Maintenance and Repair of Heat Exchangers PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
MAINTENANCE AND
REPAIR OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical
File Reference: MEX-210.05
For additional information on this subject, contact

PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Evaluating Heat Exchanger Design and Installation

Maintenance and Repair of Heat Exchangers
Section
Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 5
CONSIDERATIONS USED TO DETERMINE APPROPRIATE INSPECTION
FREQUENCIES FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS ................................................................. 6
Periodic Inspection of Heat Exchangers .................................................................... 6
Safety ............................................................................................................... 7
Operational Continuity ...................................................................................... 7
Efficiency .......................................................................................................... 7
Primary Causes of Heat Exchanger Deterioration ..................................................... 7
Metallurgical Deterioration................................................................................ 8
Mechanical Deterioration................................................................................ 11
Faulty Materials and Fabrication..................................................................... 12
General Considerations in Determining Inspection Frequency and Scheduling ...... 12
Occasion and Frequency for External Inspection ........................................... 13
Occasion and Frequency for Internal Inspection ............................................ 14
Scope of External Inspection and Problems Indicated ................................... 14
Scope of Internal Inspection ........................................................................... 15
DETERMINING THE SUITABILITY OF CORRODED HEAT EXCHANGERS FOR
CONTINUED OPERATION........................................................................................... 19
Acceptability of Corroded Components.................................................................... 19
Tubesheets..................................................................................................... 21
Floating Heads ............................................................................................... 22
Girth Flanges.................................................................................................. 23
Tubes ............................................................................................................. 23
Tube Support Baffles...................................................................................... 25
Potential Actions if Corroded Areas Are Not Acceptable ......................................... 25
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES THAT MAY BE USED FOR EXISTING HEAT
EXCHANGERS ............................................................................................................. 27
Locating Leaking Tubes........................................................................................... 27
Hydrostatic Test ............................................................................................. 28
Air Leak Bubble-Test ...................................................................................... 28
Halogen or Helium Leak Test ......................................................................... 29
Locating Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Leaks................................................................. 29
Re-Expanding Tubes ............................................................................................... 29
Re-Expansion Requirements.......................................................................... 29
Methods for Re-Expanding Tubes .................................................................. 32
Repairing Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Welds............................................................... 33

Seal Welding Expanded Tube-to-Tubesheet Joints ................................................. 34

Repairing Damaged Ligaments ............................................................................... 35
Plugging Tube Leaks ............................................................................................... 35
Friction Plugs.................................................................................................. 36
Welded Plugs ................................................................................................. 37
Installing Tube Ferrules, Sleeves, and Liners .......................................................... 38
Retubing .................................................................................................................. 39
Individual Tube Replacement ......................................................................... 39
Partial Retubing .............................................................................................. 39
Complete Retubing......................................................................................... 40
Remedying Leaking Girth Flanges........................................................................... 40
DETERMINING WHETHER EXISTING HEAT EXCHANGERS CAN BE
RERATED TO REVISED DESIGN CONDITIONS ........................................................ 41
Changes to Original Design Temperature or Pressure ............................................ 43
Design Temperature Change ......................................................................... 43
Design Pressure Change ............................................................................... 43
Thermal Design Evaluation ............................................................................ 44
Changes to Original Flow Rates .............................................................................. 44
Shellside......................................................................................................... 44
Tubeside......................................................................................................... 45
TYPES AND CAUSES OF HEAT EXCHANGER VIBRATION PROBLEMS;
POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO THESE PROBLEMS ..................................................... 46
Causes of Vibration.................................................................................................. 46
Vortex Shedding ............................................................................................. 47
Turbulent Buffeting ......................................................................................... 48
Fluid-Elastic Whirling ...................................................................................... 49
Acoustical Resonance .................................................................................... 50
Possible Types of Damage ...................................................................................... 51
Interspan-Collision Tube Damage .................................................................. 51
Wear Damage ................................................................................................ 51
Fatigue Failure of Tubes................................................................................. 51
Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Leaks ...................................................................... 52
Tubesheet Ligament Cracking........................................................................ 52
Weld Bead Cracking in Tube-to-Tubesheet Welds......................................... 52
Intensified Stress Corrosion ........................................................................... 52
High Operating Noise ..................................................................................... 52
Increased Shellside Pressure Drop ................................................................ 53
Design and Operating Parameters Affecting Vibration............................................. 54
Tube Natural Frequency................................................................................. 55
Effect of Tube End Fixity on Natural Frequency ............................................. 55
Effect of Baffle Spacing on Tube Natural Frequencies ................................... 56
Effect of Axial Load on Tube Natural Frequency ............................................ 56
Effective Tube Weight .................................................................................... 57
ii

Damping ......................................................................................................... 57
Shell Side Velocity.......................................................................................... 57
Acoustic Resonance....................................................................................... 58
Potential Solutions ................................................................................................... 58
PRIMARY METHODS OF CLEANING HEAT EXCHANGERS ..................................... 60
Mechanical Cleaning................................................................................................ 61
Hydraulic Cleaning................................................................................................... 61
Chemical Cleaning................................................................................................... 62
SUMMARY.................................................................................................................... 63
WORK AIDS.................................................................................................................. 64
WORK AID 1: OCEDURE for determining THE SUITABILITY OF A CORRODED
HEAT EXCHANGER FOR CONTINUED operation ...................................................... 64
WORK AID 2: OCEDURE FOR DETERMINING WHETHER EXISTING HEAT
EXCHANGERS CAN BE RERATED TO REVISED DESIGN CONDITIONS ................ 67
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 71
iii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Test Ring Installation...................................................................................... 28

Figure 2. Supporting Ligaments When Re-Expanding Single Tube .............................. 31
Figure 3. Rerolling of Tube with Mandrel....................................................................... 33
Figure 4. Typical Strength Welds .................................................................................. 34
Figure 5. Typical Seal Welds......................................................................................... 34
Figure 6. Typical Friction Plugs ..................................................................................... 37
Figure 7. Typical Welded Plug ...................................................................................... 38
Figure 8. Vortex Shedding............................................................................................. 48
Figure 9. Turbulent Buffeting......................................................................................... 49
Figure 10. Fluid-Elastic Whirling.................................................................................... 50
Figure 11. Typical Vibration Damage ............................................................................ 53
Figure 12. Remaining Life Evaluation............................................................................ 65
Figure 13. T&I Interval Evaluation ................................................................................. 66
Figure 14. Information Summary for Exchanger Rerate Evaluation .............................. 70
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Components Affected by Revised Design Conditions ..................................... 42
iv

INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
This module prepares the participant to evaluate the condition of
a heat exchanger and to determine appropriate maintenance or
repair activities. The module reviews general considerations that
are used to determine appropriate inspection frequencies and
procedures and discusses inspection considerations that are
specific to heat exchangers. The module presents options for
repair and the criteria that are used to rerate heat exchangers if
the design requirements are changed. The causes and potential
solutions of vibration problems are presented, along with
methods that are used to clean heat exchangers.

CONSIDERATIONS USED TO DETERMINE APPROPRIATE

INSPECTION FREQUENCIES FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are inspected at regular intervals to ensure
their continued safe and efficient service. In this section,
inspection frequencies, types of inspection, and inspection
methods are discussed.
The need for periodic inspection of pressure vessel components
was covered in MEX 202.05, Evaluating Pressure Vessel
Designs and Installations. The general principles that were
presented in MEX 202.05 also apply to heat exchanger
components, such as shells, heads, nozzles, etc. The
information covered in MEX 202 will not be discussed in depth
here. However, the primary considerations that apply to periodic
inspection of heat exchangers will be reviewed.
The information that is obtained during a heat exchanger
inspection is documented in an Inspection and History Report.
This report is similar in content to the report that would be
prepared for a pressure vessel. Refer to MEX 202.05 for the
typical scope and content of an Inspection and History Report.
Periodic Inspection of Heat Exchangers

Periodic inspection of heat exchangers is done to evaluate the
condition of the equipment, to determine the rate of corrosion,
and to establish the causes of any deterioration. The results of
the evaluation are then used to take steps to make repairs, to
slow or prevent additional deterioration, and to ensure
operational continuity by avoiding emergency shutdowns. In
these respects, the reasons for heat exchanger inspection are
the same as for pressure vessel inspection.
Specifically this section will discuss the following reasons for
heat exchanger inspection;
Safety
Operational continuity
Efficiency

Safety
Serious leaks and even fires can result from shells, channels,
and covers that are weakened by corrosion. Even internal tube
failures can cause safety problems, such as oils or chemicals
released into the cooling water system or two hydrocarbons
mixing to produce a dangerous combination.
Operational Continuity
Heat exchanger leaks can lead to unscheduled shutdowns,
resulting in loss of production capacity and increased expense.
Inspection, and anticipating the time when repairs will be
necessary, allows for planned maintenance. Planned
maintenance minimizes the lost time and excess cost that
emergency shutdowns cause.
Efficiency
Maximum heat transfer efficiency can only be ensured by
keeping heat exchangers relatively clean and free of leaks.
Corrosion and leakage cause fluid bypassing and reduced flow
velocity, which result in heat transfer inefficiency.
Primary Causes of Heat Exchanger Deterioration

Understanding the causes of deterioration in heat exchangers is
essential in order to know what to look for during periodic
inspections and in order to be able to decide on an appropriate
course of action. Deterioration of heat exchangers in service is
inevitable due to the constant contact of exchanger surfaces
with chemicals, hydrocarbons, water, and steam. The damaging
effect that these agents can have on heat exchanger
components is accelerated by extremes of temperature,
vibration, high velocity fluid flow, and stress on the equipment
components. The causes of deterioration in pressure vessels
was covered in detail in MEX 202.05. This section provides a
discussion of the causes of deterioration in pressure vessels as
they apply to heat exchangers. For more detailed information,
refer to MEX 202.05.
The primary causes of heat exchanger deterioration are:
Metallurgical deterioration
Mechanical deterioration
Faulty materials and fabrication

Metallurgical
Deterioration
The primary cause of metallurgical deterioration, and indeed the
most common cause of deterioration in heat exchangers, is
corrosion. Corrosion originates from three primary sources:
Sulfur compounds and acids that may be present on the

process side of the exchanger.
Impurities in the water on the cooling side of heat

exchangers that use cooling water.
Impurities in the boiler feed water on the steam side of

heaters and reboilers.
The following paragraphs briefly discuss several common types

of corrosion and other common forms of metallurgical
deterioration.
Sulfur Compounds - The most common corrosive agents present
in hydrocarbon streams include sulfur compounds and

hydrochloric acid. In components that are made from copper
alloys, sulfur corrosion causes thinning or pitting of the metal
under a thick copper sulfide layer. Carbon steel is affected by
hydrogen sulfide at temperatures above 260C (500F) or at
lower temperatures when it is in the presence of moisture.
Hydrogen sulfide corrosion of carbon steel results in a uniform
loss of metal that can be detected only through thickness
measurements.
Hydrochloric Acid is formed by hydrolysis when the salt water that
is found in many crude oils is heated to temperatures of 150C

to 205C (300F to 400F). As long as the acid is dry, in the
form of hydrogen chloride, no corrosion occurs. But corrosion
will occur in areas of the exchanger where condensation occurs
or where contact with water is likely. Hence, hydrochloric acid
corrosion is most likely to be found in the lower part of the shell
and the lower nozzles. Corrosion will be uniform or will occur in
grooves that follow the flow line of the water that is condensing.

