the ultimate ground- fault current I. This
value should be less than 3 kV.
If considerable cost is involved in achieving this requirement, a station
ground potential rise of up to 5 kV is acceptable but may increase the
difficulty of controlling the hazard from any transferred voltages or high
local voltage gradients. A higher ground potential rise also increases the
cost of the neutralizing transformers or other protective devices required
for communication cables.
The following data are required for calculating the station ground potential rise:
Station ground-fault current for the ultimate configuration of the station.
Station ground grid area, A
Soil resistivity test data
An estimate of the total length, L, of buried conductor, including ground rods.
The number of distributed ground rods, N, their radius, a, and length below frost
depth, l.
5-14
5-15
Soil Resistivity
=2 x R x S
where:
R
5-16
r=
As
R=
where
+ e
4r
L
Ohms
A test that is commonly used to measure the resistance of the ground electrode is
known as the 'Fall of Potential Method. A sector of at least 120 degrees that is free of
conductive anomalies such as metal pipes and cables is selected. This angle ensures
that the test probes are closer to the ground grid under test than to pipes or cables.
Two test probes are used, and the connections from the measuring instrument are as
shown.
The current probe is driven into the ground at a distance as far as practical from the
ground grid. This distance should be greater than the diagonal dimension of the
ground grid to get results with an acceptable level of accuracy. The instrument injects
a fixed current through the earth, from the current probe to the ground grid. The
potential probe is driven into the ground at a number of locations between the current
probe and the ground grid.
For each location of the potential probe, the resistance measurement is read from the
instrument, recorded, and plotted on a graph against distance from the ground grid.
From the sample graph shown, the point of inflection of the curve is taken as the
ground grid resistance. When tests are performed with greater distances between the
current probe and the ground grid, the curve usually becomes almost horizontal, and it
is this flat part of the curve that indicates the resistance of the ground grid.
5-18
5-19
5-20
Control of Voltage-Gradient
Gradient control ground mats are installed at
the operating handle of manually operated
isolating and ground-switches. These mats
should be connected to the structure supporting
the switches, and to the ground grid by means
of copper conductors of suitable size. See Rule
36-310 of the Electrical Safety Code
High voltage sub-station sites are covered with a layer of crushed stone
to a depth of about 6 inches. This has the effect of reducing the step
and touch voltage hazards because of the relatively high resistivity of
the stone.
Substation Fence
Electrical regulations usually require that the substation fence be
located at least one metre inside the perimeter of the station ground
grid. The fence must be connected to the ground grid at various places
This reduces the touch voltage for a person standing outside, and
touching the fence.
Fence grounding is very important because the outside of the fence is
usually accessible to the general public, and fences located near the
edge of a grounding grid straddle high potential gradients.
This reduces the touch voltage for a person standing outside, and
touching the fence.
5-21
5-22
5-23
5-24
5-25
5-26
Two devices that are commonly used to control this hazard are
neutralizing transformers and teleline optical isolators.
Neutralizing Transformers
The diagram above shows a neutralizing transformer for a single
pair telephone circuit.
5-27
5-28
5-29
5-30
6HFWLRQ
Feeder Overcurrent Protection
Feeder Overcurrent
Protection
6 -1
6 -2
6 -3
800:5A
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
TRIP
FUSES
OVERCURRENT
RELAY
4800
800
x 5
6 -4
a.
6 -5
6 -6
6 -7
6 -8
FUSE
6 -9
800:5A
F2
TRIP
o / c
1.
F1
o / c
2.
3.
6 -10
80%
800:5A
o / c
o / c
Overcurrent relays are used, and the H.S. relay must be set such
that it does not operate for faults beyond the first tap. The High-Set
relay will therefore be set to operate for faults up to 80% of the
distance to the first tap.
6 -11
6 -12
This relay then trips the breaker, and also initiates Auto-Reclose.
For about 90% of the faults this auto-reclose will be successful, and
the interruption to the customers is for only about 0.5 seconds. If,
however, the fault is permanent, such as a broken pole or a tree on
the line, then the auto-reclose will be unsuccessful. After the circuit
breaker has auto-reclosed the tripping from the Low-Set
overcurrent relay is disabled for 10 seconds. This means that
proper protection coordination will then take place: i.e.
