What is titration?

Titration is an analytical technique which allows the quantitative determination of a specific substance
(analyte) dissolved in a sample. It is based on a complete chemical reaction between the analyte and a
reagent (titrant) of known concentration which is added to the sample:
Analyte + Reagent(Titrant) -> Reaction Products
The titrant is added until the reaction is complete. In order to be suitable for a determination, the end of the
titration reaction has to be easily observable. This means that the reaction has to be monitored (indicated)
by appropriate techniques, e.g. potentiometry (potential measurement with a sensor) or with colour
indicators. The measurement of the dispensed titrant volume allows the calculation of the analyte content
based on the stoichiometry of the chemical reaction. The reaction involved in a titration must be fast,
complete, unambiguous and observable.
A well-known example is the titration of acetic acid in vinegar with sodium hydroxide.
What are the advantages of titration?
+ Classical, well-known analytical technique
+ Fast
+ Very accurate and precise technique
+ High degree of automation
+ Good price/performance ratio compared to more sophisticated techniques
+ It can be used by low-skilled and trained operators
+ No need for highly specialised chemical knowledge
In which industries or segments is titration used?
A non-comprehensive listing of industries using titration:
Car Manufacturing, Ceramics, Chemical industry, Coal products, Coating, Cosmetics
Detergents
Electronic, Electroplating, Energy, Explosives
Food
Glass, Government
Health
Leather
Machinery
Packing materials, Paints, Pigments, Paper&Pulp, Petroleum, Pharmaceuticals, Photo, Plastic products,
Printing & Publishing
Rail, Rubber
Stone (Clay, Cement)
Textile, Tobacco
Water
Zeolite
What is an autotitrator?
Automated titrators are microprocessor-controlled instruments which allow the automation of all operations
involved in titration:
1. Titrant addition
2. Monitoring of the reaction (Signal acquisition)
3. Recognition of the endpoint
4. Data storage
5. Calculation
6. Results storage
7. Transfer of data to printer or computer/external system
How does an autotitrator work?
Automated titrators follow a defined sequence of operations. This sequence is basically the same for all
different models and brands. It is performed and repeated several times until the endpoint or the
equivalence point of the titration reaction is reached (titration cycle). The titration cycle consists mainly of 4
steps:
1. Titrant addition
2. Titration reaction
3. Signal acquisition
4. Evaluation

Each step has different specific parameters (e.g. increment size) which have to be defined according to the
specific titration application. More complex applications require more steps, e.g. dispensing of an additional
reagent for back titrations, dilution, adjusting of the pH value. These steps and the corresponding
parameters are resumed in a titration method.
What is the historical development of autotitrators?
The classical way:
Titration is a classical analytical technique widely used. Originally, it was performed by adding the titrant
using a graduated glass cylinder (burette). With a tap the titrant addition was regulated manually. A change
in colour indicated the end of the titration reaction (endpoint). At first, only those titrations showing a
significant colour change upon reaching the endpoint were performed. Later titrations were coloured
artificially with an indicator dye. The precision achieved depended mainly on the chemist's skills and, in
particular, on his different colour perception.The modern way:
Titration has experienced a strong development: manual and -later- motorized piston burettes allow
reproducible and accurate titrant addition. Electrodes for potential measurement replace the colour
indicators, achieving higher precision and accuracy of the results. Graphical plot of potential versus titrant
volume allows a more exact statement about the reaction than the colour change at the endpoint. With
microprocessors the titration can be controlled and evaluated automatically. This represents a relevant step
towards complete automation.
Today and tomorrow:
Developmentis not yet complete. Modern autotitrators allow the definition of complete analysis sequences
achieving maximum flexibility in method development. For each application the specific method can be
defined by combining simple operation functions like "Dose", "Stir", "Titrate", "Calculate" in a defined
sequence. Auxiliary instruments (sample changers, pumps) help in reducing and simplifying the work load in
laboratories. A further trend is the connection to computers and Laboratory Information Management
Systems (LIMS).
Which types of chemical reactions are used in titration?
There are several assay reactions which are used in titration:
Acid/Base reactions:
Examples: Acid content in wine, milk. Acid content in ketchup. Content of inorganic acids like sulfuric acid.
Precipitation reactions:
Examples: Salt content in crisps, ketchup and food; Silver content in coins,
Sulfate content in mineral water; Sulfate content in electroplating bath
Redox reactions:
Examples: Content of copper, chromium and nickel in electroplating baths
Complexometric reactions:
Examples: Total hardness of water (Mg and Ca); Calcium content in milk and cheese; Cement analysis
Colloidalprecipitation reaction:
Examples: Anionic surfactant content in detergents; Anionic surfactant content in washing powders; Anionic
surfactant content in liquid cleanser.
What are the indication methods used in titration?
Titrations can be classified according to the indication principles and the chemical reaction occurring:
Potentiometry:
The concentration-dependent potential (mV) of a solution is measured against a reference potential.
Examples: Acid/Base (aqueous/non-aqueous), redox, precipitation reactions.
Voltametry:
The concentration-dependent potential of a solution (mV) is measured at a constant polarizing electric
current.
Examples: Karl Fischer water determination.
Amperometry:

