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Geomorphology 26 (1998) 107-121
Abstract
High relief (A/r up to 2600 m) and spatial orientation of discontinuities, such as leucogranitic intrusions, mylonitic and
pseudotachylitic horizons and related ore structures, were the preparatory causal factors for the giant prehistoric Tsergo fu
landslide (High Himalayan Crystalline, Langtang Himal, Nepal). Other controliing factors include overthrusting, detachment
faulting, and paleoseismics related to the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and Southem Tibet Detachment System (STDS),
neotectonically generated sffuctures, and predesigned form of the scarp (broken crest) and the direction of movement
towards the WSW. Coherently displacement of several 10e m3 materials caused frictional fusion. Landslide dynamics and
specific morphologic conditions created four different types of sliding surfaces (in chronological sequence): (i) primary-at
the basement, (ii) secondary-parallel or subparallel to (i), (iii) tertiary-vertical to (i) and (ii), and (iv) quarternary sliding
surfaces-local variety of (iii). (Note: ordinal numeric terms are not in time-stratigraphic sense.) These planes represented
the main discontinuities conducting different syn-event stresses in the sliding mass and for further landslide dynamics.
Spatial difference and widespread distribution of sliding planes and sets of discontinuities all over the landslide area caused
different classes of rock quality, which subsequently determined specific erosional processes within the landslide accumulation area. The subsequent glaciai and fluvial erosional processes were controlled by the correlating preexisting lithotectonic
patterns, the hyalomylonitic and/or breccious sliding planes and the recent morphologic features or shapes ofTsergo Ri. (i)
The SE part is gradationally brecciated to the top and includes Tsergo Ri itself. The residual mass of the bulk has been
eroded almost isometrically as far as the primary sliding plane crops out along the intact gneissic basement. Differences in
rock quality along a horizon of secondary sliding planes indicate a steplike break in the relief after the last main glaciation.
(ii) The earlier-halted NW part still preserved micromountainous shape of compact sliding blocks (Phushung I and II,
Kyimoshung), separated by iandslide-dynamic-triggered faults (tetiary and quarternary sliding planes). Primary and
secondary sliding planes, almost covered by Holocene sediments, produced an insignificant morphology. (iii) The highest
brecciated strike*slip fault, generated during coliision with the obstacle of Pangshungtramo Peak in the southwest, is the
deeply eroded Dranglung Chu valley, which has been kept morphologically active in a major way until recent times. (iv)
Except for the collision obstacle of Pangshungtramo Peak with recent semi-active erosion and a small secondary rockslide
(block of Tsangbu) north of it, all surrounding parts show typical features of high altitude erosion. O 1998 Elsevier Science
Corresponding author.
0I69-555X/98/ti - see front matter O 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. Al1 rights reserved.
PII: S0 1 69-555X(98)00053- I
J.-M. Schramm et
108
aL.
1. Introduction
good conditions
for
of giant
mass movements in a crystalline environment. Investigation of the landslide from the view of engineer-
is
20'-30" to NE),
and
of
over-
or
3. Tectonic structures
Preexisting paleo- and neotectonic structures in
J.-M. Schramm et
al.
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.1.-M. Schrantm et
110
aL.
of the
Geomorphology 26 ( 1998)
slide
(pie. t).
07 l2l
of the
(a)
Anfi
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Fig. 2. (a,b) Lenticulu bodies of pumice-like hyalomylonite as inclusion of rnicrobreccia horizons. San'rple (b) with gas-bubble, elongated
of sliding direction. Location: secondary sliding plane, Tsergo Ri S-flank, altitude 452t0 m (see Fig. l).
because
J.-M. Sr:hramm
er aL.
as
tonic fault planes (slickensides, mylonites/ultramylonites and pseudotachylites), lithotectonic structures (discordant leucogranitic intrusions and related
sulfidic ore structures) also functioned as preparatory
the Tsergo Ri landslide area (Weidinger, 1992; Weidinger and Schramm, 1995a,b). The first type, occurring in the SE part of the deposit, in the S flank of
Tsergo Ri, is exposed as a sequence of microbreccious horizons partly including lenses, balls or irregular bodies of pumice-like hyalomylonite (nlg. Za,b).