6 -13
6 -14
R
W
B
4800 A
800/5A
CURRENT FLOW
SHOWN FOR A BLUE
PHASE TO GROUND
FAULT ON THE
FEEDER
BUS
PROTECTION
C.T.S
NORMAL LOAD CURRENT = 400 A
I.E. SECONDARY CURENT = 2.5 A
4800 A
FEEDER
almost
all
overcurrent
relays
being
installed
are
125 VDC
+ ve
H.S. INST
o/c
L.S. INST
o/c
INV.
TIME
o/c
INITIATE
A U T O- R E C L O S E
ALARM
TRIP
BREAKER
TRIP RELAY
- ve
6 -16
PROTECTION COORDINATION
TIME IN SECONDS
30
20
INVERSE TIMED
OVERCURRENT
300 E
FUSE
10
5
3
2
NORMAL
LOAD 400
AMPS
H I G H- SET
INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT 6,000
AMPS
.5
L O W -S E T I N S T A N T A N E O U S
OVERCURRENT 1900 AMPS
(BLOCKED ON RECLOSURE)
.3
.2
.1
100
200
500 1000
2000
6000
10,000
20,000
T1
B Bus
M4
T2
M4 Load
20 MVA 400 amps at 28.9 kV
700 MVA
14000 amps
Y Bus
10 mile feeder
Fuse 300 E
MS #1
M4 Relay Settings
MVA
AMPS
300
6000
95
1900
Phase Timed
50
1000 (minimum
pickup)
600 MVA
12000 amps
100 MVA
2000 amps
250 MVA
5000 amps
MS #2
90 MVA
1800 amps
6 -17
6 -18
6 -19
6 -20
6 -21
Microprocessor-Based Feeder
Protection Relays
Most feeder protection relays being installed today
are microprocessor- b a s e d , a n d i n c l u d e m a n y
functions within the one relay.
As well as the basic instantaneous and inversetimed overcurrent functions, these relays also
include many other protection functions and
additional features.
Directional Supervision
Undervoltage and Overvoltage
Bus underfrequency & Rate-of-change
Synchronism Check
Negative Sequence Voltage
Auto-reclose
Event Recording
Oscillography, or Waveform Capture
Fault Location
6 -22
6HFWLRQ
Coordination of Protection Systems
Coordination of Protection
Systems
7-1
unit-protection schemes
7-2
TIME-CURRENT COORDINATION
On radial distribution systems overcurrent devices
such as fuses and inverse-time overcurrent relays are
generally used to provide protection. The magnitude
of the available fault current at any point on the feeder
is determined by the impedance of the power system
from the point of the fault to the source of supply.
Consequently, the available fault current decreases as
the distance from the supply station increases.
Overcurrent devices are therefore generally used, in
series, with progressively lower ratings, to protect
various sections of distribution feeders.
7-3
Time in Seconds
Maximum
clearing time
Minimum
melting time
Current in Amps
FUSE-TO-FUSE COORDINATION
The time-current characteristic of a typical fuse is shown above,
and is represented by a band between the minimum melting time
and the maximum clearing time of the fuse element.
7-4
SOURCE
FUSE A
Fuse A minimum
melting TC curve
75% of Fuse A
curve (in time)
Time
FUSE B
FAULT
LOAD
Coordination limit
Current
7-5
An example of computer
software for power system
protective device coordination is:
cyme.com
CYMTCC, Protective device
coordination
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-9
7-10
7-11
7-12
(+)
INITIATING
CONTACTS
OVERCURRENT
SUPERVISION
(1000 AMPS)
50
BREAKER
AUXILIARY
SWITCH
TIMER 62 a
(67 ms)
52
TIMER 62 b
(105 ms)
52
BREAKER
AUXILIARY
SWITCH
TIMER
(500 ms) 62 c
94 ET
TRIP FAILED
BREAKER
94
TRIP ALL
BREAKERS
ON BOTH
ADJACENT
ZONES
7-13
TRIPPING
When the breaker failure protection operates it
must trip ALL of the circuit breakers on BOTH
adjacent zones, including the breakers at the
remote end of associated lines.
The breaker failure protection tripping relays
`seal-in' for 45 seconds. This holds the
tripping signal on to all of the tripped breakers
and prevents them from auto-reclosing.
SPEED
The speed of operation of breaker failure protection must be
fast enough to prevent indiscriminate tripping of power
system elements, and to prevent the power system from
going unstable. Typically a fault would be cleared in 150 to
200 milli-seconds by the operation of the breaker failure
protection.
INITIATION
Breaker failure protection is initiated by all of the protection
schemes that send trip signals to that breaker.