The current flowing in a sample solution (A) is measured at a constant polarizing potential.
Examples: Iron(II) and Vitamin C determination.
Photometry:
The light transmission (mV or % transmission) of a coloured or turbid solution is measured with a
photometric sensor.
Examples: Complexometric and turbidimetric reactions.
Conductivity:
The conductivity of a solution (S/cm) is measured by a conductivity meter.
Example: Alpha acids in beer.
Thermometry:
The temperature of a sample is measured by a temperature sensor.
Example: Boric acid content.

What is the difference between endpoint and equivalence point titration?

Endpoint titration mode (EP):
The endpoint mode represents the classical titration procedure: the titrant is added until the end of the
reaction is observed, e.g., by a colour change of an indicator. With an automatic titrator, the sample is
titrated until a predefined value is reached, e.g. pH = 8.2.
Equivalence point titration mode (EQP):
The equivalence point is the point at which the analyte and the reagent are present in exactly the same
concentration. In most cases it is virtually identical to the inflection point of the titration curve, e.g. titration
curves obtained from acid/base titrations.
The inflection point of the curve is defined by the corresponding pH or potential (mV) value and titrant
consumption (mL). The equivalence point is calculated from the consumption of titrant of known
concentration. The product of concentration and the titrant consumption gives the amount of substance
which has reacted with the sample. In an autotitrator the measured points are evaluated according to
specific mathematical procedures which lead to an evaluated titration curve. The equivalence point is then
calculated from this evaluated curve.

What is titration?
Titration is an analytical technique which allows the quantitative determination of a specific substance
(analyte) dissolved in a sample. It is based on a complete chemical reaction between the analyte and a
reagent (titrant) of known concentration which is added to the sample:
Analyte + Reagent(Titrant) -> Reaction Products
The titrant is added until the reaction is complete. In order to be suitable for a determination, the end of the
titration reaction has to be easily observable. This means that the reaction has to be monitored (indicated)
by appropriate techniques, e.g. potentiometry (potential measurement with a sensor) or with colour
indicators. The measurement of the dispensed titrant volume allows the calculation of the analyte content
based on the stoichiometry of the chemical reaction. The reaction involved in a titration must be fast,
complete, unambiguous and observable.
A well-known example is the titration of acetic acid in vinegar with sodium hydroxide.

What are the advantages of titration?