Stress Corrosion Cracking is the most common type of

deterioration that occurs in copper based tubes. This form of
cracking depends upon the composition of the atmosphere or
fluid that surrounds the stressed metal, the composition of the
material, and the magnitude of the stresses. Stress corrosion
cracking in copper-based alloys is the result of the combined
action of ammonia (or an ammonia-producing material), water,
and oxygen.
High Temperature Corrosion Metallurgical and physical
changes can also be caused if high temperatures are present in

the heat exchanger. The metallurgical changes that are included
in this category include graphitization, hydrogen attack, carbide
precipitation, intergranular corrosion, and embrittlement. Refer
to MEX 202.05 for descriptions of these processes.
Water-side Corrosion in heat exchangers can be due to several
sources and takes several different forms. It is important to

understand the sources in order to know where to look for
damage and to recognize the form that the corrosion damage
will take.
Erosion-Corrosion occurs primarily at the tube ends and is
typically manifested by the formation of rounded, longitudinal

grooves on one side of the tube. Erosion-corrosion happens
when a protective layer of corrosion product is eroded by the
flow of a fluid.
Impingement Attack is a form of erosion that usually occurs in
the inlet region of tubes; such erosion may be present all along
the tube. The characteristic evidence of impingement attack is
smooth-walled pits that follow the direction of flow.
Galvanic Corrosion occurs when different metals are joined or
come into contact with one another. The most common

locations of such corrosion are tubesheets, heads, and
channels. Galvanic corrosion may result in dezincification of
copper-zinc alloys, severe pitting of steel, or crevice corrosion of
gasket surfaces. Sacrificial anodes are sometimes placed inside
heat exchangers to protect the primary exchanger components
from galvanic corrosion.

Graphitic Corrosion is a form of galvanic corrosion that is
common when cast iron is used for one part of the exchanger,
such as floating head covers, and when a copper-base alloy is
used for an adjacent part, such as the tubes and tubesheets.
Since copper alloys and iron are far apart in the galvanic series
table and since copper is more noble than iron, the iron
dissipates and forms graphite. At some point, the polarity
reverses, and the graphite, which is more noble than copper,
begins to corrode the copper.
Dezincification of Brass Dezincification is the loss of zinc from
brass, leaving copper, which has lower strength. Two forms of

dezincification are plug-type and layer-type. Plug-type
dezincification is caused by sediment and is aggravated by low
water velocity and high temperatures. Layer-type dezincification
occurs when brass corrodes under conditions such that a
copper-salt solution is formed. If the brass is kept in contact with
the copper salt solution long enough, the weaker copper is
deposited on the surface of the brass. Large areas may be
affected in this type of attack.
Deposit or Cellular Attack occurs when solid particles settle on
the metal surface and cause a local breakdown of the protective

film. Pits are formed beneath the particles, and deterioration of
the metal surface can be rapid. Deposit attack can be caused by
marine growth or debris in the cooling water and is aggravated
by high temperature and the contact of dissimilar metals.
Stress Corrosion or Corrosion Fatigue can cause austenitic
stainless steel and copper-base-alloy parts to crack. External

stress corrosion can occur when temperature differences are
great between passes in large-diameter tube bundles. Internal
stress corrosion can be caused by cold work that is used to form
and roll the tubes into the tubesheet or by deforming beyond the
elastic limit of the material (e.g., bending, denting, or flattening).
Steam-side Corrosion Corrosion on the steam or boiler feed
water side of an exchanger can be caused by excess oxygen in

the boiler feed water. Caustic gouging is a form of corrosion that
may be found in some steam reboilers if there is poor control of
the water chemistry of if the addition of corrosion inhibitors is not
maintained.
10

Mechanical
Deterioration
The primary factors in mechanical deterioration include overpressure or over-temperature due to process upsets, the
loosening of tubes due to operational cycles, the collapse or
buckling of tubes, vibration damage, and damage incurred
during cleaning of the exchanger.
Components of a heat exchanger may be severely deformed
due to over-pressure or over-temperature that can occur
because of process upsets. Tube leaks can cause the low
pressure side of an exchanger to be over-pressured by the
higher pressure side.
Tubes may be loosened due to the shock of introducing a hot
liquid into a cold exchanger, by temperature differentials that are
greater than planned in the design, and by differences in the
thermal expansion or contraction of the tubes in the tubesheet.
Tubes may also buckle or collapse if over-pressured or exposed
to excessive temperature differentials. Tubes may also loosen
due to vibration that is caused by the shell-side flow.
Vibration can also lead to fatigue cracks in the tubes or to
corrosion fatigue. Circumferential cracks due to vibration are
likely to occur halfway between supports or close to the
tubesheet or tube support plate. Vibration can also cause
abrasion or wear of the tubes at baffles or tube support plates.
Cracks at nozzles and in shells can be caused by thermal stress
or by vibration in combination with sub-standard welding and
stress concentration near the welds. However, shell cracking is
not a common problem.
Improper pulling or lifting of exchanger bundles can cause
damage to the individual tubes or to the whole tube bundle.
Scraping or thinning on the inside surface of the tubes can be
caused by rotating tube cleaners. The acids that are used when
cleaning an exchanger may also cause corrosion if the acids are
not rinsed out properly.
Improper fit-up and bolt-up of the exchanger girth flanges can
cause pinched gaskets, warped flanges, broken bolts, damaged
pass partition plates, and cracked welds.
11

Faulty Materials and

Fabrication
The use of faulty material and improper fabrication techniques
can result in rapid deterioration of the heat exchanger. However,
the likelihood that problems due to these factors will occur is
minimized by compliance with Saudi Aramco Engineering
Standards (which apply to design, construction, maintenance,
and repair) and Saudi Aramco Materials Systems Specifications
which apply to selection of materials, fabrication requirements,
and inspection techniques.
General Considerations in Determining Inspection Frequency and

Scheduling
The inspection frequency of heat exchangers depends upon the
rate of deterioration and the remaining corrosion allowance. For
new equipment, an initial inspection period is established, taking
into consideration factors such as the type of service and the
historical corrosion rate. Past experience with exchangers in
similar service is useful in establishing the initial inspection
periods. After several inspections, a service history can be
developed. The maximum period between inspections is
determined so that some corrosion allowance still remains when
the exchanger is taken out for inspection.
Exchangers are usually inspected when they are out-of-service
to be cleaned or when the entire process unit is shut down for a
T&I. Exchangers can also be inspected during unscheduled outof-service time; however, inspections during unscheduled
shutdowns are usually less desirable because there is usually
greater pressure to get the equipment back into operation.
External inspections can take place while the exchanger is in
operation; in fact, such inspections can be useful indicators of
heat exchanger problems.
In all cases, inspection schedules should be the result of joint
collaboration among the process, mechanical, and inspection
departments. Ideally, inspections should generally be spaced
evenly throughout the year, with consideration for avoidance of
mechanical and inspection work during peak workload periods.
12

Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedure SAEP-20, Equipment

Inspection Schedule, provides guidelines that are used to
establish Equipment Inspection Schedules (EIS). These
guidelines were developed to ensure the safe, reliable and
economic operation of equipment, including heat exchangers.
SAEP-20 gives specific minimum requirements for the Initial
Test and Inspection (I-T&I) interval, subsequent Test and
Inspection (T&I), and Onstream Inspection (OSI) intervals.
An EIS is typically prepared for each major piece of equipment
in a given unit and is included in the Inspection Records Book
as part of the Project Record Book. If no EIS records are
available from the project phase, the facility's Operations
Inspection Unit usually prepares them.
The inspection interval requirements that are contained in
SAEP-20 were discussed in MEX 202. These requirements are
briefly reviewed in the following paragraphs, along with the
scopes for inspection.
Occasion and
Frequency for External
Inspection
As part of their routine monitoring duties, outside operators walk
around in process plants and identify obvious leaks from
exchangers. Sometimes, inspections are made when plans for a
plant T&I are being formulated in order to identify further
inspection or work efforts that are required during the T&I. In
addition, a formal inspection should be made by the inspection
department while the exchanger is onstream. Inspections made
while a unit is in operation can serve as a guide to inspections
to be done during a T&I. The external inspections may include
external UT measurements of basic components such as the
exchanger shell, channel, and nozzle necks.
The Pressure Vessel Inspection Code (API-510 Paragraph 4.2)
states that an external inspection should be made on a regular
basis; the minimum external inspection interval is every five
years or at 1/4 of the remaining expected corrosion life or less.
SAEP-20, (Paragraph 3.5.7) also states the maximum OSI
interval is no more than 1/4 the remaining life or five years,
whichever is less. Additional requirements are given in SAEP20, Table II, based on the Corrosion Service Class. Paragraph
3.5.9.1 in SAEP-20 also requires an outside inspection of all
major pieces of equipment.
13

Occasion and
Frequency for Internal
Inspection
Internal inspections are usually made whenever the equipment
is taken out of service. This typically happens when there is a
scheduled unit T&I. An exchanger may also be taken out of
service if operations indicate that there have been changes in
heat exchanger performance and that the exchanger must be
taken out of service for cleaning or to plug leaking tubes.
API-510, Section 4.3, states that the maximum time interval is
based upon making an internal inspection at 1/2 of the expected
remaining corrosion life of the exchanger. It is important to note
that in accord with TEMA and API, nominal corrosion
allowances for the shell side and tube side of an exchanger do
not apply to the tubes, which may have a shorter corrosion life
than other components. The shorter corrosion life of the tubes
should be considered when determining when an internal
inspection should be made.
The maximum I-T&I interval and the maximum subsequent T&I
intervals are based on the Corrosion Service Class and are
given in SAEP-20, Table I. Specific T&I intervals are given in
SAEP-20, Paragraph 3.5.9.2, for heat exchangers because heat
exchangers are specialized process vessels. When comparing
the intervals that are listed in SAEP-20, Table I, and SAEP-20,
Paragraph 3.5.9.2, the shorter interval should be used as the
maximum interval.
Scope of External
Inspection and
Problems Indicated
As mentioned, external inspections take place while the
exchanger is in operation and may serve as a guide to
inspections that are made during a T&I. External inspections
usually consist of visual inspection supplemented with thickness
readings taken with nondestructive testing instruments.
The external appearance of the exchanger can sometimes
indicate that problems are present. Flange leakage, bowing or
distortions of heads or shells may be indicative of over pressure
or over temperature. Noise or vibration may also be evident
during the external inspection which may require further
investigation.
14

The shells and channels of heat exchangers are typically

insulated for personal protection or for energy conservation
reasons. Poor condition of the external insulation can
sometimes indicate potential corrosion problems that may be
caused by trapped moisture under the insulation.
All external coatings should be visually inspected for signs of
deterioration and external corrosion. These signs include rust
spots, blistering, and film lifting. Inspectors should scrape down
to sound metal any areas that are affected by external corrosion
in order to determine how deeply the corrosion has penetrated.
Foundations and supports should be checked for cracks,
spalling, and general deterioration. The steel parts of
foundations can be inspected visually and by tapping with an
inspector's hammer. Supports, in particular, should be inspected
for settlement, unusual distortion, and deterioration of concrete.
Ladders, stairways, and platforms should be visually checked
for loose, corroded, or broken parts. Depressions in platforms
should be carefully checked because water lying in these areas
can cause accelerated corrosion. Visual inspection can be
supplemented by hammering and picking with a pointed
scraper. Also, thickness measurements of the platforms and
structural members can be made with transfer calipers.
Piping connections should also be inspected for cracking and
evidence of leakage.
Scope of Internal
Inspection
As also mentioned, internal inspections take place when the
heat exchanger is out of service. When preparing for an
inspection, it is important to ensure that all safety requirements
have been met and that all required tools are available and in
proper working condition. It is also important to ensure that the
heat exchanger has been properly cleaned and prepared for
inspection. Internal inspection consists of visual inspection and
measurements that are done at specific locations within the
exchanger.
15

