SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

Differences in Soil Properties of Reclaimed Mine Soil in Different Vegetation Communities

Ronak Patel, Nicholas E. Wierman, Lyndsie Yamrus, and Keri Skvarla
Wilkes University
December 7, 2012

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

Introduction
The anthracite coal fields of Northeastern Pennsylvania played a critical role in the
fueling of the American Industrial Revolution and powered the nation through two world wars.
Anthracite coal provided the necessary energy to critical industries and the rest of the country
while simultaneously stimulating incredible economic growth for the surrounding areas. The
mining of coal in Northeastern Pennsylvania remained a bustling enterprise for the majority of
the 19th century, but saw a steady decline into the beginning of the 20 th century. The Knox Mine
Disaster marked the abrupt end of the mining of the Northern Anthracite Field in the Wyoming
Valley.

The Knox Mining Company was subsurface mining a vein of coal beneath the

Susquehanna River near Pittston when the river broke through the thin layer of rock between
itself and the mine shaft. Water from the river flooded the complex network of tunnels and
passages beneath the towns of the Wyoming Valley, making access to the coal impossible or very
dangerous.
During the mining process, the anthracite coal from the mines was transferred to breakers
throughout the area, and the rock was broken and separated into high quality industrial coal. The
stripped coal wastes were transported and dumped on invaluable land sometimes near mountains
and at times forming mountains of their own. For decades these coal mine lands created
ecological problems and hazards to the area, and they continue to cause problems today. The
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 was a landmark legislation that sought to
restore the land affected to a condition capable of supporting the uses which it was capable of
supporting prior to any mining, or higher or better uses . . . (Sweigard 351). Damage to the land
included destruction of the previous surface topographies and soil conditions that existed before

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

the mining. The soil and broken rock strata, if not handled appropriately can cause massive
erosion and a loss of soil.
The objective of this study was to analyze the soil properties of three quadrants that
exhibit different vegetation communities on the reclaimed mine land near the Penobscot Ridge
Mountain in Wanamie, Pennsylvania. The Earth Conservancy purchased this land as part of a
16,946-acre property from the bankrupted Blue Coal Corporation in 1994. Of the 16,946-acre
property, 3000 acres were considered for mine reclamation. The approximate location of these
quadrants is N 4110.02 W 07602.80 with an approximate elevation of 900 ft. above mean sea
level. The quadrants were 50 Ft by 50Ft giving each quadrant a 2500ft2 area50 ft2 Also they and
were selected based on the communities of vegetation that appeared to be present in certain
areas. The first quadrant was an area that was generally low-lying grass and vegetation.

The

second quadrant was an area that was generally sumac and pine trees with under-lying ferns and
grass. The third was an area dominated by aspen trees consisting mostly of birch with underlying rocks and some grass. Nitrate, phosphate, vegetation types, particle size distribution,
texture, color, respiration, soil density, soil moisture, pH, biologic activity, and total organic
matter were measured and or recorded for each of the three quadrants.

Materials and Methods

Vegetation
The vegetation in each quadrant was determined using a field guide of plants of the
northeastern United States. Types of plants within a quadrant were described and drawn as
simple sketches and diagrams. These plants were identified for each quadrant and recorded.
Also, a picture of each type of flora was taken and these are located within the results.

