Fundamentals of Plasma

Institute for Experimental and Applied Physics
Fundamentals of Plasma Physics III

H. Kersten
IEAP University of Kiel
Summer School on Plasma Physics, BNPT

Greifswald, 11.09.2007
Group Plasma Technology
outline
3.1. Gas discharge plasmas
electric breakdown in gases
Townsend mechanism
micro discharges / streamers
Paschens law
3.2. Stationary gas discharges
Townsend discharge
glow discharge
structures of a glow discharge
hollow cathode effect, magnetron effect
arc discharge
3.3. Plasma surface interaction
stationary plasma boundary sheath
Child-Langmuir law
Bohm criterion
3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

mechanical compression
gas is heated by shock waves (ballistic compression)
electromagnetic compression
gas heating for short duration by high-current pulse discharges to very high
temperatures
special form of electromagnetic compression at Pinch effect where a rapidly increasing
magnetic field compresses the plasma
plasma generation by electric fields
plasmas are mostly generated by electrical discharges
in principle, a gas becomes ionized by an electric field (ignition) and a self-sustaining
mechanism stabilizes the plasma at a certain current
time regime (frequency) of the field, gas pressure and electrode material are of great
importance
plasma generation by waves / radiation
for ionization of a gas also waves or particle beams can be used
e.g. microwave radiation, electron beams, laser, radioactive radiation
heating/
compression
plasma generation
(energy supply)
electron beam plasma

plasma jet
magnetohydrodynamic
generator (MHD)
electric field
glow discharge
- positive column
- low-pressure lamps
- cathode sputtering
- hollow cathode
arc discharge
- high-pressure lamps
- plasma welding
corona discharge
dielectric barrier discharge (DBE)
- plasma display panel (PDP)
capacitively coupled
plasma (CCP)
particle beam/
external source
electromagnetic
field
inductively coupled
plasma (ICP)
- plasma torch
magnetron discharge
plasma focus
electromagnetic
waves
microvwave plasma
- electron cyclotron
resonance (ECR)
surface wave plasma
helicon wave plasma
low pressure dc glow discharge in neon (positive column)
low pressure rf discharge in argon
atmospheric pressure discharge
plasma application:
for example for illumination

energy conversion : field, plasma, surface
neutrals
nn Tn
recipe
(input)
electrons
ne Te
p
V, P
fgenerator
B
plasma
species
products
j+ jn
E+ En
nn
chemical
processing,
deposition
substrate
ions
n+ nT+ Tphysical
processing,
deposition

particle interaction: charge carriers in plasma
non-thermal plasmas
optical emission
electrons
gain energy
from
electric field
~ ee|E|
thermalization
of field energy
through elastic
collisions:
hot electrons
Te
inelastic
collisions
reactive
species
new ions and
electrons
electrons and their collisions carry and distribute the energy

from the matchbox to process gas (neutrals, ions) to the substrate

energy conversion : field, plasma, surface
plasma
power loss
(heat)
power
loss
power loss
(heat)
plasma application:
for example semiconductor etching
Fundamental
different
reactive
species
electron
density ne
electron
collision
rate
voltage U
free mean
path +
etch
rate
selectivity
homogeneity

collision processes in
non-isothermal plasmas
electronelectron
interaction
electron collisions with

heavy particles
elastic collision
e- + A e- + A
ionization
e- + A 2e- + A+
e- + A+ 2e- + A++
e-+ A2 2e- + A + A+
excitation
e- + A e- + A*
e- + A* e- + A**
(source of radiation:
A* A + hv)
deexcitation
e- + A* e- + A
no change of
particle
number
heavy
particle
reactions
collsion processes :
generation
of charge carriers
attachment
e- + A + B A- + B
e- + A2 A + Adissociation
e- + AB e- + A + B
e- + AB e- + A+ + Brecombination
e- + A+ A + hv
e- + A2+ A + A
change of
particle
number

collsion processes : generation of charge carriers

dominant at high energy
M + e M + 2e
Direct electron
impact ionization
Ki
Ki*
M + e M + 2e
*
Ionization from
excited levels
Ar + M M + Ar + e
*
Kp
Penning Ionization
channels of ionization ( )
dominant at low energy