Visual Inspection General visual inspection is used first to
determine the existence, extent, and pattern of any corrosion or

erosion that has occurred. Visual inspection is also the best way
to locate pitted surfaces, bulges, buckles, blisters, cracks, or
distortions that can hinder the performance, life expectancy, and
cost-effectiveness of a heat exchanger.
There are many locations where corrosion is likely to occur. The
occurrence of corrosion often depends upon the type of service,
but under most service conditions, corrosion may be found in
the following places:
The inside surface of tubes.
The outside surface of tubes opposite shell inlet nozzles,

especially when a corrosive substance flows on the shell
side of the exchanger.
Adjacent to the baffles and tubesheets due to crevice

corrosion.
The backside of stationary tubesheets or the tubes adjacent

to them, especially when a high temperature material flows
into the tube inlet pass.
The bottom of the shell and the bottom tubes, if a deposit

that contains a corrosive material forms there.
In water service, at locations in the exchanger where the

water temperatures are the highest.
Where dissimilar metals are in close contact. The less noble

of the two metals will corrode.
Stress concentration points, such as near welded seams or

where there are sharp changes to shape and size, especially
if high stress is applied to the piece.
At tube inlets, outlets, or at the return bends in U-tube units.
When materials flow at high velocities and changes are

made to the direction of flow.
Shells adjacent to inlet impingement plates and tube bundle

baffles. This is especially true when shellside velocities or
pressure drops are high.
Measurements of heat exchanger components, and in particular
thickness measurements, are taken during an internal

inspection to determine corrosion rates and to predict the life
expectancy of the heat exchanger.
16

Generally, these measurements are taken with calipers,

micrometer, ultrasonic, eddy current, electro-magnetic, or
radiographic equipment.
Ultrasonics or eddy current type instruments can be used to
determine tube wall thickness in nonferrous tubes. Magnetic
Flux Leakage (MFL) examination can also be used to detect
corrosion and surface defects in ferritic (carbon steel) tubing.
MFL is a relatively new method, and works on the principle that
imperfections on the inside surface of a ferro-magnetic material
distorts the lines of magnetic flux that pass through the material,
and that these disturbances can be detected and recorded.
Locations Internal inspection of heat exchangers is usually
conducted in the following locations:
Shells, channels, shell covers, and nozzles
Gasket sealing surfaces
Tubes and bundles
Shells, channels, shell covers, and nozzles are inspected for the
existence of corrosion and for the extent of pitted surfaces,
cracks, and grooves. Thickness measurements should be
recorded. Shell walls should be measured at either end with
calipers. Shell nozzles can be measured with internal calipers or
ultrasonic or radiation-type instruments. These measurements
help determine corrosion rates.
The shell surface also needs to be checked with a straightedge
for bulges, blistering, and buckles. The inspector should look for
cracks in or adjacent to welded seams. These cracks are likely
to be present if the service is caustic or high-temperature. It is
also important for the inspector to look for erosion of the shell
next to bundle baffles and impingement plates. This erosion is
caused by turbulence near the impingement plate and by
increased velocity around the baffles.
Gasket seating surfaces need to be inspected to ensure they
have a suitable surface condition to permit maintenance of a
tight seal. The surface should be flat, with the proper surface
finish and free from corrosion or cracking.
17

Visual inspection of tubes and tube bundles helps to establish a

corrosion pattern. Tubes and tube bundles are usually pulled
from the shells first. One or two tubes selected at random
should be closely inspected. This inspection helps to determine
the probable service life of the remainder of the bundle.
Thickness measurements of the tubesheet, floating-head,
baffles, and tube wall should be recorded. Areas of nonuniform
corrosion should be mapped.
18

DETERMINING THE SUITABILITY OF CORRODED HEAT

EXCHANGERS FOR CONTINUED OPERATION
In MEX 202.05, corroded thickness evaluations for typical
pressure vessel components were discussed. These
evaluations apply to comparable heat exchanger components
(e.g., shells, heads, nozzles, etc.) as well. Thickness
evaluations for pressure vessel components will not be
discussed in depth here. However, the primary considerations
will be highlighted to assist continuity. Periodic evaluation of
heat exchanger suitability for continued operation is important
because it helps ensure safety, product quality, and operational
efficiency, and because it reduces overall maintenance costs.
Acceptability of Corroded Components

Assuming that corrosion has not caused embrittlement or
cracks, the prime concern with corrosion is material thinning.
The engineer must determine the suitability of a corroded heat
exchanger component for continued operation. This suitability is
determined by comparing the remaining minimum thickness of
the component with the minimum thickness of the component
that is required for pressure (or other loadings). In addition, the
engineer must allow for additional corrosion that may occur
during the desired remaining life of the part. The basic approach
that is used for these evaluations is identical to the approach
that is used for pressure vessel evaluation and was discussed in
MEX 202.
The "original/new" and the minimum required thicknesses (or
other dimensions) of the part that are required for pressure (or
other loadings) must be known before the evaluation is
performed. Most of this thickness information is contained on
the Safety Instruction Sheet for the exchanger. Additional
information can be obtained from the Heat Exchanger
Specification Sheet or by reviewing the vendor's/contractor's
calculations and drawings that are contained in the Contractor
Design Package. The "actual minimum thickness" of the part is
typically determined based on field measurements and is
recorded by the inspector.
19

It should be noted that materials can suffer from general

corrosion or localized types of corrosion such as pitting. In the
case of pitting or other localized forms of corrosion, judgment
can be used to determine the "actual minimum thickness" that
should be assumed in the remaining life evaluation. In some
cases, deep isolated pits can be ignored if there is some
certainty that the pitting will not cause a leak before the
remaining life of the part is used up or before the next inspection
is made. In other cases, ranging from general pitting to more
general corrosion, the "minimum thickness" of the component
that is to be used in the remaining life evaluation can be
determined based upon an averaging technique. API-510
Section 3.7 contains a procedure for determination of the
average minimum thickness. Note that this procedure was
discussed in MEX 202 and will not be discussed further here.
After the "actual minimum thickness" is determined, the
corrosion rate can be estimated. This estimate is generally done
by assuming that the corrosion rate has been uniform over the
life of the part. However, the engineer may consider variations
in operating conditions over the life of the component. The
corrosion rate is then used to determine the Remaining Life
(R.L.) of the part and whether the part is acceptable for
continued operation. If the remaining life is too short, it must be
decided whether to repair or replace the part and when the
repair or replacement should be done. In some cases,
schedules may not permit immediate repair or replacement
because of operational, economic, or other factors. In these
cases, consideration may be given to repairing the part
temporarily, decreasing the T&I interval, or even downrating the
exchanger until a permanent repair/replacement can be made.
20

Internal parts such as tubes typically have a lower corrosion

allowance than do the primary pressure parts of the exchanger.
For internal parts, a determination must be made whether
internal failures or leakage will adversely affect safety, the
operability of the exchanger, or the quality of the product. If any
of these adverse consequences is anticipated, a conservative
assumption is usually made that twice the corrosion rate will
occur until the next T&I, unless the R.L. is less than 4 years (in
accordance with API-510). If some leakage can be tolerated, the
conservatism in API-510 can be relaxed by assuming that only
the actual corrosion rate will occur until the next T&I. In most
situations, it is also acceptable that an exchanger bundle be
replaced earlier than the normal design life of the exchanger.
Evaluation of the suitability of the following heat exchanger
components will be discussed:
Tubesheets
Floating Heads
Girth Flanges
Tubes
Tube Support Baffles
Work Aid 1 contains a procedure that may be used to evaluate

the suitability of these exchanger components.
Tubesheets
Corrosion of the tubesheet will generally increase the stresses
in the tubesheet and the deflection of the tubesheet, although in
most cases the changes in stress and deflection will be very
small. Corrosion can cause internal leakage if the tubes are
welded to the tubesheet and the weld metal is preferentially
attacked. Corrosion can also cause leakage across the pass
partition baffle if the differential pressure across the pass
partition baffle is sufficiently high.
21

The minimum thickness of the tubesheet is usually measured at

the center of the tubesheet and in the middle of the pass
partition groove if so equipped. Note that the pass partition
baffle is usually inserted into a pass partition groove that is
machined into the face of the tubesheet. Therefore, the depth of
the machining that is in excess of the specified corrosion
allowance can be considered as additional available corrosion
allowance on the tubesheet face. Note that corrosion may attack
both faces of the tubesheet to differing degrees. To determine
the suitability of the tubesheet for continued operation, the
actual thickness, less any allowance for corrosion over the
desired remaining life of the exchanger, is compared to the
minimum required thickness that is specified on the Safety
Instruction Sheet.
While external (i.e., edge) corrosion of the tubesheet is seldom
a problem, corrosion may occur over the entire surface on
floating-end tubesheets. Note that if the tubesheet has a flanged
extension, like in a T-Type exchanger, the thickness of the
tubesheet in this flanged extension need not be as great as in
the center of the tubesheet. The minimum required thickness of
the flanged extension can usually be determined by reviewing
the manufacturer's heat exchanger calculations.
Floating Heads
Corrosion will generally increase the stresses in and the
deflection of the floating head and the floating head flange. In
most cases, the changes in stress and deflection will be very
small. Corrosion can also cause leakage across the pass
partition baffle if the unit is so equipped and if the differential
pressure is sufficiently high. Corrosion that attacks the gasket
seating surface can cause internal leakage. In the case of
floating heads, it should be noted that the ASME method for the
design of floating heads is somewhat conservative and some
computer programs, like CODECALC, provide alternative
calculation methods, such as the method developed by
Soehrens. These alternative calculation methods may show that
a corroded floating head is still acceptable and need not be
replaced. In general, to determine the suitability of a floating
head, the actual thickness, less any corrosion allowance
required for the desired remaining life, is compared to the
minimum thickness that is required for pressure.
22

Girth Flanges
The prime concern in evaluating girth flanges is usually
evaluating the thickness of the hub of the flange rather than the
thickness of the flange ring. However, corrosion can also cause
external leakage if the gasket or gasket seating surface is
attacked. It is very important to have a good gasket seating
surface. If the gasket seating surface is even mildly attacked,
consideration should be given to refinishing the flange facing.
To determine the suitability of the girth flanges for continued
operation, the actual minimum thickness of the flange ring and
hub must be determined. If these thicknesses, less any
allowance for corrosion over the desired remaining life of the
exchanger, are less than the minimum required thicknesses that
are indicated on the Safety Instruction Sheet or in the detailed
calculations of the exchanger, then repair of the flange may be
required. Note that in some cases, it may be possible to
recalculate the flange stresses in the corroded condition and
determine that the flange is still acceptable.
Tubes
Corrosion generally increases the stresses in and the deflection
of the tubes. Ultimately, corrosion may cause tube rupture and
internal leakage. Corrosion can cause leakage if the tube ends
are preferentially attacked, as when erosion/corrosion occurs.
U-tubes may corrode preferentially in the bends due to a
combined erosion/corrosion mechanism. Crevice corrosion may
occur at tube-to-tubesheet joints if these joints are improperly
rolled or may occur at tube baffle plates. Corrosion may also
occur preferentially in one location of the bundle due to
differences in temperature or flow conditions.
23