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

Color
The color of soil is indicative of valuable soil properties. For example, yellow and red
soil hues indicate weathering of the soil while greenish-brown soil indicates high organic matter.
Black soil is associated with high productivity, indicating that the soil is rich in nutrients and
organic matter. Using the Munsell Soil Color Chart, each soil sample was assigned a color based
on hue, value and chroma. The classification of each soil was entered into Table 1.
Soil Texture by Feel
The texture of the soil was determined by feeling the soil samples and qualitatively
assigning it characteristics. For any one sample, about 25 g of the soil was placed in a palm and
was kneaded while water was slowly dropped onto the soil sample. The soil was rolled into a
ball, and if it did not remain as a ball when released then it was classified as sand. If it did
remain in a ball, the ball was placed between the thumb and forefinger, and the forefinger gently
pushed against the thumb and squeezed into a ribbon. This ribbon of soil was then allowed to
emerge from the fist and up over the forefinger until it broke from its own weight. If the soil
could not form a ribbon, then it was classified as loamy sand. If the soil formed a ribbon less
than 2.5cm before breaking, it was either classified as sandy loam, silt loam, or loam. If the soil
formed a ribbon that was between 2.5cm and 5cm, it was either classified as sandy clay loam,
silty clay loam, or clay loam. If the soil formed a ribbon that was longer than 5cm, it was either
classified as sandy clay, silty clay, or clay. For all of the samples that formed a ribbon, it was
necessary to excessively wet the sample and feel for the grit content.

If the soil felt very gritty,

then it was the sandy choice for the ribbon size. If the soil felt very smooth, then it was the
silt or silty choice for the ribbon size. If the soil felt between smooth and gritty then it was
classified without a precursor of silty or sandy.

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

Soil Moisture
Soil moisture was measured in two different ways. The first method was performed using
a soil moisture probe. Ten locations were chosen in each quad and the volumetric water content
was measured directly from the soil using this instrument. The second method used to measure
soil moisture was the Oven Dry Method. Materials needed for this procedure included an oven,
balance, desiccator, small crucibles and a scoop. Each crucible was first weighed. Six crucibles
were designated for quad 1, and two grams of sample were placed into each. The same was done
for quads 2 and 3. All crucibles were re-weighed for combined mass of crucible and sample. All
crucibles were placed in an oven at a temperature of 105 C for 48 hours. After the samples were
cooled in the desiccator, the masses of the crucible and remaining sample were measured for
each. Moisture loss was calculated by subtracting the dry soil sample from the wet. Moisture
content was calculated by finding the quotient of moisture loss over dry sample. The moisture
content is the quotient times 100.
Soil Organic Matter
The soil organic matter method involved ashing: the removal of organic matter by
combustion. After ashing, the remaining substance is the mineral component of the soil. The
organic matter is the material burned off through the ashing process. The ashing is performed
after the soil moisture content experiment, using the same materials plus a muffle furnace. The
crucibles were placed in the muffle furnace at 375 C for one hour and were then ashed at 550 C
for sixteen to twenty hours. The crucibles were then removed from the furnace, cooled in the
desiccator and weighed to measure the percent organic matter that had been burned off.

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

Nitrate
Five grams of each soil sample were obtained. Then, 50 mL of 2.0 M potassium chloride
(KCl) solution was added to each of the beakers and the solutions were allowed to mix on a stir
plate for 30 minutes. Approximately 10 mL of the soil mixture was then filter thought a 0.45
micron filter using a syringe technique. The filtered solution was then used to measure nitrate
using the HACH spectrophotometer The solutions were added to small laboratory syringes and
10 mL of nitrate was squeezed out from each. The nitrate concentrations were analyzed using a
HACH kit.
Phosphate
The phosphate tests were conducted by extracting the phosphorus from the soil using the
Mehlich 1 solution. The solution was created in the laboratory which consisted 4.0 mL of
concentrated HCl and 0.7mL of H2SO4 in 1.0 liter of deionized water. The solution was
introduced to 5 grams of soil from each quadrant and was allowed to mix for 5 minutes, a
syringe technique was performed to extracted phosphorus a 10 ml of the mixture was extracted
by filtering the sample through a 0.45 micron filter. The extracted solution was then used to test
for phosphate using the HACH spectrophotometer. Five grams of each soil sample were
obtained. Twenty-five25 mL of the solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) were added to each of the beakers that cosnsisted of and the solutions were allowed to
mix on a stir plate for 5 minutes. The solutions were added to small laboratory syringes and 10
mL of phosphate was squeezed out from each. The phosphate concentrations were analyzed
using a HACH kit.
Soil pH