Ar
ionization via
impact
ionization
ionization via
excited states and
Penning effect
excitation energy
ionization energy

energy and momentum conservation
r
r
collision of an electron ( me and ve ) and an atom ( m a and v a )
me 2
(ma >> me , va << ve)
ve ) :
typical total cross section Q ( u =
2
neon
elastic collision
m e v e + m a v a = m e v e '+ m a v a '
me
2
v e2 +
ma
2
v a2 =
me
2
v e '2 +
ma
2
v a '2
neon
exciting collision
m e v e + m a v a = m e v e '+ m a v a '
me
2
v e2 +
ma
2
v a2 =
me
2
v e '2 +
ma
2
v a '2 +u a
ex
neon
ionizing collision
m e v e + m a v a = m e (v e ' +v e " ) + m a v a '
me
2
v e2 +
ma
2
v a2 =
me
2
(v e ' 2 + v e " 2 ) +
ma
2
v a ' 2 +u a
io


collsion processes : losses of charge carriers

multiplication of charge carriers
drift
e0
vd = e E =
E
me

Townsends coefficient

Streamers
Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692-1761)

Leiden jars

streamers
Funkenentladung
Elektrischer Durchschlag
in Luft: E ~ 30 kV/cm

micro discharges : DBD
presence of at least one dielectric

in the discharge space

micro discharges : DBD
Microdischarges of short duration

thin cylindrical weakly ionized plasma columns, 200 m
electron densities: 1014 1015 cm-3
duration: 1 .. 10 ns
non-equilibrium plasmas (Te >> Tgas) well suited for initiation of
plasma-chemical reactions

electric breakdown

multiplication of charge carriers
ignition of discharge

Paschens law

Paschens law
surface
gas
breakdown voltage depends on pressure, distance and gas

Paschens law
Johann W. Hittorf (1824-1914)
3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

Townsend discharge

glow discharge

glow discharge
glow discharge

hollow cathode discharge
cylindric cathode,
ring shaped anode
(at positive potential)
merging of of glow edge
ideal plasma: only negative glow

oscillation of electrons increase of
ionization and dissociation
hollow cathode effect

r

micro hollow cathode discharge

glow discharge

magnetron discharge
principle of dc cathode sputtering,

diode system
a gas flow
diode
b pump
c cathode
d target
e anode
f deposited layer
g cathode fall
h positive column
I screening, shield
system (E)
magnetron system (E X B)
influence of magnetic field

rf discharge
Capacitive discharges are used in

etching and deposition
capacitively-coupled plasma
Radiofrequency domain is such that

electrons follow the rf field wile ions
follow time-averaged field
~ rf
MHz
Ionization degree is small (<0.001)
rf domain
pi
13.56 MHz
Gas pressure is low (a few Pa);

collisionless heating is often dominant
GHz
pe

rf discharge : CCP, ICP
rf discharge : CCP, ICP

rf discharge : CCP
symmetric, asymmetric
PPR
plasma jet

rf discharge : ICP
plasma excitation by an electric field
generated by the transformer principle
changing magnetic field of the conductor
induces an electric field in which the electrons
are accelerated
high plasma density

arc discharge

arc discharge
plasma welding and cutting

plasma sources at different gas and charge carrier densities
focus
1018
Coulombdominated
plasmas
non-ideal
plasmas
torch
charge carrier densities ne,i (cm-3)
1016
thermal
plasmas
high
MHDpressure
lamps
, i=
ne
14
10
helicon
electron
beam arcs
12
ICP
CCP
1010
DBE
hollow cathode
pseudo
sparks
ECR
10
N0
arcs
PDP
microwave
surface
wave
electron energy
distribution:
non-maxwellian
low-pressure lamps
Magnetron
positive column
corona
108
dc cathode sputtering
1012
1014
0.01
ideal weakly
ionized,
non-isothermal
plasmas
1016
1018 gas density N0 (cm-3)
100
10k pressure p0 (Pa)
reactive
neutraldominated
plasmas
3.3. Plasma Surface Interaction

plasma bulk
role of charge carriers in plasma :
occurrence of electrical conductivity

screening of electric fields
occurrence of oscillations and waves, and corresponding instabilities
interaction with magnetic fields
formation of characteristic boundary sheaths due to contact with walls
characteristic dimensions / time constants :

