Chapter 4

Chapter 4.
Sequences and Series

4.1
Infinite sequences
An infinite sequence (or sequence) of real numbers

is an infinite succession of numbers which is usually
given by some rule.
We shall denote an infinite sequence by
a1 , a 2 , a 3 , , a n , ,
and we shall often write the sequence as {an}; and
for each n, the number an is called a term of the
sequence.
4.1.1
MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series
Example
(i) The sequence

0, 1, 2, , n 1,
is defined by the rule an = n 1.
(ii) The sequence
1 1
1
1, , , , ,
2 3
n
is defined by an = n1 .
(iii) If an = (1)n+1( n1 ), the sequence is
1 1 1 1
1, , , , , .
2 3 4 5
(iv) If an =
n1
n ,
the sequence is
1 2 3 4
0, , , , , .
2 3 4 5
2
(v) If an = (1)n+1, the sequence is

1, 1, 1, 1, .
(vi) If an = 3, the sequence is
3, 3, 3,
4.1.2
Limits of sequences
A number L is called the limit of a sequence {an}, if

for sufficiently large n, we can get an as close as we
want to a number L.
We write lim an = L, or simply, an L,
n
Note that the limit of a sequence {an} is unique.

4.1.3
Convergent and divergent
Not all sequences have limits.

3
If {an} has a limit, we say the sequence is convergent

and {an} converges to L.
If {an} does not have a limit, we say {an} is divergent.
4.1.4
Example
(i) 0, 1, 2, 3, is divergent.
(ii) 1, 12 , 13 , , n1 , is convergent, its limit is 0.
(iii) 0, 12 , 23 , 34 , 45 , converges to 1.
n1
(since lim
= 1. See example 4.1.6 (ii).)
n
n
(iv) 1, 1, 1, 1, is divergent.
(v) 1, 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , . converges to 0.
(vi) If c is any real number, c, c, c, clearly con-
verges to c. Such a sequence is called a constant

sequence.
4.1.5
Some Rules on Limits
Let lim an = A, and lim bn = B, with A and B

n
real numbers.
(1) Sum rule:
lim (an + bn) = A + B.
(2) Difference rule:

(3) Product rule:
(4) Quotient rule:
lim (an bn) = A B.
lim (anbn) = AB.
an A
= , if B 6= 0.
n bn
B
lim
Using the above rules, we obtain:

4.1.6
Example
1
1
(i) lim ( ) = (1) lim = 1(0) = 0.
n
n n
n
5
n1
1
(ii) lim
= lim (1 )
n
n
n
n
1
= lim 1 lim = 1 0 = 1.
n
n n
5
1
1
(iii) lim 2 = 5 lim lim
n n
n n n n
= 5 0 0 = 0.
4
7 07
4 7n6
n6
(iv) lim 6
= lim
= 7.
=
n n + 3
n 1 + 36
1
+
0
n
(Note that all the four rules in (4.1.5) are used in this
example.)
4.1.7
Sequence and function
Let {an} be a sequence. Suppose there is a function

f (x) such that an = f (n).
If lim f (x) = L, then
x
lim an = L.
4.1.8
Example
Consider the sequence {an} where an =
n+1
n.
Then an = f (n) where
f (x) is the function x + 1 x. So
lim an = lim ( x + 1 x) = lim
4.1.9
1
= 0.
x+1+ x
Example
ln n
= 0.
n n
Show that lim
Consider the function
ln x
x
(defined for x > 0).
ln n
ln x
1/x
= lim
= lim
= 0.
x n
x x
x 1
lim
We apply LHopitals rule in the second equality above.
4.2
4.2.1
Infinite series
Definition.
Given a sequence of numbers {an}, an expression of

the form
a1 + a2 + a3 + + an +
is called an infinite series. The term an is the nth
term of the series.
For example,
1
1
1
1 1 1
+ + + + + +
2 4 8 16 32 64
1
is an infinite series whose nth term is n .
2
The sequence {sn} defined by

s1 = a1
s2 = a1 + a2
s3 = a1 + a2 + a3
..
sn = a1 + a2 + + an =
n
X
ak
k=1
is called the sequence of partial sums of the series.