OVERCURRENT SUPERVISION
Breaker failure protection is supervised by high-speed
instantaneous overcurrent relays. These relays must have a
very fast reset time and a high pick-up/drop -out ratio.
7-14
RELAY SETTINGS
INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT SUPERVISION
RELAYS
The high speed instantaneous overcurrent supervision relays are
typically set for 1,000 primary amps.
TIMER 62a
The criterion for setting the 62a timing relay is the opening time
of the breaker auxiliary switch (pallet switch) PLUS a 2 cycle
margin. Typically this setting would be 4 cycles (or 67 milliseconds for a 60 Hz power system). This leg of the circuit
provides the fastest operation of the breaker failure protection. It
will operate if the auxiliary switch has not opened within 67 milliseconds after the trip signal is sent to the breaker, breaker failure
protection is initiated, and fault current is still flowing.
TIMER 62b
The criterion for setting the 62b timing relay is the
breaker tripping time, PLUS the reset time of the
overcurrent supervision relays, PLUS a 2 cycle
margin. Typically this setting would be just over 5
cycles.
This leg of the circuit is the one which will operate if
the breaker auxiliary switch opens, but the main
contacts fail to interrupt the fault current.
7-15
TIMER 62c
The purpose of this leg of the circuit is to provide
breaker failure protection when there are low
magnitudes of fault current, below the 1,000 amp pickup of the overcurrent supervision relays. (e.g. For faults
at the remote end of very long lines). The contacts of
this relay are not supervised by the overcurrent relay,
and the setting is typically 500 milli-seconds or 0.5
seconds. This slow clearance of such faults can be
tolerated because fault currents of less than 1,000
amps would not jeopardize the stability of the power
system.
7-16
(+)
D.C. SUPPLY
INITIATING CONTACTS
52
TIMER
0.3 SECS
94 ET
TRIP FAILED
BREAKER
BREAKER AUXILIARY
SWITCH
62
94
7-17
7-18
7-19
6HFWLRQ
Bus Protection
Bus Protection
8-1
BUS PROTECTION
The main bus in transformer stations is one of the most
critical pieces of equipment in our power distribution
and transmission systems. Faults on buses are very
serious events because they usually result in
widespread outages. The fault level on the bus is
usually very high because it is close to the main source
of supply, and may have multiple in-feeds. Faults on
buses are almost always permanent, and auto-reclosing
is therefore not applicable.
Reliable bus protection is essential for all power systems, from the
switchboards of industrial plants, to high-voltage buses in utility
substations. The consequences of an uncleared bus fault are
enormous. Also, the unnecessary tripping of a bus due to the
maloperation of the bus protection scheme can cause widespread
outages.
The choice of the type of bus protection to apply for any particular
location is very largely dependent upon the voltage level, and
whether the bus is supplied from a radial system, or is part of an
interconnected system.
8-2
For buses supplied from radial systems, where there is only one
source of supply, overcurrent protection is appropriate. This is
typical in industrial plants where the bus voltage may be 4.16 kV or
600 volts, and is supplied from a single transformer. Instantaneous
overcurrent and inverse-timed overcurrent devices are used, with
settings selected to coordinate with the downstream devices, as
discussed earlier.
8-3
8-4
6000A
25A
25A
25A
25A
1200:5A
RELAY
1200:5A
6000A
6000A
25A
25A
F1
F2
8-5
4000A
2000A
6000A
16.7A
8.3A
25A
16.7A
8.3A
RELAY
1200:5A
1200:5A
25A
4000A
16.7A
F1
2000A
8.3A
F2
We now consider a fault on the bus, of the same 6,000 Amps. The
current in both C.T.'s is now in the same direction, and the current
in the C.T. secondary circuit no longer circulates. The two C.T.
secondary currents are summed, and the total of 25 Amps passes
through the differential relay. For this IN ZONE fault, the relay will
operate and initiate tripping.
8-6
This unbalance will cause some SPILL current to flow through the
relay. If this SPILL current is high enough, it can cause the Bus
Protection to maloperate, and trip the bus unnecessarily for a
THROUGH or OUT OF ZONE fault.
8-7
18,000A
75A
2.5A
8.33A
20.83
12.5
8.33
1200:5A
RELAY
75A
6000A
2000A
F1
5000A
F2
3000A
F3
2000A
F4
F5
F2 = 2,000 Amps
F3 = 5,000 Amps
F4 = 3,000 Amps
F5 = 2,000 Amps
8-8
8-9
NOTE.