Debye length D is the shielding length for the long range Coulomb
interaction. It is the distance over which thermal motion causes
significant deviations from quasi-neutrality
The plasma frequency P is critical for the propagation of electromagnetic
waves in plasmas (supply of energy).

plasma boundary sheath
plasma in contact with floating wall:
Plasma potential Vpl
pump out
gas flow
plasma
V
floating potential Vfl

e >> i
wall charges up until ion flux equals electron flux

n ev
n ev
j j = i i = je = e e
4
4
sheath formation:
n e = n i exp ( e (V pl V fl ) / k T e )
sheath potential:
V bias= V fl V pl=
kTe
2
ln( m i /m e )
or for additional Vs, then : Vbias = Vs - Vpl

potential and charge carrier density for a typical glow discharge

Rp
Rstoc
collisionless power
dissipation in the sheath


hn
E
Rudolf Seeliger
Universitt Greifswald
1918 -1955
eGehrcke-Seeliger-Demo.exe
me 2
v = e U
2



plasma boundary sheath : Child-Langmuir

Negative voltage pulse applied:
1
pl,e
12
electrons are repelled

= 0 me e ne
ion matrix sheath
12
1
2
ions are attracted
pl,i = 0 mi e ni
expanding sheath
energetic ions arrive at substrate
stationary sheath position may be reached if
ion current in plasma
space-charge limited current

(Child current for given voltage
and actual sheath thickness)

The transition zone between bulk plasma and a surface, the

SHEATH, is fundamental in plasma-surface interaction, plasmaassisted deposition of films, and ion extraction in ion sources.
Child Law (1911):
4 2eQ
j i =
9 mi
1 2
0 wall
3 2
d2
Can be interpreted as
limited current density, j, for given distance, d, or
adjusting sheath thickness for given current density and
voltage.

d 2V
dE e0
=
= (ne ni )
dx 2
dx 0
with n e =
je
je
j
and n i = i =
=
e 0 vi
e 0 ve - e 0be E
e0
ji
2e0V
mi
2
ji mi
e 0 je
ji
je
dV
dE
=
+
=
c
=
c
=
1
2
0 e 0 b e E
dx 2
dx
be 0
0 2e0
2e0V
mi
2
2
dE c1 c2
1
1 d dV
1 dV
d 12
= +
= c1dx + 2c2 d V 2
= c1 + 2c2 V = d
dx E
V
2 dx
2 dx dx
dx

integration limits ?
V ( x)
x
dV 2
12
d
= 2c1 dx + 4c2 d V
dx
E (dc )
dc
V (dc )
E
E ( x)
X
0 d
c
V(dc)
E(dc)
x : dc ... x
V : V(d c ) ... V(x)
E : E(d c ) ... E(x)
1
1
2
2
E(x ) E (d c ) = 2c1 (x d c ) + 4c2 V (x )2 V (d c )2
dV
dx
dV
2
= 2c1 (x d c ) + 4c2 V (x ) + E (d c )
dx
1
2
if sheath determined by positive space charges, then :
dV
2
4c2 V ( x ) + E (d c )
dx
1
2
ji >>
me
je c1 << c2 c1 0
mi
1
2
1
2
2
dV = 4c2 V ( x ) + E (d c ) dx
1
2
1
2
V(d c )
0
2
dc
1
2
dV 2 c2 V ( x ) dx
1
4
Vc
= 2 c2 dx
V (x )
4 1 3
= 2 c2 dc d c2 =
Vc 2
9 c2
1
4
4 3
Vc 4
3
dV
dc
4 3 0 2e0
d = Vc 2
9
ji mi
2
c
( p 10 Pa ) d c mpf
dc =
2
3
2
4 Vc
9 ji
2 0 e0
mi
2
j=
4 0
9
2 e0
mi
1
2
3
2
V (x )
2
dc
d c ~ d sh