It is important to note that a corrosion allowance is normally not

specified for tubes, although some corrosion allowance is
usually available. A small corrosion allowance is usually
available because tubes are normally purchased based upon
selecting a standard wall thickness that is larger than the
minimum thickness required for pressure. If tubes are
purchased to a minimum tube wall thickness specification, the
actual tubes may be supplied 10% greater in wall thickness to
ensure that the minimum tube wall thickness will meet the
purchase requirements. Similarly, if the tubes are purchased to
a nominal wall thickness specification, the tubes may be below
the nominal wall thickness by a certain amount (usually 10%).
Differences between the nominal and minimum original new wall
thicknesses may be considered as extra corrosion allowance in
tubes that have it. However, it is possible that there may be
tubes, somewhere in the bundle, that are close to the minimum
thickness. Therefore, the available corrosion allowance in a tube
is usually based on the original minimum wall thickness.
In fixed tubesheet exchangers, longitudinal tube loads due to
thermal expansion must be considered in addition to the
pressure loads. If vibration conditions exist, severe thinning of
the tubes can also lead to increasing the potential for damage
caused by vibration. Corrosion causes metal loss which reduces
the mass and stiffness of the tubes and increases clearances at
the baffles or support plates. This, in turn, causes a lower
natural frequency of the tubes and can cause the tubes to be
more prone to vibration and to vibrate with a larger amplitude.
Tubes that are leaking or that are badly corroded are typically
plugged. In general, when over 10 percent of the tubes are
leaking or plugged, consideration should be given to retubing
the bundle. However, in some cases the exchanger design may
have enough extra capacity to permit a higher percentage of
tube plugging without having a severe effect on performance.
24

Tube Support Baffles

Tube support baffles or transverse baffles are not considered
pressure retaining components and minimum new thicknesses
are set in TEMA based on shell diameter and on the tube
support span. In exchangers that are subject to vibration,
excessive corrosion of the hole in the baffles can result in
increased vibration amplitude and greater tube damage. Tube
support plates are normally replaced if severely corroded or
when the bundle is retubed.
Similarly, longitudinal shell side baffles or other internal baffles
that are installed to direct flow within the exchanger are not
pressure retaining. These baffles are only replaced if they are
severely corroded or if the bundle is being retubed.
Potential Actions if Corroded Areas Are Not Acceptable

The action to take if a corroded area is not acceptable depends
on the following factors:
The component that is involved
The extent and severity of the corrosion
The situation under which the repair must be made
The desired remaining life
The time interval until the next inspection
The available time for repair
The availability of spare parts
The materials used for construction
The consequences of a failure
In general, if a corroded area is not acceptable for continued

operation, consideration is given to one of several options.
These options include repair, replacement, or installing
additional parts.
25

In some cases, the part can be repaired by the application of a

weld overlay. Weld overlay repair is typically done for
tubesheets, flanges, shells, and formed heads. In the case of
flanges, just re-machining may be an option if there is sufficient
metal and if the primary concern is to obtain a good gasket
seating surface.
Another typical option is the replacement of the part, such as by
retubing. In some cases, it may also be more practical to repair
or replace only a portion of the part, such as when only the
deepest pits are repaired by weld overlay or when only a partial
retubing is done.
Sometimes it is appropriate to install additional parts, such as
ferrules or sleeves in corroded/eroded tube ends, plugging of
tubes that are leaking or badly corroded, or installing baffles to
prevent impingement or to circulate fluids into stagnant zones.
If repair, replacement, or installing additional parts is not
practical, it may be possible to have process operations provide
closer monitoring of process conditions such as water quality
(i.e., pH and corrosion inhibitor injection in boiler feed water, deaeration and oxygen scavenging in cooling water) and increase
blowdown frequency. In some cases, it may be necessary to
downrate the exchanger in temperature and/or pressure either
temporarily or permanently.
26

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES THAT MAY BE USED FOR EXISTING

HEAT EXCHANGERS
The general repair options that may be used for pressure
vessels were discussed in MEX 202.05. The content of
MEX 202.05 also applies to comparable situations in heat
exchangers as well, and will not be covered here. In this
section, various maintenance procedures that are used to
address specific problems that are experienced during heat
exchanger maintenance and repair are described.
These procedures include the following:
Locating leaking tubes
Locating tube-to-tubesheet joint leaks
Re-expanding tubes
Repairing tube-to-tubesheet joint welds
Seal welding expanded tube-to-tubesheet joints
Repairing damaged ligaments
Plugging tube leaks
Installing tube ferrules, sleeves, and liners
Retubing
Remedying leaking girth flanges
Locating Leaking Tubes

It is not always possible to use visual inspection to locate tube
or tube-to-tubesheet connection leaks, but inspectors can
perform a number of tests to locate leaks. These tests include:
Hydrostatic test on the shell with the tube ends exposed.
An air leak "Bubble-Test" on the tube ends with air in the

shell.
Halogen or helium leak test, using sensitive gas leak

detecting devices.
27

Hydrostatic Test
To perform a hydrostatic test, also called a hydrotest, the tube
side is usually drained, and the shell side is filled with water and
pressurized. In some cases, a test ring (also known as a test
flange) may be required to allow pressurization of the shell with
the tube ends exposed. When a test flange is used, the
tubesheet is sandwiched between the floating end gasketed
shell flange and the test flange. A test flange installation is
illustrated in Figure 1. The tube ends are examined to see which
are wet; wetness indicates a leak. If the leak cannot be found by
hydrostatic testing, an air leak bubble test may be performed.
Figure 1. Test Ring Installation
Air Leak Bubble-Test

To perform an air leak bubble-test, the shell is filled with air and
gradually pressurized to a pressure that is equal to the lower of
the tubesheet differential design pressure or the shell side
design pressure. After at least 15 minutes, a bubble-forming
solution (e.g., soap and water) is brushed on. The formation and
collapse of bubbles indicates a leak. If a bubble-test does not
determine which tubes are leaking, a halogen or helium leak
test may be performed.
28

Halogen or Helium
Leak Test
To perform a halogen or helium-leak test, the air pressure in the
exchanger is reduced from its level during the bubble-test to a
pressure of about 2 atm. A tracer gas is introduced into the
exchanger. After approximately 30 minutes, a sensitive gas leak
detecting device can be used to locate the leak.
Halogen or helium leak tests may also be used to confirm that
leaks are present in tubes that are suspected of leaking but that
have not tested positively by either a hydrotest or a bubble-test.
Refer to TEMA section E-4.13 for more information about
locating tube leaks.
After it is determined which tubes are leaking, it is important to
determine the axial and, if possible, the circumferential position
of the leak. These locations help to determine the cause of the
leak.
Locating Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Leaks

Tube-to-tubesheet joint leaks may also be found by using a
hydrostatic test, a bubble test, or a halogen or helium leak test.
Additionally, tube-to-tubesheet joint leaks may be found by
liquid penetrant examination (PT), which may also disclose
cracks and hidden porous spots that are not apparent in visual
inspection.
TEMA section E-4.13 also contains information on locating tubeto-tubesheet joint leaks.
Re-Expanding Tubes
TEMA Section E-4.4 contains specific requirements that pertain
to initial tube expanding. In this section, requirements, and
methods for re-expansion of tubes will be described.
Re-Expansion
Requirements
There are three basic requirements for re-expanding tubes:
The mating surfaces of the tube and tubesheet and the tube
interior must be cleaned of any foreign matter.
The surfaces should be detergent-washed and solventcleaned.
29

The tube-end interior should be burnished smooth.
Resealing of the tube-to-tubesheet joint must be made

without distorting the surrounding tubesheet ligaments. Such
distortion could loosen other tube-to-tubesheet joints.
Avoiding distortion is usually done by installing close-fitting
metal ligament supports (i.e., drift pins) in adjacent tubes to
prevent damage to the adjacent tubes and ligaments, as
illustrated in Figure 2.
30

Figure 2. Supporting Ligaments When Re-Expanding Single Tube
The amount of tube-end thinning that is caused by the reexpanding process must be limited. This is done by
estimating the apparent existing percent wall reduction
through use of measurements of expanded and unexpanded
tube ID and the tubesheet drilling details. For most
situations, the practical upper limit of permissible thinning is
approximately 12%.
31

Through compliance with the above requirements, tube reexpansion is less likely to be impeded by the presence of
deposits, loosened tube-to-tubesheet joints, ligament work
hardening, fatigue, cracks, and excessive wall reduction.
Methods for ReExpanding Tubes
Re-expanding tubes is usually done by mechanically rerolling
them or by re-expanding them hydraulically.
Rerolling usually entails the use of a four or five pin rolling tool.
The rolling torque of the tool is experimentally set to increase
the nominal and maximum wall reduction by 10-20% over the
wall reduction that was set by the original rolling specification.
For example, if the original nominal percent wall reduction was
5%, the re-expanded wall reduction will be 5.5-6%.
Hydraulic expansion entails inserting a hydraulic mandrel into
the tube between the tubesheet faces and expanding the
mandrel at a calculated pressure. Hydraulic expansion will
normally be done in two steps. The first step uses a mandrel
whose length is about half the tubesheet thickness, and then the
mandrel is expanded at the full required pressure. The second
step uses a mandrel whose length is equal to the tubesheet
thickness, and then the mandrel is expanded at approximately
80% of the full pressure.
Figure 3 illustrates a roller with a mandrel that is inserted into a
tube. Note that the thrust collar prevents the roller from being
inserted too far beyond the back face of the tubesheet. Rolling
the tube beyond the back face of the tubesheet could damage
the tube.
32

Figure 3. Rerolling of Tube with Mandrel
Repairing Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Welds

The procedure that is used to repair welded tube-to-tubesheet
joints depends upon the kind, extent, and cause of the damage.
For example, the repair of fatigue cracks requires that the entire
crack be removed and that the metal surface prepared for
welding.
A detailed welding procedure should be prepared and the
procedure should be reviewed by a welding engineer. It is a
good idea to have mock-up tests done if unusual alloys or
configurations are present. Because tubes are typically welded
after being lightly rolled into the tubesheet, the procedures for
re-expansion are generally followed as a first step. Then the
surfaces to be welded are cleaned and prepared for welding.
After the repair, a liquid-penetrant inspection and a hydrotest
are performed to confirm the integrity of the repaired welds.
Then, depending upon the required level of repair integrity, a
bubble test or a sensitive gas leak test of the repaired welds
may also be performed.
As discussed in MEX 210.04, the strength of tube-to-tubesheet
welds depends on the specific weld details that are used, and
these welds may be either strength welds or seal welds. Either
type of weld might require repair. Figure 4 and Figure 5 show
typical strength welds and typical seal welds, respectively.
33

Figure 4. Typical Strength Welds
Figure 5. Typical Seal Welds
Seal Welding Expanded Tube-to-Tubesheet Joints

The purpose of seal-welding expanded tube-to-tubesheet joints
is to ensure additional leak tightness of the joint. Seal welding is
usually done as a last resort repair procedure when reexpanding does not cure a leakage problem. Before sealwelding, the surface of the tubes and the tubesheet must be
thoroughly cleaned. In general, a detailed welding procedure
should be developed for the repair and should be reviewed by a
welding engineer. The choice of which welding process to use
depends upon the length of the tube protrusion, the tube wall
thickness, and the tube and tubesheet material specifications.
Either the SMAW process with the smallest diameter rod
available or the GTAW process with filler metal will normally
provide acceptable results. In some cases, automatic or semiautomatic welding procedures can be used.
34