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

In order to determine soil pH, 20 grams of each soil sample were transferred to 100 mL
beakers. The same amount mass of a 1.0 M KCl solution was added to each beaker. The solution
was mixed thoroughly and allowed to equilibrate for 30 minutes. The pH of the supernatant
liquid was then measure using a HACH sensIon5 meter and KCl gel electrode probe.
Soil Compaction
Bulk density is the weight of a given volume of soil, which includes the pore spaces in units of
g/cm3 or similar mass per volume units. Bulk density is an indicator of soil compaction, as it
describes how easily plant roots and other materials can penetrate the soil. The bulk density
depends greatly on the degree of compaction and mineral makeup of the soil. Soil compaction
can be determined from bulk density by determining both the mass and volume of a soil.
However, a penetrometer can be used to directly determine the soil compaction. A penetrometer
was used in the field to obtain these values. To use the penetrometer, a flat metal plate was
placed on the soil and the green material was cleared from the hole in the center of the plate.
Then the penetrometer was inserted at a 90 angle into the ground at six different sites in each
quad. The values were obtained and recorded with units of pounds per square inch (psi).
Particle Size Distribution
The purpose of the particle size analysis is to determine the relative proportions of the
different grain sizes present in each quads soil mass. Materials included sieve sets, a sieve
shaker, balance and oven-dried soil samples. Each sieve mass was obtained and recorded. Rocks
were first removed using a larger sieve. The remaining composite samples from each quad were
then mixed to break up larger soil aggregates. The soil was placed in the sieve with the largest
mesh opening at the top, with the smallest mesh opening at the bottom. Each sieve set was
placed in the shaker for five minutes, after which each sieve was weighed for the second time to

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

obtain the weight of combined sieve plus soil sample. Subtracting the weight of the sieve from
the combined weight determined the amount of each sample retained. The cumulative percentage
of soil retained by each sieve was used to determine the percentage of soil finer.
To determine the relative amounts of sand, silt and clay in each quad, a hydrometer was
used. Materials needed for each hydrometer setup include a 1000 mL graduated cylinder, a 250
mL beaker, a hydrometer, thermometer, timer, mixing rod, stirring apparatus, balance, Parafilm
and aluminum foil. Also a Calgon of sodium hexametaphosphate (NaPO3)6 solution (40 g/L) and
de-ionized water were needed. After the soil samples were run through the sieves, 100 grams of
dry sample was placed in to a beaker. Then, 125 mL of sodium hexametaphosphate solution was
added and the mixture was stirred until thoroughly wetted. The slurries were transferred to
special dispersion cups and de-ionized water was added until the cups were about halfway full.
The slurries were mixed for one minute. The mixtures were added to 1000 mL graduated
cylinders and the volumes were brought to 1 L with de-ionized water. Parafilm was placed on
each cylinder top and aluminum foil was used to cover the Parafilm. Each cylinder was
inverted 60 times to thoroughly mix the contents. The hydrometer was carefully lowered into the
suspension and measurements of grams of soil per liter of suspension were read off the top of the
meniscus at time intervals of 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 15, 30 and 60 minutes. A temperature reading was
taken for each time interval as well. A blank of Calgon solution without soil was run in addition
to the three soil samples. The resulting data were analyzed.
Biolog Plate Readings
Biolog readings were performed to observe the times in which different microorganisms in each
quadrant used different substrates. Five grams of each soil sample were incubated in 45 mL of
0.85% NaCl. Each sample was vortexted for 3 minutes and centrifuged for 6 minutes before 150