The second one, in the NW part of the deposit (W
Fig. 3. (a,b) Horizon with schlieren of microbreccia and pumice-1ike hyalomylonite (maximum thickness 0.25 m) in high-brecciated
migmatites and granites. (b) Shows detail fiom (a). Secondary sliding plane of lower Phushung
Chu valley, altitude z[30 m (see Fig. l).
II
J.-M. Schramm et
al.
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J.-M. Schramm et
aI.
Geomorphology 26 ( 1998)
almost vertical
to primary and
secondary sliding
107
121
Fig.5. (a,b) Outcropped vertical horizon (maximum thickness 0.1-0.15 m) ofmicrobleccias (a) with lenses and schlieren ofhyaloinylonite
within pulverized rocks [rvith detail, (b)] of the Dranglung Chu strike slip fault. Location: gorge north of Phushung II. altitude 4445 m (see
Figs. I and 4). Ljne of vision torvards W, exactly in the striking direction of the horizon (N 90'W, 80"S) and the local movement direction
of this landsHde block towards W.
J.-M. Schramm
er aL.
Geomorphologl' 26
(1
996) I 07-l
2l
primary sliding plane (downwards outcropped) suggests that this horizon is a partly remobilized sliding
landslide deposit
described
sliding-movement.
(a)
5f m
.'1
11; ,r1:l
Fig. 6. (a,b) Hyalomylonites from primary sliding planes. (a) Sample of a 0.5-m thick horizon above biotite-rich gneisses, mixture of
microbreccias and hyalomylonite (dark parts) without schlieren. Location: 150 m SW of Pana alp (l km ESE Dzongd). eltitude 4010 rn
(see Fig. 1). (b) Sample of schlieren layer (thickness 0.02-0.08 m) above heavily sheared sillimanite gneiss, almost grey to white colour
showing leucogranitic chemistry. Location: Dranglung Chu valley W-1'lank, foothill of Phushung II, altitude 4110 m (see Fig. 1).
J.-M. Sthramn et
uI.
Geomorphologv 26 (1998)
is hypothesized
(Weidinger et al., l995a,b; Schramm and Weidinger,
1996). Data from the SW ridge of the Pijung glacial
cirque confirm the interrelationship between the irregular crest of Tsergo Ri landslide, the discordant
leucogranitic intrusions with ore, the lithotectonic
fault planes, and the neotectonic structures (Fig. 7).
uneven basal sliding surface
107
l2l
115
Secondarl sliding planes: While mapping different types of rock qualities, mainly density of joint
patterns, Weidinger
and
pumiceous hyalomylonite (nig. 2a,b), could be detected om Tarche Pisa alp all along the S-flank of
Tsergo Ri. 'Ponors' on the mountain ridge indicate
weak rock strength (cataclasis and pulverization) and,
therefore, indirectly indicating the slip plane. In
comparison to this, the foot wall of Phushung II at
the lower W flank of Dranglung Chu valley, exposes
at 4110 m altitude another secondary plane close to
*$:;::: -,','.;
r;
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Fig. 7. Partial view of the broken crest (scarp) of Tsergo Ri landslide, SW-ridge of Pijung glacial cirque. The primary sliding plane leads
into a neotectonic structure that is associated with discordant leucogranitic intrusions (dotted line, anow) below Yala Peak II which resisted
the slope failure. Standpoint: S-flank of Yala Peak I. altitude 5240 m (see Fig. 1). Line of vision towards SSW.
J.-M. Schramm et
aI.
of
greater
A similar function might have had preexisting metamorphites with deformational fabrics such as (ultra-)
mylonites and pseudotachylites at an initial stage and
partly during the last stage of the event, when veloc-
create
II
of
J.-M. Schramm et
al.