Repairing Damaged Ligaments

Tubesheet ligaments that have eroded or corroded can be
repaired by weld build-up. If ligaments have cracked from
fatigue or excessive stress, weld repairs can be considered as
only temporary. Ligaments that have cracked due to fatigue or
stress conditions mean that there may be a basic design
problem with the exchanger and that the design has to be
reconsidered. The repaired ligaments may crack again unless
the fundamental problem has been identified and corrected.
There are nine steps to repair damaged ligaments:
1.
Remove all visible foreign matter by washing the surface.
2.
Examine the ligaments for cracks and porosity using a

liquid-penetrant test (PT).
3.
Grind and chip out all visible porosity and cracks.
4.
Rewash the surfaces thoroughly.
5.
Dry the surfaces with filtered warm air.
6.
Weld the regions that are eroded, corroded, or cracked.
7.
Examine the surfaces by PT.
8.
Remove flaws that were found by the PT. Repeat cleaning,

welding, and examination until there are no more visible
flaws.
9.
Perform a hydrostatic test or other leak test as necessary

to confirm the integrity of the repaired tubesheet.
Plugging Tube Leaks

Tube plugging is the most common means to restore
exchangers to operation when a tube or tube-to-tubesheet joint
leak occurs. Plugging has several effects on the unit:
Reduces the effective heat transfer surface in direct

proportion to the number of tubes that are plugged.
Increases the tubeside flow velocity by the ratio of the

number of tubes in the original tube count to the number that
remain unplugged.
Increases the pressure drop through the tubes as the square

of the ratio of original tube count to the count of unplugged
tubes.
35

May increase the overall coefficient of heat transfer by

increasing the tubeside heat transfer film coefficient.
There are two main types of tube-end plugs:
Friction Plugs
Welded Plugs
Friction Plugs
Friction plugs are tube end plugs that work by creating a
hydraulically-tight friction fit between the plug and the tube and
the tubesheet hole.
The type of friction plug that is most frequently used is the onepiece tapered plug, which is inexpensive and readily available.
Tapered plugs also come in a two-piece design, which requires
considerably less force to make a seal than does the one-piece
tapered plug. Some types of tapered plugs can also be welded
to provide additional leak tightness but are primarily held in
place by frictional forces. Another type of friction plug is the
explosive plug, which is sealed by detonating an explosive
charge inside the plug similar to the explosive expanding that
may be used for tube-to-tubesheet joints.
Figure 6 shows several examples of friction plugs.
36

Figure 6. Typical Friction Plugs
Welded Plugs
The second type of plug is welded to the tube and the
tubesheet. These welded plugs are used for high-pressure
services. In addition to commercially available precision
machined plugs, various homemade plugs are used for welding.
The simplest type of plug consists of a short length of round bar
pressed into the tube and then welded to the tube end.
Figure 7 shows an example of a welded plug.
37

Figure 7. Typical Welded Plug
Installing Tube Ferrules, Sleeves, and Liners

Tube ferrules, sleeves, and liners prevent erosion at the inlet end
of the tubes and are sometimes used to extend tube life. Tube
ferrules, sleeves, and liners consist of thin metal or plastic tubes
that are installed with an interference fit inside the tube on the
inlet end. Successful installation of ferrules, sleeves, and liners
depends upon the cleanliness of the tube.
Ferrules are inserted into the tube end when there is evidence
that entrance turbulence is eroding the tube ends and/or the
tubesheet. Sleeves are installed when tubes fail in the region
between the front face and back face of the tubesheet and/or the
first tube support while the rest of the tube is in good condition.
Liners may be used to extend the life of straight tubes. Liners
have been used in some cases to restore previously plugged
tubes to service. Note that sleeves and liners may have a
38

detrimental effect on the thermal performance of the unit that

must be considered before their use.
Retubing
Retubing is a blanket term that describes:
Individual tube replacement
Partial retubing
Complete retubing
Individual Tube
Replacement
Tubes are either pulled or driven to remove them from the
tubesheet. Typically, whole tubes are pulled because driving the
tubes may buckle them, making the tubes virtually impossible to
remove. Pulling poses less of a risk of damage to the tubesheet
than driving does because the tube's diameter reduces slightly
as it is pulled. Driving is sometimes used to remove tube ends
from tubesheets after the tube has been cut off.
Commercial tube pullers, such as the Elliott spear-type puller or
the Hydro-Pull HTP500 can be used. A homemade puller can
also be made by attaching a stud extractor to a drill.
Internal tube cutting behind the tubesheet is effective when the
tubes that are to be removed are relatively soft and do not
quickly surface harden. The tubes are cut using internal tube
cutters, and the tube stubs are then removed from the
tubesheet. Tube removal is done using tube pullers or by
thinning the ends and then collapsing, driving, or pulling the
tubes.
Partial Retubing
Partial retubing, or replacing a substantial number of tubes, is
suitable mostly for straight-tube units, although partial retubing
can be done on the outer rows of U-tube bundles. In order to
decide whether or not to partially retube a unit, the causes and
locations of failures, the correctibility of the failures, and the
overall life expectancy of the bundle must be considered.
39

Complete Retubing
Complete retubing is a procedure that involves substantial cost.
A cost-benefit analysis is sometimes warranted to compare the
cost of a new bundle or exchanger to the retubing cost,
including the cost of downtime and tube procurement.
The fastest way to remove tubes for a full retubing is to use a
band saw. A band saw is particularly useful to cut off the outer
tubesheets of double-tubesheet exchangers before retubing.
After the tube bundle is cut off of the tubesheet, the tube ends
are removed from the tubesheets by pulling, driving, splitting,
grinding, arc-air gouging, or a combination of these methods.
Remedying Leaking Girth Flanges

Most girth flanges are designed to the ASME Code rules (as
discussed in MEX 210.03), have adequate bolting, and are tight
and strong. However, if the flanges bend too much during boltup, before the gasket is adequately seated, the joint will
eventually leak. If a girth flange leaks, and if hot bolting (i.e., bolt
tightening while the exchanger remains in operation) does not
solve the problem, the calculations should be checked to
confirm that the flanges were designed properly. For example, it
should be determined whether the ASME calculations were
modified to account for compression of the pass partition
gasket, and whether the flange on the lower pressure side of the
fixed tubesheet was correctly designed for the bolt load from the
higher pressure side. Both of these flange design considerations
were discussed in MEX 210.03.
Leaks can occur due to poor fit-up if the ring of a gasket that
seals the mating parts becomes pinched at its inner or outer
edges. Leaks are also commonly caused by poor initial flange
bolt-up or by using grease or tape to hold the gasket in place.
Leaks that are stopped by re-tightening the bolts may recur if
too much torque must be applied to the bolts so that the flanges
are deformed beyond repair. In many cases, the procedure that
is used to fix the leak properly is to machine the gasket surfaces
flat. Leaks can sometimes be remedied by replacing the gasket
with one that is more easily seated. In many cases, simply using
a proper bolt-up procedure is the only remedy that is required to
cure flange leaks.
Additional information about flange bolt-up and gaskets can be
found in TEMA sections and E-3.25 and E-4.5.
40

DETERMINING WHETHER EXISTING HEAT EXCHANGERS CAN BE

RERATED TO REVISED DESIGN CONDITIONS
The general reasons for rerating a pressure vessel and the
evaluations that are required for pressure vessel components
were discussed in MEX 202.05. These evaluations also apply in
general to heat exchanger components (e.g., shells and head,
etc.) that are designed as pressure vessels.
The primary considerations that are used to determine whether
a heat exchanger can be rerated include:
Whether the rerating conditions are more or less severe than

the original design conditions.
Whether the actual thicknesses of components as supplied

were in excess of the minimum thicknesses required for
pressure plus the original specified corrosion allowance.
Whether the corrosion has been more or less severe than

expected.
In some cases, it may be desired to up-rate the exchanger (i.e.,

make the design conditions more severe than they were
originally). In other cases, it may be desired to downrate the
exchanger so that additional corrosion allowance can be
obtained at the expense of some operating flexibility. It may also
be necessary to downrate an exchanger if components have
corroded to the extent that they are no longer adequate for the
original design conditions.
When rerating a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, consideration
must be given to the fact that there are two sides of the
exchanger that must be rerated. In general, if the design
conditions on one side, (e.g., the tubeside), are raised, then the
channel, channel cover, channel girth flange, tubesheet(s),
tubes, and floating head must be checked. If the design
conditions on the shellside are changed, then the shell cover,
shell, tubes, floating head, tubesheet, and shell girth flange
must be checked. Because the dimensions of the girth flange on
the lower pressure side of the stationary tubesheet may be
based on bolt loads which are due to the higher pressure side,
rerating of either side usually requires a check of the stationary
tubesheet girth flanges. The design of girth flanges at stationary
tubesheets was discussed in MEX 210.03.
41

Knowing what components are affected by a change in design

conditions is useful to limit the extent of work that is done to
evaluate the rerate. Components that are not affected do not
need to be checked. The table in Table 1 can be used to identify
the affected components.
Components Affected
by Changes to
Tubeside Design
Conditions
Channel
Channel Cover
Channel Cover Flange
Tubeside Nozzles and
Flanges
Pass Partition Baffle
Components Affected by
Changes to Tubeside or
Shellside Design
Conditions
Components Affected by
Changes to Shellside
Design Conditions
Channel Girth Flange at

Fixed-End Tubesheet
Shell
Shell Girth Flange at

Fixed-End Tubesheet
Shell Cover Flange
Shell Cover
Fixed-end Tubesheet
Shellside Nozzles and

Flanges
Tubes
Longitudinal Baffles
Floating Tubesheet
Floating Head
Floating Head Flange
Floating Head Split-Ring
Note: The above table assumes that the exchanger is a TEMA Type AET or AES exchanger. If the
exchanger is another type, additional components may have to be checked.
Table 1. Components Affected by Revised Design Conditions

Rerating an air-cooled heat exchanger is generally simpler
because usually only the tube side is involved. In some cases a
thermal/performance rerating may be done with little or no
impact on the mechanical design.
Work Aid 2 contains a procedure that may be used to determine
if a heat exchanger may be rerated to new design conditions.
The sections that follow describe several items that must be
considered in exchanger rerating.
42

Changes to Original Design Temperature or Pressure

In general, an increase rather than a decrease in the design
temperature or design pressure is a more severe condition that
must be considered during rerating. However, if additional
corrosion allowance is required, it may be necessary to lower
the design temperature or the design pressure of the heat
exchanger. Changes to the design temperature or design
pressure could also affect the thermal design of the exchanger.
Design Temperature
Change
In general, as a material's temperature is increased, the
material's yield and tensile strength decrease. In some cases,
the ASME Code allowable stress also shows a corresponding
decrease. However, for many materials, the ASME Code
Section VIII, Division 1 allowable stress is the same from room
temperature up to 343C (650F). When the allowable stress
does not change over this temperature range, changing the
design temperature may have no effect on the mechanical
integrity of the exchanger unless the design temperature is
raised above 343C (650F).
In addition, some construction details have design temperature
limits, such as when slip-on flanges can be used or when
various tubesheet joint details can be used. Also recall that the
ASME B16.5 Class that is used for nozzle flanges is based on
temperature, pressure, and flange material. Therefore, these
other factors may limit an increase in design temperature.
Design Pressure
Change
If the new design pressure is above the original design
pressure, but less than the original MAWP, then a rerate may be
possible. Rerating in this case depends on whether there is
enough corrosion allowance left for the desired remaining life of
the exchanger.
43

It should also be noted that the MAWP and the set pressure of
the safety valve that protects the exchanger is shown on the
Safety Instruction Sheet and the Heat Exchanger Specification
Sheet. Both of these pressures must be revised if the unit is
rerated in order to reflect the rerated conditions. If the design
pressure is increased (or by necessity decreased), it may be
necessary to physically change the safety valve set pressure or
provide a new safety valve. If the design pressure is increased,
it is also usually necessary to do a new hydrotest of the
exchanger for the more severe conditions. If the design
pressure is decreased, a new test pressure should be
calculated and indicated on the Safety Instruction Sheet, but the
exchanger would not require a new hydrotest. The exchanger
nameplate should also be revised to be consistent with the
rerated design conditions.
Thermal Design
Evaluation
It may also be necessary to evaluate the thermal design of a
heat exchanger in situations where the flow rates, temperatures,
or pressures have changed significantly. A thermal design
evaluation will be done by process engineers.
Changes to Original Flow Rates

Changes to the original flow rates can affect the mechanical
design, the maintenance requirements, and the efficiency of a
heat exchanger.
Shellside
44