Differential Bus Protection will NEVER
operate as BACK-UP protection for
uncleared faults on other parts of the
power system. For example, an uncleared
fault on F5.
Also note the location of the C.T.'s in the bus
protection schemes. As mentioned earlier, the
bus protection C.T.'s MUST be located on the
feeder side of the breakers. If the bus protection
C.T.'s are located on the bus side of the breaker,
then a protection blind spot exists.
8-10
T1
T2
F2
BT
B.U.
RELAY
F4
DIFF.
RELAY
F6
8-11
8-12
8-13
8-14
8-15
8-17
8-18
6HFWLRQ
Motor Protection, Starting & Control
Motor Protection,
Starting & Control
9-1
MOTOR STANDARDS
ENCLOSURES
ODP -
9-2
SERVICE FACTOR
Service factor is a classification of the capability of a
motor to tolerate periodic overloading. Typical
service factors are 1.0 and 1.15
A service factor of 1.0 means that damage
9-3
EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a motor is a measure of
the ability of to convert electrical input in
kW, to mechanical output at the shaft, in
H.P. There are considerable energy and
cost savings to be realized by using high
efficiency motors. Typical values for high
efficiency motors range from 82% for 1
HP to 95% for 500 HP.
9-4
9-5
9-6
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
Overcurrent protection is required for the motor
branch circuits.
Overcurrent protection is provided by fuses or a
circuit breaker, to detect and clear faults on the
cable supplying the motor, or in the motor itself.
Contactors are used to control motor operation.
However, contactors have a very limited fault
interrupting capability, and are not used to clear
faults (other than overloads).
9-7
For small motors on this system, of less than about 20 HP, motor
ground faults will be cleared by the operation of the phase overcurrent
device, or the thermal overload device.
9-8
UNDERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
Motors must be disconnected from the
source of supply for low-voltage conditions.
(Electrical Safety Code Rule 28-400). This
is usually provided by the contactor coil
releasing the contactor when an
undervoltage condition exists.
9-9
Very large motors, with supply voltages above 600 Volts, are
expensive, and it is usually wise to provide more comprehensive
protection schemes. Such schemes include differential protection,
phase unbalance or negative phase sequence, incomplete start
sequence, stall or locked rotor, and out-of-step.
9-10
9-11
CIRCUIT BREAKER
DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
9-12
MOTOR STATOR
WINDINGS
CIRCUIT BREAKER
DIFFERENTIAL
RELAY
For very large motors a separate C.T. is used at each end of the
winding, for each of the three phases.
The C.T.'s are connected differentially as shown above, and under
healthy conditions the differential current in the relay is zero.
Under fault conditions there will be a different current in the two C.T.'s.
The C.T. secondary differential current will cause the relay to operate,
and send a trip signal to the circuit breaker to clear the fault and shut
down the motor.
9-13
9-14
9-15
9-16
9-17
AUTOTRANSFORMER STARTING
Autotransformers are used to apply the
initial reduced voltage to the motor. This
system has the advantage that the
transformer tap settings can be varied to
change the voltage, and starting torque.
Also, only three conductors are required
to the motor.
9-18
9-19
9-20
9-21
9-22
9-23
9-24
6HFWLRQ
Transformer Protection
Transformer Protection
10-1
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
The various types of protection schemes
for power system transformers include:
Differential protection
Overcurrent and ground fault
protection
Gas pressure relays
Oil and Winding temperature
devices
10-2
10-3
RESTRAINT
COILS
OPERATING
COIL
The C.T. ratios on the transformer primary and secondary sides are
chosen for a current balance with the tap changer in the mid, or
neutral position. As the tap changer moves away from the neutral
position, the unbalance between the primary and secondary C.T.
currents increases.
The transformer differential relay is designed especially to
accommodate this mismatch in the primary and secondary C.T.
currents. The transformer differential relay has both restraint (or
Bias) coils, and operate coils, as shown above.
The differential current flows through the operate coil to make
the relay pick-up, and the through current flows through the
restraint or bias coils, and tends to make the relay restrain.
10-4
If there is an out of zone fault when the tap changer is away from
the neutral tap, then the through C.T. secondary current flowing
through the restraint coils will overcome the tendency for the relay
to operate by the spill current flowing through the operate coil.
The differential relay will not operate for this out-of-zone fault
condition.