+ Classical, well-known analytical technique
+ Fast
+ Very accurate and precise technique
+ High degree of automation
+ Good price/performance ratio compared to more sophisticated techniques
+ It can be used by low-skilled and trained operators
+ No need for highly specialised chemical knowledge
In which industries or segments is titration used?
A non-comprehensive listing of industries using titration:
Car Manufacturing, Ceramics, Chemical industry, Coal products, Coating, Cosmetics
Detergents
Electronic, Electroplating, Energy, Explosives
Food
Glass, Government
Health
Leather
Machinery
Packing materials, Paints, Pigments, Paper & Pulp, Petroleum, Pharmaceuticals, Photo, Plastic products,
Printing & Publishing
Rail, Rubber
Stone (Clay, Cement)
Textile, Tobacco
Water
Zeolite
What is an autotitrator?
Automated titrators are microprocessor-controlled instruments which allow the automation of all operations
involved in titration:
1. Titrant addition
2. Monitoring of the reaction (Signal acquisition)
3. Recognition of the endpoint
4. Data storage
5. Calculation
6. Results storage
7. Transfer of data to printer or computer/external system
How does an autotitrator work?
Automated titrators follow a defined sequence of operations. This sequence is basically the same for all
different models and brands. It is performed and repeated several times until the endpoint or the
equivalence point of the titration reaction is reached (titration cycle). The titration cycle consists mainly of 4
steps:
1. Titrant addition
2. Titration reaction
3. Signal acquisition
4. Evaluation
Each step has different specific parameters (e.g. increment size) which have to be defined according to the
specific titration application. More complex applications require more steps, e.g. dispensing of an additional
reagent for back titrations, dilution, adjusting of the pH value. These steps and the corresponding
parameters are resumed in a titration method.
What is the historical development of autotitrators?
The classical way:
Titration is a classical analytical technique widely used. Originally, it was performed by adding the titrant
using a graduated glass cylinder (burette). With a tap the titrant addition was regulated manually. A change
in colour indicated the end of the titration reaction (endpoint). At first, only those titrations showing a
significant colour change upon reaching the endpoint were performed. Later titrations were coloured
artificially with an indicator dye. The precision achieved depended mainly on the chemist's skills and, in

particular, on his different colour perception.The modern way:

Titration has experienced a strong development: manual and -later- motorized piston burettes allow
reproducible and accurate titrant addition. Electrodes for potential measurement replace the colour
indicators, achieving higher precision and accuracy of the results. Graphical plot of potential versus titrant
volume allows a more exact statement about the reaction than the colour change at the endpoint. With
microprocessors the titration can be controlled and evaluated automatically. This represents a relevant step
towards complete automation.
Today and tomorrow:
Developmentis not yet complete. Modern autotitrators allow the definition of complete analysis sequences
achieving maximum flexibility in method development. For each application the specific method can be
defined by combining simple operation functions like "Dose", "Stir", "Titrate", "Calculate" in a defined
sequence. Auxiliary instruments (sample changers, pumps) help in reducing and simplifying the work load in
laboratories. A further trend is the connection to computers and Laboratory Information Management
Systems (LIMS).
Which types of chemical reactions are used in titration?
There are several assay reactions which are used in titration:
Acid/Base reactions:
Examples: Acid content in wine, milk. Acid content in ketchup. Content of inorganic acids like sulfuric acid.
Precipitation reactions:
Examples: Salt content in crisps, ketchup and food; Silver content in coins,
Sulfate content in mineral water; Sulfate content in electroplating bath
Redox reactions:
Examples: Content of copper, chromium and nickel in electroplating baths
Complexometric reactions:
Examples: Total hardness of water (Mg and Ca); Calcium content in milk and cheese; Cement analysis
Colloidalprecipitation reaction:
Examples: Anionic surfactant content in detergents; Anionic surfactant content in washing powders; Anionic
surfactant content in liquid cleanser.
What are the indication methods used in titration?
Titrations can be classified according to the indication principles and the chemical reaction occurring:
Potentiometry:
The concentration-dependent potential (mV) of a solution is measured against a reference potential.
Examples: Acid/Base (aqueous/non-aqueous), redox, precipitation reactions.
Voltametry:
The concentration-dependent potential of a solution (mV) is measured at a constant polarizing electric
current.
Examples: Karl Fischer water determination.
Amperometry:
The current flowing in a sample solution (A) is measured at a constant polarizing potential.
Examples: Iron(II) and Vitamin C determination.
Photometry:
The light transmission (mV or % transmission) of a coloured or turbid solution is measured with a
photometric sensor.
Examples: Complexometric and turbidimetric reactions.
Conductivity:
The conductivity of a solution (S/cm) is measured by a conductivity meter.
Example: Alpha acids in beer.