The number sn is called the nth partial sum.
If the sequence of partial sums {sn} converges to a
limit L, then we say that the series is convergent and
that its sum is L. We write
an = a1 + a2 + + an + = L.
n=1
9
10
If the sequence of partial sums does not converge, we

say that the series is divergent.
Note that
X
X
an ,
ak ,
n=1
r=1
k=1
ar ,
an ,
ak ,
ar
represent the same series.

4.2.2
Geometric series
The series
a + ar + ar2 + + arn1 + =
arn1
n=1
is called a geometric series, where a and r are fixed

numbers, a is called the first term, and r is the (common) ratio.
10
11
For this series, the nth partial sum sn is given by

sn = a + ar + ar2 + + arn1
rsn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + + arn1 + arn.
Thus sn rsn = a arn,
1 rn
,
= sn = a
1r
r 6= 1.
If r = 1, then clearly sn = na (or ), if

a 6= 0, and the series is divergent.
If |r| < 1, then rn 0. Thus
a
sn
,
1r
and the sum of the series is
a
.
1r
If |r| > 1, then |r|n , and the series diverges.

We summarize this as follow:
11
12
4.2.3
Convergence of Geometric series
The geometric series

a + ar + ar2 + + arn1 +
with a 6= 0 converges to the sum
a
if |r| < 1 and
1r
it diverges if |r| 1.
4.2.4
Example
1
1 1
(i) + + + is a geometric series whose first
9 27 81
term is
1
9
and common ratio 13 . It converges to 61 .
(ii) 4 2 + 1
1 1
+ converges to 83 .
2 4
12
13
Some rules on series
4.2.5
If
an = A, and
bn = B, then
P
(1) Sum rule.
(an + bn) = A + B.
(2) Difference rule.
(an bn) = A B.
P
(3) Constant multiple rule.
(kan) = kA.
4.2.6
Let
Ratio test
P
an be a series, and let
an+1
= .
lim
n an
Then
(1) the series converges if < 1.
(2) the series diverges if > 1.
(3) no conclusion if = 1.
13
14
4.2.7
Example
n
(i) a1 = 1, an+1 =
an and the series is
2n + 1
X
1 12 123
+
+ .
an = 1 + +
3 35 357
an+1
n
1
For this series

=
as n . So
an 2n + 1
2
the ratio test implies the convergence of the series.
X (n!)2
(ii)
(2n)!
an+1
= (n + 1)!(n + 1)! (2n)!

an
(2n + 2)!
n!n!
(n + 1)(n + 1)
n+1
1
=
=
.
(2n + 2)(2n + 1) 2(2n + 1)
4
So the given series is convergent by ratio test.
X
3n
(iii)
2n + 5
n+1
n
n
an+1
3
1
+
5
2
3
2
+
5
=
=
3
.
an 2n+1 + 5 3n
n
2+52
2
X 3n
By ratio test,
is divergent.
2n + 5
14
15
(iv)
X1
n
an+1
= n = 1 1.
an n + 1 1 + 1
n
We cannot draw conclusion from ratio test.

(In fact, this series is divergent.)
X 1
(v)
n2
2
an+1
n
1
=
an (n + 1)2 = (1 + 1 )2 1.
n
We cannot draw conclusion from ratio test.
(In fact, this series is convergent.)
15
16
Power Series
4.3
4.3.1
Power series about x = 0
A power series about x = 0 is a series of the form
cnxn = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + + cnxn +
n=0
where c0, c1, . . . , cn, . . . are constants while x is a

variable.
So a power series can be regarded as a function for x
where it converges.
4.3.2
Example
xn = 1 + x + x2 + + xn + .
n=0
This power series about x = 0 converges to

when |x| < 1.
16
1
1x
17
We state this as
1
= 1 + x + x2 + + xn + , 1 < x < 1.
1x
4.3.3
Power series about x = a
More generally, a power series about x = a is a

series of the form
cn(x a)n = c0 + c1(x a) + c2(x a)2 +
n=0
+ cn(x a)n + .
The number a is called the centre of the power series.
4.3.4
Convergence of power series
We observe that a power series always behaves in

exactly one of the following three ways:
17
18
Case 1. The series
cn(x a)n converges at x = a
and diverges elsewhere.