Changes in shellside flow rates, even without pressure or

temperature changes, can affect the mechanical design of the
exchanger. Typically, a higher flow rate may be desired by the
process engineer to improve heat transfer coefficients and the
exchanger operating efficiency. In general, a higher shellside
pressure drop will accompany the higher velocity. The higher
velocity flow can affect the mechanical design by increasing the
erosion/corrosion of the tubes, especially in the region of the
shell inlet nozzle. Higher flow velocity can also cause erosion
due to cavitation in areas of the shell exit nozzle. An increase in
the shellside flow may also cause tube vibration problems if the
original design was only marginally acceptable from a vibration
standpoint. Note that vibration will be discussed later in this
module.
An increase in the flow rate is normally of more concern than a
decrease in the flow rate. However, flow rate reduction may
cause problems with fouling or corrosion of the tube bundle.
Tubeside
A tubeside flow rate increase can cause erosion or
erosion/corrosion of tubesheet faces, tube ends, or the bends in
U-tube bundles. A flow rate decrease can cause sedimentation
and foul the tubes.
45

TYPES AND CAUSES OF HEAT EXCHANGER VIBRATION

PROBLEMS; POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO THESE PROBLEMS
All structures have natural frequencies at which they are
predisposed to vibrate if they are suddenly loaded. These
frequencies are called resonant frequencies. If a periodic force
acts on a structure, the structure will start to vibrate. If there is
no dampening in the system and the frequency of the periodic
force coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the
structure, the vibration tends to grow without bounds. Failure
may occur even if the exciting force is small. This phenomena is
called resonance. If resonance exists, but the exciting force is
not too strong and there is adequate dampening in the system,
then the vibrations may not grow without bounds. However, the
condition may still cause damage to the exchanger due to metal
fatigue or other forms of damage.
The methodology that is used to determine whether or not an
exchanger is susceptible to vibration damage is very complex.
The intent of this section is to describe the main causes of heat
exchanger vibration problems, to identify possible types of
damage, to discuss the mechanical and process design
parameters that affect the susceptibility of the exchanger to
vibration, and to identify potential solutions.
Causes of Vibration
Section V in TEMA gives detailed calculation procedures that
may be used to determine the susceptibility of exchangers to
vibration problems. It should also be noted that some
manufacturers/contractors and industrial research institutes
(such as Heat Transfer Research Institute) have computer
programs that perform the TEMA calculations and other more
sophisticated calculations in an attempt to predict vibration
problems.
While the TEMA or other more sophisticated calculations may
have been used during the initial design phase, the problem is
very complex and vibration problems may still be found in the
field. Vibration may be due to changes in operating conditions or
to corrosion that increases baffle clearances or thins the tubes.
46

Several types of flow mechanisms can cause tubes to vibrate.

These mechanisms include:
Vortex Shedding
Turbulent Buffeting
Fluid-Elastic Whirling
Acoustic Resonance
Each of these mechanisms will be briefly discussed.

Vortex Shedding
In vortex shedding, vortices are alternately built up and shed on
the wake side of the tube by the flow of the fluid past the tube.
This shedding is accompanied by harmonic lift forces that are
transverse to the general flow direction. The lift forces cause the
tube to vibrate at the vortex-shedding frequency. The frequency
of the resultant tube movement varies with the cross-flow
velocity, the tube diameter, and the Strouhal number (Ns)
where:
Ns =
(f s ) (do )
12 (V )
Where:
Ns = Strouhal Number, dimensionless
fs = Vortex shedding frequency, cycles/sec.
do = Tube outside diameter, in.
V = Fluid crossflow velocity relative to the tube,
ft./sec.
Figure 8 shows the flow streamlines around the tube during
vortex shedding.
47

Figure 8. Vortex Shedding
The magnitude of the vibrations that result from the harmonic lift
forces varies depending upon the frequency, the shellside fluid
density, the square of the cross-flow velocity, and the Reynolds
number which is another fluid parameter.
Turbulent Buffeting
In turbulent buffeting, the flow stream buffets the tube because

of "white noise," (i.e., general background turbulence), diffused
vortices from upstream and axial drag.
48

Figure 9 shows an example of turbulent buffeting.
Figure 9. Turbulent Buffeting
Fluid-Elastic Whirling
In fluid-elastic whirling, rows of tubes react to cross-flow with

coupled orbital motions. The motion is initiated by the
simultaneous lift and drag forces that are caused by the
harmonic variation of the spaces between the tubes. After fluidelastic whirling starts, the vibration is continued by feedback
from the harmonically varied lift and drag.
At a flow velocity defined as the critical velocity, the oscillations
theoretically increase in magnitude without limit. At 55-100% of
the critical velocity, the oscillations are sporadic. Some of the
parameters that affect the critical velocity are: 1) the amount of
system damping, 2) the tube unit weight, 3) the shellside fluid
49

density, 4) the tube natural frequency, and 5) the tube location

in the bundle.
Figure 10 shows rows of tubes in various positions during fluidelastic whirling. The numbers indicate the simultaneous
positions of the tubes in a row.
Figure 10. Fluid-Elastic Whirling
Acoustical Resonance
When the shellside fluid is a gas, it is possible for acoustical

resonance (i.e., noise) to occur in the exchanger. Gas-column
standing waves may be propagated along shell stream paths at
sonic velocities. The parameters that affect the frequency of
acoustical resonance are as follows:
The length of the flow path
The acoustic standing wave mode number
The fluid molecular weight
The ratio of fluid specific heat at constant pressure to fluid

specific heat at constant volume, (Cp/Cv)
The natural frequency of the tubes, tube bundle, and/or shell
Resonance amplitude may vary directly with the tube natural

frequency if acoustical vibrations synchronize with vortex
shedding frequencies. Significant damage can occur if the
acoustic natural frequency coincides with the vortex shedding
frequency
50

TEMA section V-11 provides a detailed calculation procedure to

determine critical flow velocities at which the various vibrationinducing mechanisms may start to cause problems.
Possible Types of Damage

Vibration can damage the heat exchanger components and may
cause operating problems. Several kinds of structural damage
may be caused by vibration. These include the following:
Interspan-collision tube damage
Wear damage
Fatigue failure of tubes
Tube-to-tubesheet joint leaks
Tubesheet ligament cracking
Weld bead cracking in tube-to-tubesheet welds
Intensified stress corrosion
High operating noise
Increased shellside pressure drop
Interspan-Collision
Tube Damage
When the free vibratory motion is equal to or more than half of

the space between the tubes, tubes collide with each other
between the baffles or tube supports.
Wear Damage
Wear damage to tubes and baffles occurs when vibrationinduced tube motion causes the tubes to rub on the baffles or
supports and wear away.
Fatigue Failure of
Tubes
Where the tubes penetrate the tubesheets and at the tube-totubesheet connections, vibrations may cause the tubes to
become cold-worked. The additional strain hardens the tubes
and makes them more susceptible to cracks and ultimate
fatigue failure.
51

Tube-to-Tubesheet
Joint Leaks
Vibration causes relief of the locked-in stresses, weakens the

tube-to-tubesheet joints, and causes them to leak. Vibrationcaused stresses are also superimposed upon pressure and
thermal stresses in the tube ends and the tube-to-tubesheet
joint welds.
Tubesheet Ligament
Cracking
In tubesheet ligament cracking, vibration-induced cyclical

dynamic loads overstress the ligaments and cause fatigue
cracks.
Weld Bead Cracking in
Tube-to-Tubesheet
Welds
In weld bead cracking, vibration-induced tube loads can crack

the root bead of a front-face-welded tube-to-tubesheet joint. The
cracks propagate into the weld, tube, and tubesheet.
Intensified Stress
Corrosion
In intensified stress corrosion, vibration-induced dynamic

stresses are superimposed upon static stresses. Because
stress corrosion is related to the intensity of tensile stress, the
unit is more susceptible to corrosion.
High Operating Noise
High operating noise can be caused by vibration-forcing

mechanisms, such as vortex shedding in either gas or vapor
flow. Vortex shedding is sometimes accompanied by Aeolian
tones that are generated by the tube vibrating at the
fundamental frequency.
52

Increased Shellside
Pressure Drop
The energy that is required to produce tube vibration is usually

extracted from the shellside fluid. Therefore, the pressure drop
or head loss through the exchanger usually increases when
vibration problems occur. In general, the pressure drop increase
in exchangers with primarily gases or vapors on the shellside is
more noticeable than when the shellside fluid is a liquid.
Figure 11 shows examples of damage that may be caused by
vibration, including wear damage, interspan collisions, tube joint
leaks, and weld bead cracking.
Figure 11. Typical Vibration Damage
53

TEMA sections V-2 through V-3.5 contains additional

information about the types of damage that tube vibration can
cause.
Design and Operating Parameters Affecting Vibration

In this section, the exchanger design and operation parameters
that have the greatest influence on the potential for damaging
vibration will be discussed. The effect that changes in these
parameters have on the potential for an exchanger to
experience vibration is also reviewed.
Although tie rods, baffles and the shell itself may be susceptible
to vibration damage, the tubes are the primary components that
are susceptible to vibration. Natural frequencies for all of the
components can be calculated based on dimensions and
properties of the components that are involved. The forces that
induce vibration are usually associated with the flow of the
shellside fluid, although, in some cases, vibrations can be
transmitted into the exchanger from upstream equipment or
surrounding structures. Dampening in the system is primarily a
function of the properties of the fluids that flow through the
exchanger and/or the details that are used for tube support.
Vibration damage occurs when the flow conditions are such that
the tube natural frequencies are excited and there is insufficient
damping in the system to prevent damage.
The following design and operating parameters affect the level
of vibration problems that can be experienced:
Tube natural frequency
Tube end fixity
Baffle spacing
Axial load
Tube weight
Damping
Shellside velocity
Acoustical resonance
54

Tube Natural
Frequency
A tube's natural frequencies are functions of the tube diameter,

wall thickness, material, the length of unsupported span, the
shape of the tube (i.e., whether straight or U-bend), and the
tube's end fixity conditions (i.e., whether it is "simply supported"
or "fixed").
The larger the diameter and wall thickness, the larger the
tube's moment of inertia, and the higher the tube's natural
frequency.
The larger the material's elastic modulus (i.e., Young's

Modulus), the higher the tube's natural frequency.
The longer the tube's unsupported span, the lower the tube's
natural frequency.
Note that every tube has an infinite number of natural

frequencies or harmonics. Harmonics are those frequencies that
are above the tube's lowest or fundamental natural frequency.
Only the few lowest frequencies are usually of interest in
evaluating a heat exchanger design for vibration. Only the first
few are of interest because the lower natural frequencies are
more easily excited, would have the largest amplitude of
vibration, and would more likely be the ones that would cause
tube damage.
Effect of Tube End
Fixity on Natural
Frequency
The natural frequency of a tube is most accurately calculated as

a beam over multiple supports with an axial load. However, the
natural frequency is usually approximated by calculating the
natural frequency of a beam over two supports with correction
factors depending on the degree of fixity at the ends of the span
and the axial load in the tube. If the tube is fixed against rotation
(i.e., attached to the tubesheet) on one end of the span rather
than being simply supported (i.e., passing through a baffle), the
natural frequency will be about 50% higher than in the simply
supported case.
55