10-5
For the In-Zone fault shown the current through the operate coil
is very high, and the net restraining current is low.
The differential relay will operate for this In-Zone fault
10-6
10-7
OPERATE
CURRENT
(AMPS)
10-8
IMPORTANT:
BECAUSE DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION REMAINS STABLE
FOR `THROUGH' OR `OUT OF
ZONE' FAULTS, IT PROVIDES NO
OVERLOAD PROTECTION FOR THE
TRANSFORMER.
10-9
10-10
When one transformer trips, the total load is then carried by the
transformer remaining in service. This can result in emergency
overloading of this transformer of, say, 150%. It may be possible
for the transformer to tolerate this emergency condition for about 2
to 3 hours, providing a winding temperature of 105 degrees C is not
exceeded. During this emergency overload period load shedding
or load transfers can take place to bring the transformer load down
to the nameplate rating, before the windings become overheated.
An overcurrent pickup setting of twice full-load is often used to
allow for this emergency situation.
10-11
10-12
GAS RELAYS
The accumulation of gas or changes in pressure
inside the tank of oil filled transformers are good
indicators of internal faults. Gas relays are used to
detect these conditions:
A very slow build up of gas can be caused by
very low energy arcs and deterioration of insulation,
and core problems. This is known as GAS
ACCUMULATION.
A flashover of arc within the transformer tank will
cause a sudden increase in pressure, and cause a
surge of oil to flow in the pipe from the top of the
tank to the oil conservator. This is known as a GAS
PRESSURE or SURGE condition.
10-13
10-14
10-15
10-16
10-17
10-18
Temperature Rise
Transformer
specifications
usually
include
guaranteed
10-19
10-20
Gas relays are tested by injecting air into the relay, or into the pipe
work adjacent to the relay. The relays are usually equipped with a
valve, through which air can be injected from either a pump or a
compressed air bottle.
10-21
The diagram above shows the actual test results for the primary
injection test on a 230 kV :44 kV transformer. The purpose of the
test was to verify the correctness of the C.T. circuits and the
connections to the differential relay.
10-22
The diagram above shows the actual test results for the primary
injection test on a 500 kV : 230 kV transformer.
10-23
10-24
10-25
The above diagram shows the actual test results from a primary
injection test a transformer differential protection, combined with
H.V. and L.V. Restricted Earth Fault Protection.
10-26
Microprocessor-Based Transformer
Protection/Management Relays
Most protective relay manufacturers now have modern
microprocessor-based transformer protection/management
relays on the market. These microprocessor-based relays
typically have many different protection, control and
monitoring functions, such as:
10-27
Event recording
Waveform capture
Metering
Tap position
Harmonic analysis
Programmable logic
10-28
6HFWLRQ
General Protection
Generator Protection
11-1
GENERATOR PROTECTION
Generators are the most expensive pieces of
equipment on our power systems. Reliable generator
protection schemes are therefore required to minimise
damage and repair time following fault conditions.
Generators can be damaged as a result of a wide
variety of different fault conditions which may exist on
the power system. These fault conditions can be
categorised into two groups:
a. Internal faults within the generator zone.
b. External power system faults and/or
abnormal operating conditions.
The various fault and system conditions that can cause damage to
generators are:
A. GENERATOR INTERNAL FAULTS.
1. Phase-to-Phase faults on the stator winding.
2. Phase-to-ground faults on the stator winding.
3. INTER-TURN faults on the stator winding.
4. Ground faults in the rotor (or field winding).
B. EXTERNAL POWER SYSTEM FAULTS AND ABNORMAL
OPERATING CONDITIONS.
1. Phase unbalance (Negative phase sequence).
2. Out-of-step (pole slipping or loss of synch)
3. Under and over frequency.
4. Loss of excitation (Loss of field).
5. Overexcitation.
6. Reverse power (loss of prime mover).
7. Non-synchronized connection of generator.
11-2
11-3
230 kV
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
22 kV
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER
4 kV
VOLTAGE
RELAY
11-4
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
11-5
j.
11-6
11-7
33 kV
600:1
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
DIFFERENTIAL
RELAY
30 MW
GENERATOR
600:1
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER
VOLTAGE
RELAY
11-8
DIFFL
RELAY
DIFFL
RELAY
DIFFERENTIAL
RELAY
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER
VOLTAGE
RELAY
11-9
GENERATOR STATOR
WINDINGS
RELAY
RELAY
RELAY
11-10
STATOR
WINDINGS
GROUND FAULT
60 Hz PASS
180 Hz BLOCK
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER
FILTER
VOLTAGE
RELAY
(64)
V.T.