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

10

L of each were injected into the Biolog plate wells. The plates were allowed to incubate at room
temperature and periodic adsorption measurements were taken to evaluate the substrates
consumed by the different microbial populations in each of the three soil quads. Absorbance
measurements were taken by The plates were then inserting platesed one at a time into a
DR/2000 spectrophotometer over a span of four days at time intervals between two and six
hours. The data recorded for Tuesday at 9 am and Wednesday at 10 am, totaling 25 hours, was
used for the comparison of substrates used by microorganisms in the three different quadrants.
This data is presented in table 4.
Basal Respiration
Seventy grams of wet soil from each composite sample were obtained and placed into a
large, gas impermeable container. Small beakers with 5 mL of 0.3 M of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) were made and placed into the containers next to the soil. The containers were incubated
at 22 C for 4 hours. The jars were then opened and 2 mL of 0.5 M barium chloride (BaCl 2) were
added to each. The samples were titrated to phenolphthalein endpoint with 0.1 M HCl.
Results

Figure A.

Figure C.

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

Figure E.

11

Figure D.

Figure B.
Figure F.

Figure A: Goldenrod

Figure B: Chicory

Figure C: Fern-like foliage

Table Figure
1: SoilD:color
Charts
Queenaccording
Ann Lace to Munsell
FigureSoil-Color
E: Aster family

Hue
Value
Chroma
TOTAL

Figure F: Daisy fleabane

Quadrant #1

Quadrant #2

Quadrant #3

Very Dark Brown

10YR
2
2
10YR 2/2

Black
5Y
2.5
1
5Y 2.5/1

Very Dark Grayish Brown

10YR
3
2
10YR 3/2

Table 2: Soil texture by feel

Quadrant #1 Sandy Clay

Quadrant #2 Sandy Clay

Loam

Loam

Quadrant #3 Sandy Loam

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

12

Formed a ball
Formed a ribbon
Ribbon was between

Formed a ball
Formed a ribbon
Ribbon was between

Formed a ball
Formed a ribbon
Ribbon was

2.5 and 5.0 centimeters

Felt both smooth and gritty

2.5 and 5.0 centimeters

Felt both smooth and gritty

< 2.5 centimeters

Felt both smooth and gritty

Table 3: Nitrate and phosphate for three quadrants

Nitrate (mg/L NOx-N)
Phosphate (mg/L PO43-)
pH

Quadrant #1
0.5
3.30
5.22

Quadrant #2
0.3
3.30
4.60

Quadrant #3
1.1
2.56
4.19

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

13

Soil Moisture
25

20

15

% Moisture

Oven Dry Method

Probe Method

10

0
1

2
Quad

Figure 1: Soil moisture values from moisture probe and oven drying method

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

Figure 2: Soil organic matter values from ashing the soil samples

Figure 3: Soil compaction values from penetrometer readings

14

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

Figure 4: Particle size (mm) distribution values from sieve and hydrometer

15

16

Discussion

Putrescine

Putrescine

Putrescine

Putrescine

D-Cellobiose
Glucose-1-phosphate
glycogen

D-Cellobiose
Glucose-1-phosphate

H
G
D-Cellobiose
Glucose-1-phosphate
F
glycogen

Putrescine

Putrescine
Phenylethylamine

D-Mallic Acid
Putrescine

Putrescine

H
G

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

glycogen

N-acetyl D-glucosamine

N-acetyl D-glucosamine

N-acetyl D-glucosamine

D-Mannitol
N-acetyl D-glucosamine
4-Hydroxy Benzoic Acid
L-Serine

D-Mannitol
N-acetyl D-glucosamine
4-Hydroxy Benzoic Acid
L-Serine

dominated mostly by grasses, fern-like foliage and moss. Approximately 10% of the remaining
N-acetyl D-glucosamine

Vegetation- The vegetation types present among each quadrant varied. Quadrant 1 was

Lace, all of which were unique to this section of land. Unique to quadrant 2 were trees and
E

vegetation types were flowers, including Daisy Fleabane, Chicory and possible Queen Annes