Effect of Baffle
Spacing on Tube
Natural Frequencies
In a heat exchanger, there are several different points at which

the tube's natural frequencies are calculated. This is because
the distance between baffles (i.e., points of support) and the end
fixity condition is different in different parts of the exchanger.
Typically, natural frequencies are calculated at the entrance and
exit of the bundle. In these locations one end the tube is
considered as fixed and the other end is considered as simply
supported. In addition, tube natural frequencies are calculated
for typical baffle spans. In most exchangers with single
segmental baffles, a given tube is usually only supported at
every second baffle. In some cases, the tubes along the baffle
cut line are supported at every baffle and in other cases they
are only in contact with a baffle on one side of the tube.
Empirical correlation factors are used in the TEMA calculations
to account for the fact that tubes at the baffle cut line are only
supported on one side. In general, as the baffle span increases
the natural frequency decreases. In U-tube exchangers, the
natural frequency of the U-bend tubes is also determined as a
function of the length and width of the bend.
Refer to TEMA Table V-5.3 for the equations and constants that
are applicable to different situations.
Effect of Axial Load on
Tube Natural
Frequency
A tube's natural frequency varies with the axial load or stress in

the tube. Compressive axial loads decrease the tube's natural
frequency while tensile loads increases it. The frequency varies
basically with a square root function of the ratio of the axial load
to the Euler buckling load for a slender column.
Refer to TEMA V-6.1 for a correction factor equation that
accounts for tube axial loads.
56

Effective Tube Weight
Because the fluid inside of the tube vibrates with the tube,
higher density tubeside fluids lower the tube's natural frequency.
Some of the fluid that is outside of the tube also moves with the
tube if it vibrates, and therefore the mass of the tube is
corrected for what is called a "Hydrodynamic Mass" effect.
Refer to TEMA Section V-7 and TEMA Figure 7.11 for equations
and factors that account for the effective tube mass.
Damping
When the shellside fluid is a liquid, the damping in the system is

primarily a function of the shellside fluid's viscosity and density.
When the shellside fluid is a vapor or gas, then the damping in
the system is primarily a function of the number of spans, the
length of the tube span, and the baffle plate thickness. Damping
tends to reduce tube vibration, and liquids provide more
damping than do either gases or vapors.
Refer to TEMA Section V-8 for estimates of damping that is
associated with tube vibration.
Shell Side Velocity
In general, the frequency of the periodic forces are proportional

to the shell side fluid velocity. The magnitude of the periodic
exciting force is usually proportional to the square of the
shellside fluid velocity. Unfortunately, the local fluid velocities
are much higher than the gross or average fluid velocities and
vary greatly as the fluid flows through the exchanger.
The fluid flows in through an inlet nozzle, in-between the tubes,
and around the baffles which change the velocity magnitude
and direction. The presence of leakage paths within the
exchanger also complicates the calculation of local velocities.
Therefore, empirical formulas are used to correlate a reference
cross-flow velocity to the average cross-flow velocities and
adjustments are made for sealing strips, pass lanes, and finned
tubes.
The critical flow velocity is the minimum cross-flow velocity at
which the tubes may start to vibrate with an unacceptably high
magnitude. In a given exchanger, there may be a number of
critical cross-flow velocities that correspond to the exchanger
entrance/exit and different regions of the bundle.
57

The critical flow velocities are calculated using equations that

are in Section V-9 of TEMA.
Acoustic Resonance
Acoustic resonance occurs if the acoustic natural frequency of

the shell is near either the vortex shedding frequency or the
turbulent buffeting frequency of the tubes. If acoustic resonance
occurs, loud noises may be heard emanating from the
exchanger or from the downstream piping and equipment.
Standing acoustic waves, if generated in the shell, generally will
greatly increase the shellside pressure drop. If the tubes have
natural frequencies or harmonics that are in the range of the
acoustic frequencies generated, vibration damage will probably
occur.
Section V-11 of TEMA presents equations that may be used to
determine if acoustic resonance will occur.
Potential Solutions
There are several potential solutions to exchanger vibration
problems, including acoustic vibration. Note that standard
computer programs are used for the initial design of heat
exchangers and that conservative designs are normally used
initially to minimize the potential for vibration. However, changes
in operation or the effects of corrosion may cause vibration
problems to occur even after an exchanger has been operating
for a period of time.
Because vibration problems typically occur when the system is
in resonance, the system must be de-tuned by using one or
more of the following options:
Lowering the shellside velocity to be below the critical

velocity
Increasing the damping (which is not easily done except in

vapor-filled systems where damping is primarily a function of
baffles number, spacing, and thickness)
Raising the tube natural frequency
58

Typically, process engineers must get involved if process

operating parameters must be changed. Varying the tube's
natural frequency usually involves changes to the shellside flow
design (e.g., changing the baffle spacing) and must also be
checked with the process engineers. Minor changes can be
made to the mechanical details to minimize stress concentration
factors and to increase the fatigue endurance of the exchanger,
but typically the best solution is to avoid the source of the
problem rather than to cure the symptoms.
If problems occur, there are several potential remedies that may
be considered. Some of these remedies only apply for specific
kinds of vibration while other remedies apply for all kinds:
For vibration that is caused by acoustical resonance,

additional deresonating baffles can be used to change the
acoustic natural frequency on the shellside.
The tube natural frequency can be raised by lacing the tube

bundle with flat bars, wires, or rods between the baffles.
Change the shellside flow arrangement to divided flow, split

flow, or cross-flow when possible from the heat transfer
standpoint.
Alter the flow characteristics of the shellside stream.
Retube the bundle with thicker tubes that have a natural

frequency in a safe range.
Replace the bundle with one that is designed to avoid

vibration. This may include changing the tube pitch or
pattern, changing the tube diameter or thickness, using
thicker tube support plates/baffles, using different support
spacing, or redesigning the bundle to be a "no tube in the
window" design.
59

PRIMARY METHODS OF CLEANING HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers must be cleaned at regular intervals to ensure
good heat transfer performance. A sludge or corrosion scale
coating on the tubes greatly reduces heat transfer efficiency.
Failing to clean the heat exchanger can cause the stoppage of
flow through some tubes, which can result in severe thermal
strains, leaking tube joints, and structural damage.
The primary methods that are used for cleaning exchangers are
mechanical, hydraulic, or chemical cleaning. In some cases,
these methods are used in various combinations such as when
a deposit is first softened with a chemical, washed off, and then
the surface is brushed clean. Generally, the cleaning method is
selected by the plant operator and will depend upon the kind of
deposit to be cleaned and the facilities that are available in the
plant.
It is important to take precautions when cleaning heat
exchangers to avoid damaging them. Tubes should generally
not be cleaned by blowing steam through them, because this
process heats the tube and can result in severe expansion
strain, deformation of the tube, or loosening of the tube-to
tubesheet joint. Steam cleaning of fixed tubesheet exchanger
tubes requires especially careful consideration to ensure that
the differential temperature between the tubeside and shellside
does not buckle the tubes or cause them to pull from the
tubesheet. Care should be used when mechanically cleaning
tubes to avoid damaging the tubes. It is also important to ensure
that any cleaning compounds that are used are compatible with
the metallurgy of the exchanger.
Most exchangers that have removable bundles are cleaned
after the bundle has been removed from the shell. In some
cases, the unit can be cleaned in place; in other cases the
exchanger is moved to a work area or an exchanger shop area
to be cleaned. Fixed tubesheet heat exchangers are typically
cleaned by chemical cleaning on the shell side and may be
cleaned by any one or a combination of cleaning methods on
the tubeside.
60

Mechanical Cleaning
If the tube layout is on a square pitch, tube exteriors can be
cleaned with mechanical scrapers that are made from a blade or
with a plate that is just slightly thinner than the space between
the tubes. Accumulations that occur near baffles and tube
supports can be removed by poking at them with rods. Tube
exteriors may also be cleaned by wire brushing or sandblasting.
Two major types of cleaners are used to clean inside tubes:
internal and external. Internal cleaners are limited to the amount
of power that can be generated by the size of housing that can
fit into the tube. External cleaners drive the cleaning
head through a flexible drive shaft while the motor remains
outside the tube. Sometimes, a blow gun is used to clean the
inside of straight-tubes that are fouled with soft, readily
removable deposits. Most blow guns are connected to both
water and compressed-air hoses.
Hydraulic Cleaning
Hydraulic cleaning, or hydrocleaning, consists of directing
powerful jets of water at fouled surfaces so that the jets dislodge
the deposits. The water jets are not abrasive and are not
directed at any one spot long enough to erode it.
The elements of a hydraulic cleaning system are:
Clean water
High-pressure, high-volume pump and driver
Hydraulic hoses
Lances or probes
Nozzles
Controls
61

A wide range of piston and centrifugal pumps are designed for

hydraulic cleaning and are available commercially. A highpressure, flexible hydraulic hose leads water from the pump to a
rigid tube with a nozzle at its discharge end. The water pressure
in such a system can be as high as 138 MPa (20,000 psi).
Probes are used to clean the outside of the bundle between the
tubes in the bundle, at the baffle-to-tube junctions, and at the
tubesheets. Lances are used to clean inside the tubes. Nozzles
are sometimes configured to drill-bit shapes to combine
mechanical and hydraulic cleaning.
Hydraulic cleaning can remove tenacious films, but it cannot
remove surface metal oxides or tight corrosion products unless
an abrasive is added to the water stream. When an abrasive is
added to the water, the process is called hydraulic blasting or
hydroblasting. Hydroblasting is usually used to descale and
clean tubesheet faces, shells, channels, channel covers,
bonnets, and return covers inside and outside. Hydroblasting is
usually not used to clean bundles because the tubes are too
thin.
Chemical Cleaning
Chemical cleaning is used to preclean and pretreat new and
newly retubed exchangers, to remove fouling deposits and
scales during operation, and to try to clean exchangers when no
other way will work. It is sometimes possible to chemically clean
a shut down unit in place by circulating cleaning agents through
the exchanger and then flushing the exchanger.
There are different categories of deposits. If the deposits in the
exchanger can be identified and typed according to category,
appropriate chemical cleaning solutions can be selected to use
either on or off stream, cleaning-solution temperatures can be
selected, and optimum contact times can be determined.
62

SUMMARY
This module described the considerations that are used to
determine the appropriate inspection frequencies for heat
exchangers. The suitability of corroded heat exchanger
components for continued operation and various repair and
replacement options was covered. A procedure for determining
whether an existing heat exchanger could be rerated to revised
design conditions was presented. The causes and remedies for
heat exchanger vibration problems were outlined. Finally, the
primary methods that are used to clean heat exchangers were
summarized.
With this module, the complete life cycle of heat exchangers has
been described. MEX 210.06 will apply the information that was
discussed throughout the course to work which the Participants
have brought to class.
63

WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1:
PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING THE SUITABILITY

OF A CORRODED HEAT EXCHANGER FOR
CONTINUED OPERATION
The procedures that are contained in this Work Aid may be used to determine the
suitability of a corroded heat exchanger for continued service, based on information that
is contained in an Inspection and History Report, the Safety Instruction Sheet,
Vendor's/Contractor's drawings, and the mechanical design calculations. It includes two
tables (Figure 12 and Figure 13) that are used to summarize data and compare existing
heat exchanger conditions with desired conditions.
Use of this procedure requires the following information:
Heat exchanger component current thickness data. The thickness data would have
been obtained from a T&I and is summarized in an Inspection and History Report.
Minimum required component thickness data. The minimum required thickness

data are available from the Safety Instruction Sheet, the vendor's/contractor's
drawings, or the design calculations for the exchanger.
Original component thickness data. These are available on the Safety Instruction
Sheet, the vendor's/contractor's drawings, or from previous inspection records.
The number of years that the exchanger has been in service, the desired
remaining life, and the desired T&I interval.
To determine the suitability of a corroded exchanger for continued operation:

1.
Complete the summary in Figure 12 for each component of the heat exchanger.
2.
Identify the Remaining Life (R.L.) for the heat exchanger as the shortest R.L. of all
the components as summarized in
Figure 12.
3.
If the R.L. of the exchanger is at least equal to the desired remaining life, the
exchanger is acceptable. Otherwise, proceed to Step 4.
4.
If the R.L. that is determined from Step 3 is less than the desired R.L., complete
the summary in Figure 13 to determine if the exchanger is suitable until the next
scheduled T&I.
64