STATOR
WINDINGS
RELAY
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER
THIRD HARMONIC
GROUND DETECTOR
USING RELATIVE
MAGNITUDE
COMPARATOR
To detect faults on the last 10% of the winding some other type of
protection must be used. One type of protection that is used to
detect such faults compares the third harmonic voltages between
the V.T. at the
(64)
11-13
GENERATOR
FIELD
MAIN
EXCITER
ROTOR
GROUND FAULT
RELAY
11-14
FIELD
CIRCULT
BREAKER
ROTOR
FIELD
WINDING
EXCITER
ROTOR
GROUNDFAULT
RELAY
CURRENT LIMITING
RESISTOR
AC SUPPLY
30V DC
11-15
11-16
11-17
R
W
B
ZB
ZR
N.P.S.
RELAY
IR
IR
VZR
VZR
+ VZB
VZR
VZB
IB
VZB
IW
IW
POSITIVE SEQUENCE
IB
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE
todays
modern
microprocessor-based
multi-function
11-18
RELAY
GENERATOR STATOR
WINDINGS
RELAY
RELAY
11-19
PHASE TO
PHASE VOLTAGE
OPEN CORNER
DELTA VOLTAGE
RELAY COILS
IN QUADRATURE
NORMAL CONDITON
FAULT CONDITION
11-20
UNDERFREQUENCY AND
OVERFREQUENCY PROTECTION.
(81)
In the first case, overfrequency, with possible overvoltage results because of the
reduced load demand. Operation in this mode will not produce overheating
unless rated power and approximately 105% rated voltage is exceeded. The
generator controls should be promptly adjusted to match the generator output to
the load demand.
With insufficient generation for the connected load, underfrequency results, with
a heavy load demand. The drop in voltage causes the voltage regulator to
increase excitation. The result is that overheating can occur in both the rotor and
the stator. At the same time, more power is being demanded, with the generator
less able to supply it at the decaying frequency. Automatic or manual
transmission system load shedding should ideally adjust the load to match the
connected generation before a total power system collapse occurs.
11-21
11-22
OUT-OF-STEP PROTECTION
(21-78)
11-23
OPERATING
REGION
BLINDER
B
ZLOAD
230 kV
BUS
R
3
1
2
OPERATING
REGION
BLINDER A
OUT-OF-STEP
IMPEDIANCE OPERATING
AREA
11-24
Z LOAD
NORMAL FIELD
LOSS OF FIELD
LOCUS OF GENERATOR
TERMINAL IMPEDANCE
SEEN BY RELAY
(40)
11-25
VOLTS / Hz
RELAY
V.T.
OVEREXCITATION PROTECTION.
(59)
CORE FLUX B
(APPLIED VOLTAGE)
(FREQUENCY)
For the core flux B to remain below the saturation point, the
generator voltage may only be increased as the frequency (or
speed) is increased. If the excitation is increased too rapidly, then
this overexcitation condition must be detected, and the field
breaker tripped. Overexcitation protection schemes use Volts per
Hertz relays. These relays have a linear characteristic, and will
operate if V, the Voltage, divided by the frequency exceeds the
set value.
11-26
ZERO TORQUE
LINE
V.T.
REVERSE
POWER
RELAY
P IN
POWER
P OUT
P
OPERATE ZONE
(32)
11-27
V.T.
UNDER
FREQUENCY
RELAY
CLOSED BELOW
52Hz
LOW SET
O/C RELAY
TRIP
(50)
11-28
V.T.
Z
RELAY
(21B)
11-29
11-32
Subtransient Reactance
X''d
Transient Reactance
X'd
Synchronous Reactance
Xd
11-33
I =
F.L.C
FULL LOAD CURRENT
= 5.26 X F.L.C.
=
0.19
X d
11-34
I =
F.L.C.
= 0.74 X F.L.C.