Thermometry:
The temperature of a sample is measured by a temperature sensor.
Example: Boric acid content.
What is the difference between the symmetric and the asymmetric evaluation principle?
Symmetric curve:
The curve has a symmetric profile and the equivalence point is the inflection point of the curve.
This curve is evaluated by plotting the first derivative dE/dV versus titrant consumption V. The maximum of
the derivative is at the inflection point and indicates the equivalence point.
For the automatic evaluation of the symmetric S-curve the titrator provides the appropriate procedure
("STANDARD").
Examples: Acid/base titrations, redox titrations, precipitation titrations
Asymmetric curve:
This titration curve shows a different profile than the typical symmetric S-curve, and thus a different
evaluation procedure is needed. This is based on the Tubbs procedure (see "Fundamentals of titration", ME704153).
The asymmetry has to be taken into account for curve evaluation. The equivalence point is shifted towards
the region with the stronger curvature.
The curve is fitted with two circles (better: two hyperbolas). The intersection point of the line connecting the
two foci and the titration curve indicates the equivalence point.
Examples: Photometric titrations, redox titrations, turbidimetric titrations
Are there other evaluation principles used in the titrator?
Four different curves can be observed and evaluated with the corresponding procedures specified in the
titration method.
Symmetric curve (see answer above)
Asmmetric curve (see answer above)
Minimum (Maximum) curve:
This curve shows the typical profile obtained from turbidimetric titrations, e.g., determination of the anionic
surfactant content, where a colloidal precipitate is formed by adding the titrant. This leads to an increased
turbidity of the solution. The profile of the curve is characterized by a minimum in the curve which indicates
the equivalence point EQP. The precipitate formation is monitored with a photometric sensor, and the light
transmission in the solution is measured with a phototrode. At the equivalence point, the turbidity reaches its
maximum, i.e. the transmission has a minimum. A special evaluation procedure allows the determination of
the minimum of the curve ("MINIMUM"). Curves showing a maximum are evaluated with the procedure
"MAXIMUM". Example: Content determination of anionic surfactants in cooling lubricants.
Examples: Ionic surfactant determination (turbidimetric titrations).
Segmented curve:
The profile of this curve shows a clear bend at the equivalence point. This profile is obtained when
conductometric titrations are performed (notice the unit of measurement in the graphical representation:
S/cm, micro-Siemens). The EQP is defined by a sharp change in conductivity. The curve is evaluated by
determining the maximum of its second derivative.
Examples: alpha-Acids in beer (conductometric titration), Vitamin C (amperometric det.).

How can one speed-up the titrant addition (incremental vs. dynamic)?
Incremental titrant addition (INC)
The titrant is added in constant volume increments dV. Incremental titrant addition is used in non-aqueous
titrations, which sometimes have an unstable signal, and also in redox and in photometric titrations, where
the potential jump at the equivalence point occurs suddenly. Notice that in the steepest region of the curve
there are relatively few measured points.
Dynamic titrant addition (DYN)
A constant pH- or potential change per increment allows the variation of the volume increment between
minimum and maximum volume increment.
Thus, the analysis can be speeded up by using big increments in the flat regions of the titration curve. In
addition, more measured points are obtained in the steepest region of the curve leading to a more accurate
evaluation.

What is the difference between endpoint and equivalence point titration?