Component
Original
Thicknes
s (Torig)
(Note 1)
Actual
Thicknes
s (Tact)
(Note 2)
Actual
Corrosion
Rate, CR =
(Torig-Tact )
/# years
(Note 3)
Required
Minimum
Thickness
(Tm)
(Note 4)
Remaining
Life, R.L.=
(Tact-Tm)
/C.R.
(years)
Evaluation
Shell
Shell Cover
Shell Cover
Flange
Shell
Nozzle
Section
Channel
Channel
Cover
Floating
Head
Pass
Partition
Baffle
Floating
Tubesheet
Fixed
Tubesheet
Tubes
Figure 12. Remaining Life Evaluation

Notes to Figure 12:
1. This information is found on the Safety Instruction Sheet for the exchanger, on the
Vendor's/Contractor's drawings for the exchanger, or from the previous inspection records as
documented in Inspection and History Reports.
2. This information is obtained from the inspection department and is documented in the current
Inspection and History Report.
3. In this Work Aid, a uniform corrosion rate over the life of the component or the time interval
between T&Is (i.e., # years) is assumed. This assumption can be modified if better corrosion rate
information is available.
4. This information is found on the Safety Instruction Sheet, on the Vendor's/Contractor's drawings,
or in the design calculations for the exchanger.
65

Component
Actual
Thickness
(Tact) (Note 1)
Actual
Corrosion
Rate = CR
(Note 2)
Thickness at next
T&I = Tact (D.F. x C.R. x
# years) (Note 3)
Minimum
Thickness
(Tm) (Note 4)
Evaluation
Shell
Shell Cover
Shell Cover
Flange
Shell
Nozzle
Section
Channel
Channel
Cover
Floating
Head
Baffle
Floating
Tubesheet
Fixed
Tubesheet
Tubes
Figure 13. T&I Interval Evaluation

Notes to Figure 13:
1. This information is copied from Column 3 of the Summary in Figure 12 of this Work Aid.
2. This information is copied from Column 4 of the Summary in Figure 12 of this Work Aid.
3. D.F. is a design factor. A D.F. of 2.0 until the next T&I is assumed for external pressure containing
parts if the desired R.L. is greater than 4 years. This D.F. corresponds to twice the actual corrosion
rate. The D.F. can be changed to 1.0 if the R.L. is less than 4 years. In the case of internal parts
such as tubes, a D.F. of 1.0 may be used.
4. This information is found on the Safety Instruction Sheet for the exchanger, on the
Vendor's/Contractor's drawings, or in the design calculations for the exchanger.
66

WORK AID 2:
PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING WHETHER

EXISTING HEAT EXCHANGERS CAN BE RERATED
TO REVISED DESIGN CONDITIONS
The procedure that is contained in this Work Aid may be used to determine whether an
existing heat exchanger can be rerated to revised design conditions.
1.
The first step is to compare the new design temperatures to the old design
temperatures. Fill in the old and new design temperature for the heat exchanger
side(s) under consideration in the Summary that is provided in Figure 14.
Determine:
2.
a.
If the new design temperature remains the same or is lower, indicate rerate
possible in the Summary and go to Step 3.
b.
If the design temperature increases, indicate downrate possible and go to

Step 2.
Fill in the allowable stress for all of the component(s) that may be affected by the
rerate at the new and old design temperatures.
Determine:
3.
a.
If the allowable stress of all of the component(s) at the new temperature is

greater than or equal to the original allowable stress, indicate rerate possible
and go to Step 3.
b.
If the allowable stress for any of the component(s) at the new temperature is
less than the original allowable stress, indicate downrate possible and go to
Step 3.
Fill in the new Design Pressure for the component(s) and the MAWP from the
Safety Instruction Sheet
Determine:
a.
If the new design pressure is less than or equal to the MAWP, indicate rerate
possible and go to Step 4.
b.
If the new design pressure is greater than the MAWP, indicate downrate
possible and go to Step 4.
67

4.
Calculate the required corrosion allowance for the desired remaining life and the
actual corrosion allowance that is available for the remaining life. Fill in the
required corrosion allowance and the actual corrosion allowance available for the
component(s) under consideration in the Summary.
Determine:
5.
a.
If the required corrosion allowance is less than or equal to the actual

corrosion allowance available, indicate rerate possible and go to Step 5.
b.
If the required corrosion allowance is greater than the actual corrosion

allowance available, indicate downrate possible and go to Step 5.
In this step, the overall results are summarized.

a.
If the results of all of the above steps is that rerate is possible, then the rerate
is possible. Go to Step 6.
b.
If the result of any of the above steps is that downrate is possible, then a
rerate to a higher pressure or temperature may not be possible and a
downrate may be required. In the following cases a rerate may still be
possible:
i)
If the reason that downrate is possible is only that the design

temperature went up, various design temperature limits for individual
components should be checked. If the higher design temperatures are
acceptable, then rerate may still be possible. Go to Step 6.
ii)
If the reason that downrate is possible is only that the allowable stress of
one of the exchangers components is lower at the new design
temperature, then a new MAWP for the exchanger should be calculated.
If the components with the lower allowable stress are not the ones that
limit the MAWP, then rerate is still possible. Go to Step 6.
iii)
If the reason for the downrate is only to account for excessive corrosion,
then determine the new MAWP for the exchanger based on the actual
thickness less the required corrosion allowance for the desired
remaining life (R.L.). If the badly corroded components are not the ones
that limit the MAWP, then rerate is still possible.
Go to Step 6.
68

6.
Summarize the evaluations and the changes that must be made to the Safety
Instruction Sheet.
a.
If rerate is not possible, indicate the limiting component or factor.
b.
If rerate is possible, the new design temperature and/or design pressure must
be indicated on the Heat Exchanger Specification Sheet and the Safety
Instruction Sheet. The following additional actions may be required:
i)
New Tms and CAs should be calculated for the new lowest MAWP on
that side of the exchanger for inclusion in the revised Safety Instruction
Sheet. An increase (or decrease) in the minimum thickness required for
pressure Tm may be estimated by ratioing the thicknesses in proportion
to the increase (or decrease) in pressure; however, this assumption of
linear dependence is only a rough estimating tool. Ratioing should be
used with caution since some of the thicknesses or other dimensions of
a component may be related in a nonlinear manner to the design
pressure and/or allowable stress.
ii)
New hydrotest pressures should be calculated. If the new hydrotest

pressure is greater than the original hydrotest pressure, the exchanger
may have to be re-hydrotested to a higher pressure.
iii)
The safety valve set pressures may have to be revised and safety valves
reset or replaced.
iv)
A new name tag should be added to the exchanger name tag

indicating the revised design conditions.
69

Step
Parameter
Value
Rerate
Possible
Downrate
Possible
Old D.T.
New D.T.
Old Allowable Stress

(Note 1)
New Allowable Stress
(Note 1)
Old MAWP (Note 2)

New D.P.
Actual CA (Note 3)
Required CA (Note 4)
Overall Evaluation
Comments
Figure 14. Information Summary for Exchanger Rerate Evaluation
Notes to Figure 14:

1. The allowable stresses are usually per the ASME Code Section II, Part D, included in
Course Handout 1. Note however that for many carbon steel components, the allowable
stress is the same for all design temperatures through 343C (650F). In the case of
external pressure or compressive tube loads on a component, the rerate evaluation
should include an assessment of the maximum allowable external pressure or
compressive tube load.
2. The MAWP on the old Safety Instruction Sheet is input here. This assumes for the
present that the design temperature has not changed and that the required corrosion
allowance is less than or equal to the corrosion allowance assumed for the original
MAWP calculation.
3. The actual corrosion allowance (CA) is equal to the actual minimum thickness (Tact)
based on inspection measurements less the minimum thickness required for pressure
(Tm) from the Safety Instruction Sheet. This assumes for the present that the design
temperature has not changed and that the required corrosion allowance is less than or
equal to the corrosion allowance assumed for the original MAWP calculation.
4. The required corrosion allowance (CA) for the desired remaining life (RL) is equal to
twice the actual corrosion rate (CR) times the desired remaining life (RL) for most
components. For internal components such as tubes, one times the actual corrosion rate
can be used.
70

GLOSSARY
actual minimum thickness
The minimum thickness of a component that is

measured during a T&I.
blowdown
Sudden release to the sewer of bottoms, sediment,

sludge, and deposits.
corrosion
A form of metallurgical attack in which oxides or other

compounds are formed with the metal.
corrosion allowance
An allowance that is added to a part to account for the

effects of corrosion.
damping
A reduction in the vibration amplitude due to dissipation

of energy by viscous friction or the generation of heat.
design pressure
The pressure that a component is designed to

withstand. It is usually set at some pressure above the
maximum operating pressure.
design temperature
The temperature that a component is designed to

withstand. It is usually set at some temperature above
the maximum operating temperature.
downrate
To lower the design pressure and/or design temperature

as a result of a rerate.
dynamic stresses
Stresses caused by dynamic loading.
erosion
The wastage of metal by abrasion of the surface.
erosion-corrosion
The wastage of metal by the abrasion of a corrosion

scale that is softer than the metal. The combined action
of corrosion and erosion can cause very high rates of
metal loss.
hydraulic mandrel
A set of rollers or pins that are forced outward by

hydraulic pressure to expand a tube into the tube hole
on a tubesheet.
impingement baffle
A baffle located opposite the shell side entrance nozzle

that protects the tubes from fluid flow forces and any
particles that are in the flow stream.
ligaments
The portion of the tubesheet that is left after all of the

tube holes are drilled. The ligament is usually
characterized by the least width between tube holes.
71

MAWP
The Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) is

the maximum pressure that a component can withstand
at the design temperature using standard code formulas
and an assumed corrosion allowance.
minimum required
thickness
The minimum thickness that is required for the design

pressure (and other loads) at the design temperature
using standard code formulas.
pitting
A type of corrosion that occurs in a very localized area

on the surface of a metal. The cause may be due to
imperfections in the surface, impurities in the metal, or
the concentration of some corrodents in only small
portions of the metal.
rerating
The process of re-evaluating the condition of a

component to determine its suitability for continued
service at conditions that are different from the original
design conditions.
uprate
To increase the design pressure or design temperature

as a result of a rerate.
vibration
Periodic oscillatory motions of an object.
72

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Figure 1. Test Ring Installation...................................................................................... 28

Table 1. Components Affected by Revised Design Conditions ..................................... 42

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CONSIDERATIONS USED TO DETERMINE APPROPRIATE

Periodic Inspection of Heat Exchangers

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Primary Causes of Heat Exchanger Deterioration

Faulty materials and fabrication

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Sulfur compounds and acids that may be present on the

Impurities in the water on the cooling side of heat

Impurities in the boiler feed water on the steam side of

The following paragraphs briefly discuss several common types

in hydrocarbon streams include sulfur compounds and

is found in many crude oils is heated to temperatures of 150C

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Stress Corrosion Cracking is the most common type of

changes can also be caused if high temperatures are present in

sources and takes several different forms. It is important to

typically manifested by the formation of rounded, longitudinal

come into contact with one another. The most common

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Graphitic Corrosion is a form of galvanic corrosion that is

brass, leaving copper, which has lower strength. Two forms of

the metal surface and cause a local breakdown of the protective

stainless steel and copper-base-alloy parts to crack. External

water side of an exchanger can be caused by excess oxygen in

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Faulty Materials and

General Considerations in Determining Inspection Frequency and

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The shells and channels of heat exchangers are typically

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Visual Inspection General visual inspection is used first to

determine the existence, extent, and pattern of any corrosion or

The inside surface of tubes.