Geomorphology 26 (1998)
Intensity
the
highest seasonal settlement Kyangjin Kharka, on the
floor of the upper Langtang valley (392A m), up to
of
> 60'.
Tectonic instability: Harrison et aL. (1992, 7993)
document a rapid uplift and unroofing of southern
of
>
valley runs
107
l2l
11.7
lifluction lobes, turf-banked terraces, sorted polygons, talus slopes and striated ground, occur, as well
The evolution
(Ivtiehe, 1990) is extremely dependent on the granulometric composition of the sediment and the amount
of precipitation. Because of favourable preconditions
(fine-grained sediment and high amount of precipitation), the whole study area up to the equilibrium line
(5200 m) is nearly completely covered with grassland with variable shrubs, herbs, mosses and lichen,
except the very steep slopes which have permanently
morphological activity (e.g., Dranglung Chu valley).
Anthropogenic and zoogenic activities: The overgrazing of the alp pastures and the increasing activities of the trekking tourism in the Langtang National
Park result
in an anthropogenic/zoogenic degrada-
tion of the vegetative blanket. This evident development causes linear erosion and areal degradation.
The interrelationship of all these variables controls the morphological activity in the landslide area.
The quantity and quality of the presently occuning
geomotphic processes are controlled by the extreme
shattering of the rocks that happened during the mass
displacement.
stand
following.
118
Geomorphology 26 ( 199&
area.
107 12l
These slopes show permanent morphological activity, linear erosion together with areal degradation.
. An uncommon morphological
activity at the
the
movements,
material-accumulation areas. Slides, cracks and accumulation of material include the following.
. Stepped slopes formed by yak grazing are very
typical for the area of the Tsergo Ri landslide. Two
different processes are responsible for soil mobilization. Either increased water infiltration, or the action
of needle-ice, together with wind deflation and wash
are
the vegetation cover (Watanabe, 1994). This geomorphic phenomenon was studied in the small valley
J.-M. Schramm et
al.
Geomorphology 26 ( 1998)
climatic
changes are not realistic. The ancient landslide deposit is mostly eroded by the last high-, late-, postglaciation and subsequent processes. Orogenetic tectonics, neotectonics, movements along primary basal
and secondary, tertiary and quarternary internal sliding planes, and the extension of the former deposit
have utilized the preexisting structures as pathways
to create the special shape and morphology within
the recent landslide area.
07-l
21
119
brecciated hanging wall that exposed the detrituscovered gneissic basement over a wide range. The
erosional form of a triangular area between the alps
of Dzongd, Pana, Dygiapsa and Tashigang (from W
to E, see Fig. 1) is only interrupted by three uneroded
tiny laps of landslide material around Pana, which
bears the most famous hyalomylonitic horizon. The
neck of the landslide deposit, in the forefield of the
Yala Tsang and along the valley of the same name,
as well as the broken crest, were partly affected by
paleo- and recenl glaciation.
Whereas the secondary sliding plane in the Dranglung Chu valley did not produce any special morphological features, the sliding plane dividing the top of
Tsergo Ri from the more disturbed base is morpho-
The most interesting and spectacular morphological break within the landslide deposit was created by
8. Conclusion
Analyses of regional tectonic features and the
intemal composition of Tsergo Ri landslide in comparison with the morphodynamic evolution of the
upper Langtang valley reveal significant interelationships between predesigned orogenic fabrics,
landslide-triggered structures and the recent shape of
t20
J.-M. Schramm et
aL
Geomorphology 26 (1998)
Acknowledgements
Discussions and comments by Helmut Heuberger
are gratefully acknowledged. John F. Shroder, Jr.,
John D. Vitek, and an anonymous reviewer provided
helpful reviews of the manuscript. The investigation
was supported by the Austrian Science Foundation
(FwF grant no. P 9433-GEO).
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