Endpoint titration mode (EP):
The endpoint mode represents the classical titration procedure: the titrant is added until the end of the
reaction is observed, e.g., by a colour change of an indicator. With an automatic titrator, the sample is
titrated until a predefined value is reached, e.g. pH = 8.2.
Equivalence point titration mode (EQP):
The equivalence point is the point at which the analyte and the reagent are present in exactly the same
concentration. In most cases it is virtually identical to the inflection point of the titration curve, e.g. titration
curves obtained from acid/base titrations.
The inflection point of the curve is defined by the corresponding pH or potential (mV) value and titrant
consumption (mL). The equivalence point is calculated from the consumption of titrant of known
concentration. The product of concentration and the titrant consumption gives the amount of substance
which has reacted with the sample. In an autotitrator the measured points are evaluated according to
specific mathematical procedures which lead to an evaluated titration curve. The equivalence point is then
calculated from this evaluated curve.

FAQ titration (II)

What should my electrode be stored in?
When storing a combined electrode the ideal situation is that the sensor is in equilibrium. This applies
primarily to the reference part of the electrode where a flow of electrolyte is usually involved. In most cases
the best storage medium is the electrolyte contained in the reference system, as this will ensure no
electrolyte movement through the junction. In the case of half cells, there are three main types in use. The
first is naturally the pH half cell where the best storage medium is a pH 7 buffer. The second type of half cell
in common use is the ion sensitive electrode (ISE). For short-term storage most ISEs are stored in dilute
(0.001M) solutions of the ion to be measured. This ensures that the electrode is always ready for use. For
long-term storage most ISEs are stored dry. The third half cell type is the double junction (or single junction)
reference electrode. This electrode should be stored in bridging electrolyte for short-term storage and should
be emptied and stored dry for the long term.
How often do I need to standardize my titrant?
Naturally, this depends on the stability of the titrant and on what measures have been taken to protect the
titrant from the typical contaminants that could cause a reduction in concentration. The most common
examples of this titrant protection are the storage of light sensitive titrants in dark bottles e.g. iodine
solutions, the protection of Karl Fischer titrants from moisture using e.g. molecular sieve or silica gel, and the
protection of certain strong bases e.g. sodium hydroxide, from absorption of carbon dioxide.
How often should I calibrate my electrode?
This depends very much on the samples that are being measured with the electrode, but as a general rule
the electrode should be calibrated at least once per day.
What is temperature compensation and how will it affect my measurements?
When measuring the pH of a solution there are 3 main temperature effects that come into play. The first is
that the slope of the pH calibration curve for the electrode as given by the Nernst equation is temperature
dependent. Provided the temperature of the buffers is taken into account during calibration, any difference
between this temperature and that of the actual samples being measured can be mathematically
compensated for. With most modern pH meters and titrators this can be done automatically.
A second effect involves real changes in pH of a sample with temperature. Imagine a weak acidthat only
partly dissociates in solution. The higher the temperature of the solution, the greater will be the degree of
dissociation of the acid, and therefore the lower the pH will be. This effect is completely sample dependent
and cannot be compensated for with any pH meter or titrator.
The third effect relates to the second but involves the calibration with the pH buffers. As pH buffers are often
made up of acids and bases, their pH is also temperature dependent. In order that a pH meter or titrator can
be calibrated correctly, it is necessary for the instrument to "know" the temperaturebehavior of the buffer.
Currently there are numerous manufacturers of pH buffers, some with different compositions to others, and
therefore different temperature behavior. Not every pH meter and titrator available has the ability to select
the buffer type and therefore some small discrepancies can occur. With most METTLER TOLEDO general
titrators, the user has the possibility of selecting from some common buffer types (manufacturers) e.g. DIN,
NIST, MERCK and of course METTLER TOLEDO. Within the instruments there are look up tables for each
of these buffer types so that the real pH of the calibration buffers is known.
In conclusion, the only way to be absolutely sure that you are measuring the correct pH of your sample is to
ensure that your samples and the buffers used to calibrate are at the same temperature.
Why are my results half or double those expected?
There are two main causes for this phenomenon. The first is that the burette size has been incorrectly
defined e.g. titrator has been told that there is a 10mL burette in use when in fact the burette is a 20mL
burette. In this case the results will be half of those expected. The new titration Excellence line
eliminates this source of error with the automatic burette recognition feature.