D
Tween 80
D-Mannitol
4-Hydroxy Benzoic Acid
L-Serine

4-Hydroxy Benzoic Acid

L-Serine

4-Hydroxy Benzoic Acid

L-Serine
Tween 80

4-Hydroxy Benzoic Acid

L-Serine
Tween 40
Tween 80

shrubs such as the Red Spruce and the Staghorn Sumac. Mosses, low-lying fern-like plants and

D
Tween 80

various grasses were also observed in quadrant 2. Quadrant 3 contained mostly white birch trees,

Tween 40

C
Tween 40

C
Tween 40

found in all three quadrants.

as well as some maple and aspen. Grasses were additionally present in this area. Goldenrod was

D-Galactonic Acid -Lactone D-Galacturonic Acid

L-asparagine

-Methyl D-Glucoside
D-Galactonic Acid -Lactone D-Galacturonic Acid
L-asparagine

-Methyl D-Glucoside
D-Galactonic Acid -Lactone D-Galacturonic Acid
L-asparagine

-Methyl D-Glucoside
D-Galactonic Acid -Lactone D-Galacturonic Acid
L-asparagine

D-Galactonic Acid -Lactone D-Galacturonic Acid

L-asparagine

Color- Soil from quadrant 1 and quadrant 3 were similar, only varying by a value of 1. Soil from
L-asparagine

L-asparagine

L-asparagine

L-asparagine

quadrant 2 had a much lighter hue, being more yellow than the other two samples. Because all
soil samples were red and yellow, an erosional environment can be assumed. None of the soils

brown
black color.
Table 4: Biolog
PlateorSubstrate
Reading Results Above 0.5% Absorbance

Texture- Soil in quadrant 1 and 2 both had the texture of a sandy clay loam, while soil from

Quadrant #3

Quadrant #2

quadrant 3 formed a shorter ribbon, meaning that it is a sandy loam.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Nitrate, phosphate, pH- While quadrant 1 and quadrant 2 had similar nitrate levels, 0.5 mg/L and

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Quadrant #1

-Methyl D-Glucoside

D-Galactonic Acid -Lactone

are expected to have high organic matter because high organic matter is indicated by a greenish-

0.3 mg/L respectively, quadrant 3 had an elevated nitrate level of 1.1 mg/L. The phosphate
levels for quadrant 1 and 2 were the same, while quadrant 3 has a slightly lower phosphate
concentration. While all three quadrants had slightly differing pH values, quadrant 3 was the
most acidic.
Soil Moisture- While the values for soil moisture vary a bit, the general trend that quadrant 1 and
2 have similar moisture percent, the percent for quadrant 3 is significantly lower and shows
much a higher variance.

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

17

Soil Organic Matter- Quadrant 1 and quadrant 2 had similar organic matter percentage, while
quadrant 3 had about half the organic matter compared to the others.
Soil Compaction- Quadrant 1 required the most PSI to penetrate to a depth of 6 inches, and
quadrant 3 required the least amount. This indicated that quadrant 1 is the densest and quadrant
3 is the least dense, with quadrant 2 in between them in terms of density.
Particle Size DistributionThe size and shape of a particle can greatly influence some of the physical characteristics of a
soil. Similarly, the particle size distribution will define physical characteristics such as porosity
and permeability. Sorting of soil particles refers to how much the size of the particles deviate
from one another; or the number of different sizes of particles. A soil that has a wide range of
particle sizes is said to be poorly sorted, while a soil that has almost uniformity to the size and
shape of particles is said to be well-sorted. A well-sorted soil will have a steep slope on a
particle distribution curve because the majority of the particles will fall within a smaller range on
the x-axis of the graph. A poorly sorted soil will have a gentler slope on the particle distribution
curve because there is a wider range of the sizes of the particles that are present in a soil.
Generally, a soil with rounded well-sorted particles will have a relatively high porosity, while a
soil that has angular poorly-sorted particles will have a lower porosity. Poorly sorted soil has
lower porosity because the smaller particles will fit into the pores between the larger particles,
thus reducing the volume of those pores and increasing the density of the soil. Also, the shape of
a particle can attribute to the physical characteristics of the soil. The particle diameter is
determined by running the soil through a series of sieves that allow for the larger particles to
remain atop while all of the smaller particles pass down through to the next sieve where the
particles with a slightly smaller diameter are removed. This sieving process effectively sorts out