Case 2. There is a positive number h such that the
series converges for all x in the interval (a h, a + h)
but diverges for all x > a + h and x < a h.
The series may or may not converge at either of the
end points x = a h and x = a + h.
Case 3.
4.3.5
The series converges for every x.
Radius of Convergence
The number h in case 2 of the previous section is

called the radius of convergence of the series.
Note that we can describe all the points in the interval in this case as |x a| < h. Here a is at the center
18
19
of the interval.
If the power series converges for all x, we say that
the radius of convergence is infinite .
If it converges only at a, we say that the radius of
convergence is zero.
4.3.6
Example
(i) Find the radius of convergence of the power series
X
n
x2 x3
n1 x
= x + .
(1)
n
2
3
n=1
Solution. We apply ratio test to the series with nth

n1 x
term un = (1)
.
n
un+1
= n |x| |x| as n .
un n + 1
Therefore, the series converges for |x| < 1. It diverges if |x| > 1.
19
20
The radius of convergence is therefore equal to 1.
X
xn
x2 x3
(ii) For the series
= 1 + x + + +
n!
2! 3!
n=0
un+1 xn+1 n!
=
= |x| 0 as n .
un (n + 1)! xn n + 1
Therefore, the series converges for all x.
The radius of convergence is therefore equal to .
X
(iii) For the series
n!xn = 1+x+2!x2 +3!x3 + .
n=0
un+1 (n + 1)!xn+1

= (n + 1)|x|
un =
n
n!x
as n unless x = 0.
Therefore, the series diverges for all x except x = 0.
The radius of convergence is zero.
20
21
Differentiation and Integration of power

series
4.3.7
If
cn(x a)n has radius of convergence h,
it defines a function f :
f (x) =
cn(x a)n, a h < x < a + h.
n=0
(i)
The function f has derivatives of all orders in
(a h, a + h). The derivatives can be obtained by

differentiating the power series term-by-term:
f 0(x) =
f 00(x) =
X
n=1
ncn(x a)n1,
n(n 1)cn(x a)n2, . . . .
n=2
The differentiated series converges for a h < x <

a + h.
21
22
(ii)
The function f has anti-derivatives in (a
h, a + h). The anti-derivatives can be obtained by

integrating the power series term-by-term:
Z
f (x)dx =
X
0
(x a)n+1
cn
+ c.
n+1
The integrated series converges for ah < x < a+h.

Example
1
f (x) =
= 1 + x + x2 + + xn + ,
1x
4.3.8
1 < x < 1
0
f (x)
1
n1
=
1
+
2x
+
+
nx
+ ,
(1 x)2
1 < x < 1
00
f (x)
2
n2
=
2
+
6x
+
+
n(n
1)x
(1 x)3
+ , 1 < x < 1
22
23
4.3.9
Example
1
= 1 t + t2 t3 + ,
1+t
1 < t < 1
So
Z
dt
0 1+t
x2 x3 x4
= x + + ,
2
3
4
ln(1 + x) =
1 < x < 1.
4.4
4.4.1
Taylor Series
Definition
Let f be a function with derivatives of all orders

throughout some interval containing a as an interior
point.
23
24
The Taylor series of f at a is
X
f (k)(a)
k=0
k!
(x a)k = f (a) + f 0(a)(x a) +

f (n)(a)
+
(x a)n + (1)
n!
4.4.2
Example
The Taylor series of ex at x = 0 is

ex =
X
xn
n=0
n!
This follows from the formula (1) and the fact that
d x
e = ex .
dx
The radius of convergence of this series is .
24
25
4.4.3
Example
The Taylor series of sin x and cos x at x = 0 are

sin x =
X
(1)nx2n+1
n=0
cos x =
(2n + 1)!
X
(1)nx2n
n=0
(2n)!
This follows from the formula (1) and the fact that
d
sin x = cos x
dx
and
d
cos x = sin x
dx
The radius of convergence of these two series is .
25
26
4.4.4
Example
The Taylor series of ln(1 + x) at x = 0 is

ln(1 + x) =
X
(1)n1xn
n=1
This follows from integrating the following geometric

series from 0 to x:
X
1
=
(1)ntn
1 + t n=0
The radius of convergence of this series is 1.
4.4.5
Example
The Taylor series of tan1 x at x = 0 is

tan1 x =
X
(1)nx2n+1
n=0
26
2n + 1
27
This follows from integrating the following geometric

series from 0 to x:
X
1
n 2n
=
(1)
t
2
1+t
n=0
The radius of convergence of this series is 1.
4.4.6
Example
1
Find the Taylor series of
at x = 2.
2x + 1
Solution.
1
1
1
=
=
2x + 1
2(x
+ 2) 4 + 1 3
! + 2(x + 2)
1
1
=
3 1 ( 23 (x + 2))
n