The second possibility is a calculation problem with the defined value for z, the equivalent number or
valency. Here one should make sure that you are in fact titrating to the correct equivalence point. An
example is the titration of sodium carbonate with HCl. If this titration is terminated after the first equivalence
point then the equivalent number that should be used for the carbonate is 1 rather than the 2 expected when
writing out the chemical reaction. The reason for this is that the reaction is a two step reaction, with the
carbonate first reacting to bicarbonate (hydrogen carbonate) and only then continuing to carbon dioxide,
sodium chloride and water. If the titration were continued until the gas bubbles are visible (carbon dioxide
formation) then z would indeed be 2.
Why do I get no result or a result of zero when, from the curve, there is a clear jump visible?
There are a few reasons for this although the most common is that too high a threshold value has been set
in the method. Print out a table of measured values and check the largest value for the first derivative. The
threshold value in the method has to be set lower than this. Generally it is suggested that the threshold be
set at approximately 50% of the maximum in the first derivative for steep curves and up to 80% for flatter
curves. Remember that the main purpose of the threshold value is to eliminate noise or false equivalence
points. Other reasons for no result include specifying the incorrect tendency (direction of the titration curve)
and a poor choice of equivalence point range.
What electrode should I use for non-aqueous titrations?
Generally there are three main electrode problems when performing a non-aqueous titration. The first is the
problem of having an aqueous electrolyte with a non-aqueous solvent. Replacing the electrolyte in the
electrode easily solves this. The second problem relates to the fact that the sample is non-conductive,
resulting in a poor electrical circuit between measuring and reference half-cells or parts of the electrode if
combined. This results in a noisy signal, particularly when using a sensor with a standard ceramic junction in
the reference. A partial solution to this problem is to use a sensor with a sleeved junction, such as the
DG113 electrode. This sensor has LiCl in ethanol as the standard electrolyte and, rather than a ceramic
junction, has a polymer sleeve resulting in a larger contact area between working and reference parts and
therefore lower noise.
The third problem is not a problem of the electrode itself, but rather the handling of the sensor. In order for a
glass (pH) sensor to function correctly, it is necessary that the glass membrane (bulb of electrode) be
hydrated. This is achieved by conditioning the electrode in deionized water. During the non-aqueous titration
this membrane is gradually dehydrated reducing the response of the electrode. To prevent this or rectify this
problem the electrode should be regularly reconditioned by soaking in water.
Why, when I perform an equivalence point titration using an automatic titrator, do I get a different
result as to when I titrate manually using a color indicator?
This discrepancy in results is primarily noticeable when performing acid/base titrations using one of the pH
indicators. The first reason for this is that these pH indicators change color over a pH range rather than at a
fixed value. The actual point at which the color change occurs is very much sample dependant and may not
coincide with the chemical equivalence point. This can result in a small discrepancy in result which is easily
nullified by standardizing the titrant using a similar method as is used for samples.
The second reason for this difference is primarily one of the sensitivity of the human eye to color change.
While a color change may have already started to occur, the human eye has still not detected any change.
This can be demonstrated by using a photometric sensor such as the METTLER TOLEDO DP5 phototrodes.
Using one of these sensors there is a clear change in light transmittance long before the human eye detects
any color change. In the typical acid/base titration using potentiometric indication with a pH sensor, the
sharp change in signal occurs at the first trace of excess acid (or base) and is therefore a more true
indication of the end point.
Why, when I titrate with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), do I sometimes see two equivalence points?
Sodium hydroxide (and potassium hydroxide) has a tendency to absorb carbon dioxide forming sodium
carbonate, which also then reacts with any acid in the sample. This results in this double inflection point
effect. Even freshly prepared sodium hydroxide solutions often show this effect. The reason for this is that
the solid sodium hydroxide (often pellets) also absorbs carbon dioxide, forming a thin layer of carbonate on
the surface. The only way to prepare fresh carbonate free sodium hydroxide solutions is to prewash the
pellets or use fresh pellets and to use freshly boiled deionized (or distilled) water. Once such a solution has
been prepared it should be protected from carbon dioxide by fitting an absorption tube filled with sodium
hydroxide on a carrier. Whenever this double inflection point is apparent when titrating with sodium
hydroxide (or potassium hydroxide) it is recommended that the solution be discarded and fresh titrant
prepared. An alternative to discarding is to boil, allow to cool and filter through a very fine mesh filter paper.

