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The north-to-south axis through the Earths core is the shorter axis and,
as such, is called the minor axis or polar axis.
The east-to-west axis through the Earths core is longer and is called the
major axis or equatorial axis.
The Earths ellipsoid is an ellipse rotated upon its minor axis, which is
functionally called the axis of rotation or axis of revolution.
Geoid
The geoid is an equipotential (or level) surface of the Earths gravity field,
which coincides with the MSL. For all reasonable purposes, the geoid is
defined by the MSL and is considered a good reference by which elevations
or heights can be measured.
The geoid is not a smooth surface. The gravitational pull of the Earth is
stronger in topology rich in iron and other dense materials, and, as such,
causes the geoid to take on a less refined shape.
The geodetic height h (also called the ellipsoid height) is defined as the
height above the ellipsoid to the topographic surface.
h= N+H
H = orthometric height, height above the MSL.
N= geoid separation N is the distance between the ellipsoid and the
geoid
Geoid separation (undulation) values are positive when the geoid is above
the ellipsoid and negative when the geoid dips below the ellipsoid.
Incidentally, throughout a large portion of the Earth, the geoid is above the
ellipsoid (N is positive). In the United States, however, the geoid is below
the ellipsoid and N is negative.
Coordinate Systems
Coordinate System
A coordinate is a number set that denotes a specific location within a
reference system. Typical coordinates are
the x-y set ([x, y]), which is used in a two-dimensional system
the x-y-z set ([x, y, z]), which is used in a three-dimensional system.
A coordinate system is the reference system upon which coordinates are
defined.
The arbitrary choice for a central line of longitude (i.e. zero degree longitude) is
that which runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich in England, and is
hence known as the Greenwich meridian or the prime meridian.
Each of the 360 degrees of longitude is divided into 60 minutes and each
minute into 60 seconds. But it is more conventional to refer to longitude by
degrees East or West, so longitude ranges from 180 degrees West to 180
degrees East.
Finally, because computers are designed to handle numbers ranging from
very large and negative to very large and positive, we normally store
longitude in computers as if West were negative and East were positive;
and we store parts of degrees using decimals rather than minutes and
seconds. A line of constant longitude is termed a meridian
Latitude ()
Lines of latitude lie at right angles to lines of longitude and run parallel to
one another. Each line of latitude represents a circle running round the globe.
Each circle will have a different circumference and area depending on where
it lies relative to the two poles.
The circle with the greatest circumference is the equator (or central parallel)
and lies equidistant from the two poles. At the two poles the lines of latitude
are represented by a single point the pole.
The latitude of a point is a vertical angle measured at the center of Earth
between the plane of the Equator and the radius drawn to the point.
Lines of latitude and longitude are equally far apart only at the Equator;
towards the Poles lines of longitude converge.
Latitude is often symbolized by the Greek letter phi () and longitude by
the Greek letter lambda (), so the respective ranges can be expressed in
mathematical shorthand as:
180 180;
90 90.
On the surface of Earth, a series of parallels of latitude can be drawn
parallel to the Equator, and a series of meridians of longitude can be drawn
from pole to pole, crossing each parallel of latitude at right angles, but
striking Earth at various points. These series of imaginary lines form a
network of parallels and meridians that comprise the system of geographic
coordinates explained earlier. This network is known as graticule.
Example
Using lines of latitude and longitude any point on the Earths surface can be
located by a reference given in degrees and minutes.
For example, the city of Moscow represented as a point can be given a
geographical co-ordinate reference using latitude and longitude of 55 degrees 45
minutes north and 36 degrees 0 minutes east (55 45N 36 0E).
The first set of numbers, 55 45N, represents latitude. The N informs us that
Moscow can be found north of the equator. The second set of numbers, 36 0E,
tells us that Moscow lies to the east of the prime meridian. Therefore, the N and
E together give the quarter of the globe in which Moscow is located (Figure a).
The line of latitude on which Moscow lies is given by the degrees and minutes
of this latitude away from the equator (Figure b).
Finally, the line of longitude on which Moscow lies must be identified. Figure c
shows how this angle is calculated based on relative distance from the prime
meridian.
Adopting this approach, all features on the surface of the Earth can be located
relative to one another and the distance between them calculated.
Figure
(a) Latitude and longitude of Moscow;
(b) calculating the latitude;
(c) calculating the longitude
Longitude
Latitude
Vertical lines
Horizontal lines
Meridians
Parallels
Do not converge
Equator
From equator
0 to 180 east
0 to 90 north
0 to 180 west
0 to 90 south
434'31" to DD
To convert 43 4' 31" from degrees, minutes, seconds to decimal degrees:
DD = Degrees + (Minutes/60) + (Seconds/3600)
Divide the number of seconds by 60 (31 60 = 0.5166).
Add the quotient of step (1) to the whole number of minutes (4 +
0.5166).
Divide the result of step (2) by 60 (4.5166 60 = 0.0753).
Add the quotient of step (3) to the number of whole number degrees
(43 + 0.0753).
The result is 43.0753
-89.400460 to DMS
To convert -89.40062 from decimal degrees to degrees, minutes, seconds:
Subtract the number of whole degrees (89) from the total (89.40062).
(The minus sign is used in the decimal degree format only to indicate that
the value is a west longitude or a south latitude.)
Multiply the remainder by 60 minutes (.40062 x 60 = 24.0372).
Subtract the number of whole minutes (24') from the product.
Multiply the remainder by 60 seconds (.0372 x 60 = 2.232).
The result is 89 24' 2.232" W or S.