X
1
2
=
(x + 2)
3 0
3

n
X
2
=
n+1 (x + 2)n
3
0
The radius of convergence of this series is 3/2.
27
28
4.4.7
Taylor polynomials
The nth order Taylor polynomial of f at a is

Pn(x) =
n
X
f (k)(a)
k=0
k!
(x a)k = f (a) + f 0(a)(x a) +

f (n)(a)
+
(x a)n
n!
It provides the best polynomial approximation of degree n.

4.4.8
Example
The Taylor polynomials of ex at x = 0 of order 1, 2

and 3:
P1(x) = 1 + x
x2
P2(x) = 1 + x +
2!
x2 x3
P3(x) = 1 + x + +
2! 3!
28
29
In the diagram below, notice the very close agreement

between ex and its Taylor polynomials near x = 0.
Note that the graph of P1(x) is in fact the tangent

line of ex at x = 0.
29
30
4.4.9
An application of Taylor polynomials
Suppose you are at the top of a lighthouse, height H

above sea level. How far out to sea can you see? The
most distant spots are called the HORIZON.
From the diagram you can see that the ray of light
from the centre of the earth, define a right angled
triangle. Simple trigonometry gives us
R
= cos
R+H
30
31
and we can write this as
1+
H
R
1
= cos .
Now of course H/R and are extremely small numbers. The radius of the Earth is about 6370 km, while
a very tall lighthouse might be 0.1 km tall.
For the left hand side, we approximate it with the
order 1 Taylor polynomial:
1
H
1
H
R
1+ R
while for the right hand side, we approximate it with
the order 2 Taylor polynomial (note that the order 1
Taylor polynomial of cos is 1):
2
cos 1 .
2
31
32
So we obtain
H
2
1
=1
R
2
approximately. Thus
R22 = 2RH
and so the distance to the horizon (measured along
the curved surface of the ocean) is
R = (2R)1/2H 1/2 = 113H 1/2
where everything is measured in kilometers.
For a lighthouse 100m (=0.1km) in height, that comes
to about 35.7 km. Notice that if you double the
height of your lighthouse, you dont double the distance you can see (or from which you can be seen)!
32

Chapter 4

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Chapter 4

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Chapter 4.

Sequences and Series

An infinite sequence (or sequence) of real numbers

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

(i) The sequence

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

(v) If an = (1)n+1, the sequence is

A number L is called the limit of a sequence {an}, if

Note that the limit of a sequence {an} is unique.

Convergent and divergent

Not all sequences have limits.

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

If {an} has a limit, we say the sequence is convergent

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

verges to c. Such a sequence is called a constant

Some Rules on Limits

Let lim an = A, and lim bn = B, with A and B

lim (an + bn) = A + B.

(2) Difference rule:

lim (an bn) = A B.

lim (anbn) = AB.

Using the above rules, we obtain:

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

Sequence and function

Let {an} be a sequence. Suppose there is a function

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

Consider the sequence {an} where an =

f (x) is the function x + 1 x. So

lim an = lim ( x + 1 x) = lim

Show that lim

Consider the function

(defined for x > 0).

We apply LHopitals rule in the second equality above.

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

Given a sequence of numbers {an}, an expression of

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

The sequence {sn} defined by

is called the sequence of partial sums of the series.

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

If the sequence of partial sums does not converge, we

represent the same series.

is called a geometric series, where a and r are fixed

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

For this series, the nth partial sum sn is given by

If r = 1, then clearly sn = na (or ), if

If |r| > 1, then |r|n , and the series diverges.

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

Convergence of Geometric series

The geometric series

and common ratio 13 . It converges to 61 .

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

Some rules on series

an be a series, and let

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

For this series

= (n + 1)!(n + 1)! (2n)!

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

We cannot draw conclusion from ratio test.

MA1505 Chapter 4. Sequences and Series

Power series about x = 0

A power series about x = 0 is a series of the form

cnxn = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + + cnxn +

where c0, c1, . . . , cn, . . . are constants while x is a

This power series about x = 0 converges to