1.35
11-35
Time Constants
X"d=11%
= 3.83pu
T"d=0.02s
X'd=19%
= 4.52pu
T'd=1s
Xd=135%
I d =V/X d
= 0.74pu
GE MULTILIN
Time
(s)
I"d
I'd
I total
0.00
3.83
4.52
0.74
9.09
0.02
1.41
4.43
0.74
6.58
0.04
0.52
4.35
0.74
5.60
0.10
0.03
4.09
0.74
4.86
0.20
0.00
3.70
0.74
4.44
0.50
0.00
2.74
0.74
3.48
1.00
0.00
1.66
0.74
2.40
2.00
0.00
0.61
0.74
1.35
5.00
0.00
0.03
0.74
0.77
11-36
60
10
00
90
3.
3.
2.
80
70
60
2.
2.
2.
50
40
30
20
2.
2.
2.
2.
10
00
90
80
70
2.
2.
1.
1.
1.
50
40
30
20
10
00
90
80
70
60
2.00
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
0.
0.
0.
50
1.00
0.
0.
40
30
20
0.
0.
0.
10
00
0.
0.
Current ( pu)
10.00
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
I'd
I"d
Itotal
Id
0.00
Time (s)
11-37
6HFWLRQ
Cogeneration & Non-Utility Generation (NUG)
12-1
REQUIREMENTS FOR
INTERCONNECTION WITH THE UTILITY
PROTECTIVE RELAYING REQUIREMENTS
In general, the design objectives of all
protective relaying systems are to minimize the
severity and extent of power system
disturbances and to minimize possible damage
to equipment.
12-2
12-4
12-5
Frequency Shift
Audio-Tone signalling
over leased
telephone lines
Fibre-optic cable
VHF Radio
Power-Line-Carrier
Microwave
12-6
It is therefore necessary to provide voltage supervision to the autoreclose scheme to ensure that the breaker can only reclose when
the feeder is dead. A voltage transformer is connected at the
feeder terminal, and the V.T. secondary winding supplies the
voltage supervision relay. Another option is to send information
from the NUG, over a communication channel, to permit autoreclose only when the generator circuit breaker is open.
12-7
The utility usually insists on having operating control of the highvoltage disconnect or load-break switch. This means that NUG staff
cannot operate the switch without instruction from the utility.
12-8
12-9
The electronic meter produces pulse output data. These pulses are
fed into a Remote Interrogation Metering System (RIMS) unit for
storage. This RIMS unit is then interrogated, over a telephone line,
by the utility computer to retrieve the meter readings. The same
pulses that are fed into the RIMS unit are available for use by the
NUG if desired. This pulse data can be used by the NUG to monitor
the net plant output to the utility.
12-10
6HFWLRQ
High-Voltage Transmission Line Protection
High-Voltage Transmission
Line Protection
13-1
13-2
13-3
Z =
V
I
(Volts)
(Amps)
falls below
13-4
500:1
C.T.
V.T.
2000:1
IMPEDANCE
RELAY
13-5
TRIP
C.T.
V.T.
PIVOT
The simplest type of impedance relay, and that used in the very
early protection schemes, had a beam, pivoted in the middle as
shown in the diagram below. The voltage restraining coil is supplied
from the line V.T., and the current operating coil is supplied from
the C.T.
It is useful to use this example to illustrate the principle of
impedance protection.
Under normal load conditions there is a low current and normal
rated voltage. The beam is therefore pulled down at the left hand
side by the voltage coil and the tripping contacts remain open.
If a fault occurs there is a very high current, and the line voltage
falls. The beam is pulled down to the right hand side because the
pull by the current coil overcomes the pull by the voltage coil. The
contacts then close and trip the breaker.
13-6
13-7
LE
ANG
L IN E
TERMINAL
B
ZONE 2 REACH
ZONE 1
REACH
75
13-8
Phase-to-Ground Faults
A to B
A to Grnd
B to C
B to Grnd
C to A
C to Grnd
Other fault conditions, such as two phases-to-ground, or threephase faults can be considered as combinations of these basic
fault conditions.
It is not practical to set an impedance relay to measure exactly the
impedance of the line up to the breaker at the remote end. This is
because of errors in such things as C.T.'s, V.T.'s, Relays,
calculation of line impedance, etc. Because of this we set the relay
to measure, or reach, some impedance less than the full length of
the line. This reach is normally chosen as 75% of the line
impedance, and is called ZONE 1. We must be certain that the
ZONE 1 reach does not extend beyond the remote end of the line.
13-9
A to G ZONE 1
A to B ZONE 2
A to G ZONE 2
B to C ZONE 1
B to G ZONE 1
B to C ZONE 2
B to G ZONE 2
C to A ZONE 1
C to G ZONE 1
C to A ZONE 2
C to G ZONE 2
The ZONE 1 relays cause the local circuit breaker to trip with no
intentional time delay. The ZONE 2 relays cause tripping after a
time delay of typically 0.4 seconds.