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

18

the particles based on their diameters being between two sieves. A given particle will have a
smaller diameter than the sieve above it, but a larger diameter than the sieve that it rested on.
The sieve shaker machine effectively throws all of the particles across the screen with a uniform
mesh size, and takes advantage of gravity to pull the particles through the mesh onto the
subsequent sieve. Because the actual size of each particle is not determined, but only the range
in which the particle resides is determined, the particle distribution graph uses the percent finer
classification of the y-axis. The sieves were used for the larger of the particle sizes because it
efficiently separated the coarser material.

However, the finer particle sizes needed to be

separated using the hydrometer method because it more efficiently separated the finer particles.
Both the particle size distribution from the hydrometer and the particle size distribution from the
sieves were placed on the same particle size distribution chart. Generally, the three quadrants
were similarly distributed, with an exception of quadrant 1 between about 0.07 and 0.4 mm. The
slope of the particle distributions appears to be that of an intermediately sorted soil. The particle
sizes seem to be distributed in a linear fashion.
Biolog- Each coordinate in Table 4 indicates the different substrates needed for microbial
consumption. The changes in absorbance indicate what microorganisms were present in the soil
samples for each quadrant by determining what substrates were consumed the most. This was
achieved by calculating the differences in absorbance over a 25-hour time interval.
After analysis of the biolog plates from Figure 4, it was determined that all readings showed a
difference in absorbance. A 0.5 and above absorbance were chosen to signify a standard of
change. As a result, a correlation between quadrants 1 and 2 signifies similar consumptions of
the substrates by the microorganisms. Less biomass in quadrant 3 resulted in less microbial
activity and therefore less substrate consumption observed from the biology analysis.

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

19

Basal Respiration- As observed in Figure 5, the basal respiration rates were about the same in
each quadrant, varying from 85 to 90 mg/L of carbon dioxide. It is important to note that a
change in the procedure was made and that Molarity 0.1 that was used in the first quadrants
basal respiration titration was increased to1.0 M for titrations of quadrants 2 and 3.

Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to measure and analyze the soil properties of soil on reclaimed
mine land in three different vegetation communities. A series of tests and measurements were
done both in the field and in the laboratory, including vegetation types, soil color, soil texture,
soil moisture, soil organic matter, particle size distribution, biolog substrate microorganism
consumption, and basal respiration. Quadrant 1 and quadrant 2 showed similarities in physical
and chemical properties including soil texture by feel, level of nitrate, level of phosphate, soil
moisture, and biolog substrate microorganism consumption. Quadrant 2 and quadrant 3 only
showed a similarity in particle size distribution. Quadrant 1 and quadrant 3 appear to be the least
similar in soil properties and composition. Quadrant 3 has much different soil properties than
quadrants 1 and 2. The soil texture was classified differently in quadrant 3, and the pH of the
soil was the lowest in all of the quadrants. Nitrate was considerably higher in quadrant 3 and
phosphate was considerably lower in quadrant 3, than the other two quadrants. Soil organic
matter was also significantly lower in quadrant 3. Compaction was highest is quadrant 1, lowest
in quadrant 2, and somewhere in between in quadrant 2. Basal respiration was relatively the
same for each of the quadrants. Each of the basal respiration tests read between 85 and 90 mg/L
of CO2.

SOIL PROPERTIES OF RECLAIMED MINE LANDS

20

It is possible to conclude from this study that the soil properties in quadrant three is are relatively
different from the other two soils. Over time, either the soil properties of the soil have impacted
which vegetation grows successfully, or the vegetation that first takes root will affected the
composition, and the physical and chemical properties of the soil.