How do I go about validating a method on my automatic titrator?

When validating a titrator method one needs to check things like accuracy, precision, reproducibility, linearity,
systematic errors, robustness, ruggedness and limits of determination. For detailed recommendations on
how to go about this validation please refer to our section on Quality Control, Validation or refer to the
METTLER TOLEDO applications brochure 16 - Validation of Titration methods.
When performing a TAN or TBN titration, each sample gets slower and slower and the curves get
flatter and flatter until I don't get a result. What could be wrong?
The TAN and TBN titrations are non-aqueous acid/base titrations performed using a glass pH sensor. For a
glass pH sensor to work it is necessary that the electrode has a microscopic hydrated 'gel' layer on the bulb
of the electrode. This hydration is achieved by soaking the electrode in water for some time. During the
course of any non-aqueous acid/base titration the gel layer is slowly dehydrated resulting in a weaker and
less stable signal. The loss in stability of the signal can cause an automatic titrator to slow down in an
attempt to match the rate of addition to the electrode response. The weaker signal means that the size of
any jumps is smaller and, depending on instrument settings, can result in the instrument no longer
recognizing the jump. The solution to the problem is to rehydrate the electrode between every sample, and
this is in fact specified by the ASTM methods for TAN/TBN determination. This is achieved by immersing the
electrode in water for 2 to 3 minutes followed by rinsing with the respective solvent.
What resolution should my balance have to ensure that I get accurate and precise results?
The answer to this question depends on many things such as expected result and homogeneity of the
sample, both of which will determine the optimal sample size, required number of decimal places for the final
result, and off course the required accuracy of the final result. As a general rule however, one should have at
least 4 significant figures for the sample weight. Below are some recommendations:
Sample size Minimum number of decimal places
1-10g ..................................3
0.1 - 1g ...............................4
0.01 - 0.1g ......................... 5
Why do I need to adjust the pH or add a buffer to my sample when I do titrations with EDTA or
EGTA?
The success or failure of most complex formation titrations, including EDTA and EGTA titrations, depends
mainly on the formation of a stable complex and on the color change of an indicator (if indicated by color
change). The stability constants of metal EDTA and EGTA complexes are extremely pH dependent as is the
stability of the colored indicator complexes that form. For this reason it is important to adjust the pH of most
complexometric titrations. The reason that, in addition to a pH adjustment, a pH buffer is also sometimes
added stems from the fact that on formation of the metal ligand complex there is usually an accompanied
release of protons which would otherwise result in a lowering of pH.
How can I find out what the software version is of my instrument?
With the increased need for instrument certification and system validation it is necessary to determine the
software version of the instrument. The list below gives the procedure for determining this with each of the
METTLER TOLEDO titrators.
T50, T70, T90 - view menu Setup-> Global Settings -> System -> Titrator ID
DL70ES, 77 - shown on display on start up and printed in report header.
DL50, 53, 55, 58 - always present on lower right of display.
DL31,38,32,39 - always present on display.