13-10
F1
F2
ZONE 1
REACH
ZONE 2
REACH
IMPEDANCE
RELAY
13-11
13-12
ZONE 1
OF A
F3
ZONE 1
OF B
ZONE 2
OF B
F1
F4
F2
ZONE 2
OF A
operate and trip the line instantaneously. Also, the ZONE 2 relays
at each end will operate and send acceleration to the other end.
When acceleration is received at each end the ZONE 2 relays will
also trip without a time delay.
and trips that end instantaneously. The ZONE 2 relay at end B also
operates and sends an acceleration signal to end A. At end A the
ZONE 2 relay operates and starts the timing relay. When the
acceleration signal is received at end A the timing relay is
bypassed, and the ZONE 2 relay will trip without a time delay.
13-13
13-14
13-15
13-16
13-17
channel
is
required
for
phase
comparison
protection. Until a few years ago power line carrier was used as
the communication channel for almost all phase comparison
schemes. More recently microwave systems and fibre optic cables
have been used.
13-18
13-19
13-20
13-21
13-22
13-23
13-24
6HFWLRQ
Static Capacitor Protection
14-1
14-2
Grounded Star
2.
3.
Ungrounded Star
4.
14-3
CAPACITOR
BREAKER
FUSES
SERIES
GROUP 1
200KVAR
CAPACITORS
FUSES
SERIES
GROUP 2
CAPACITORS
FUSES
SERIES
GROUP 3
CAP
A R ACIT
SIM R A N G OR
W P ILAR T E .
HA O
SE
CAPACITORS
14-4
14-5
PROTECTION CONSIDERATIONS
A shunt capacitor bank should be in
service whenever load conditions
require power factor improvement and
voltage regulation.
Ideally, the bank should not be tripped for one or two failed
capacitor units in one series group, provided the remaining units
are not subjected to an overvoltage exceeding 10% of their rated
voltage. At the same time, the protection should ensure removal of
the bank from the system before it is exposed to severe damage
either from excessive overvoltage or from fault currents. The
protection should not maloperate because of in-rush currents as a
result of switching, or because of out-rush currents as a result of an
external fault.
14-6
B.
C.
D.
E.
14-7
The relays are supplied with current from the C.T's located in the
bushings on the bus side of the capacitor circuit breaker.
The inverse time elements are set low enough to respond to rack
faults of capacitor banks with more than one series group in each
phase. A rack fault can be an arc-over of a single series section or
a number of series groups, caused as a result of a foreign object
initiating the short. Unlike other equipment where the arc-over is
line-to-ground or line-to-line, the flash-over in a capacitor bank can
be across only a portion of the line to neutral voltage. As a
consequence, the fault current is smaller than the typical phase-tophase or phase-to-ground faults.
14-8
14-9
OVERCURRENT IN INDIVIDUAL
CAPACITOR UNITS
As described earlier, a damaged capacitor
unit, which would cause currents to increase,
is isolated by the fuse which serves the
double duty as a protective device and a
disconnect switch.
14-10
14-11
MICROPROCESSOR-BASED CAPACITOR
PROTECTION & CONTROL SYSTEMS
Microprocessor-based systems have recently
become available to perform the many protection
functions for static capacitor banks, as well as having
features to provide automatic control. As an example,
a brochure is attached for a recently introduced unit
which provides digital protection and control of
capacitor banks. This brochure illustrates the various
features available on such units.
14-12
6HFWLRQ
Recent Developments and Future Trends in
Protective Relaying
15-1
DIGITAL MICROPROCESSOR-BASED
RELAYS
In the last few years digital microprocessorbased relays have been introduced to all
areas of protective relaying. With the many
features available in these relays they are
revolutionizing the way that protection,
control, and monitoring is being applied
in high-voltage substations.
15-2
15-3
15-4
Algorithms are performed on the data to detect fault conditions that are
determined by the settings which are programmed into the DSP, or
relays. Data is processed by the DSP at a very high speed. The output
data is then passed on to the control computer or microprocessor. This
output data can be a digital signal to indicate that a fault condition has
been detected, and tripping must result. The output data may also be
RMS values of current & voltage, etc. for the display of indicating
metering.
15-5
15-6
15-7
15-8
15-9