V0 = Vc
S = dc

trench-to-sheath size is crucial

for conformal treatment

plasma boundary sheath : magnetron
not to scale

... andepends on discharge power and pressure
Argon, 0.005mbar, 10W
Argon, 50W
30W
0.005mbar
50W
0.01mbar

20
H2 0.25m
H2 1m
He 0.25m
He 1m
Ne 0.25m
Ne 1m
O2 0.25m
O2 1m
N2 0.25m
N2 1m
Ar 0.25m
Ar 1m
18
16
14
h [mm]
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
p [Pa]
10Pa
3Pa
10
12
Zsheath=1/(jcs)
Time-averaged potential
sa(t)
Vrf
Ez
Plasma
Ez
Zplasma=Rp+jLp
sb(t)
Impedance depends on :
Voltage, Vrf
Electron density, ne
Sheath size, sm
To find a self-consistent solution:

Child law
Particle balance
Power balance

plasma boundary sheath : Bohm
x = 0 ... x = d sh = (S )
no ionization in the sheath
sheath
ni ( x )vi ( x ) = ni (0 ), vi (0 )
continuity equation of ions:
1
1
2
m; vi (0 ) = kTi + e0V pl
2
2
conservation of energy:
vi ( x ) =
vi(x) between 0 and dsh:
Boltzmann :
Poisson-equation :
ne ( x ) = ne (0 )e
2e0 (V pl V ( x ))
x=0
ni ( x )
mi
2e0 (V pl V (x ))
ni ( x ) = ni (0 )
eoV ( x )
kTe
kTi << e0V pl vi (0 ) =
mi
= ni (0)
V pl
V pl V (x )
e0V ( x )
2
e0
e0 ne (0 ) V pl
dV
dV
e kTe
= [ni ( x ) ne ( x )] 2 =
2
dx
dx
V pl V ( x )
0
0
2e0V pl
mi
2e0V pl
mi

1
(
)
(
)
e
n
V
x
2
0
1 + kTe
E 2 ( x ) = 0 e 2V pl 1
e
V pl
0
0
with
V (x )
e0kT
e e 1
1
1 2
x2
x
(1 x ) 1 x x and e 1 + x +
2
8
2
for V(x ) << V pl and e 0V ( x ) << kTe ???
1
2
1 V ( x ) 1 V 2 ( x ) kTe e0V ( x ) e0 2V 2 ( x )
2e0 ne (0 )
1 +
E (x )
1 +
+
1
2V pl 1
2
2 2
2
V
8
e
kT
0
V
2
k
T
0
pl
e
pl
e
e0 ne (0 )
1 V 2 (x )
e0V 2 ( x )
E (x )
+ V (x ) +
V ( x )
4 V pl
2kTe
0
2
e0 ne (0 )V 2 ( x ) e0
1
E (x )
0
kTe 2V pl
2
in order to have a real solution, it must
e0
1
hTe 2V pl
e0V pl
1
kTe
2
Bohm criterion

IEDF
Vsh
p = 0.5Pa
Vpl
ArH
p = 2.4Pa
Intensity
(a.u.)
intensity
[a.u.]
intensity [cps]
VS
Ar, p=5Pa, V =52 0V
Ar, p = 5Pa, Vrfrf= 520Vpppp
50
100
150
200
Ion E nergy (eV)
ion energy [eV]
ion energy [eV]
250
300

0,007
0,005
2
signal [A/Vcm ]
IEDF : dependence on power

intensity
300W
200W
100W
50W
0,006
0,004
0,003
0,002
Ar, 0.7Pa
0,001
0,000
0
10
15
20
25
30
ion energy [eV]
0,014
7Pa
4.7Pa
0,012
Ar, 300W
2Pa
signal [A/Vcm ]
0,010
IEDF : dependence on pressure

intensity, mean energy
0,008
0.7Pa
0,006
0.35Pa
0,004
0,002
0,000
0
10
15
20
25
ion energy [eV]
30
35
40

plasma boundary sheath : etching
chemistry in bulk
plasma provides
etch species
physics provides
ions and e-
etch
species
activation energy
ionic current
physics in space
charge sheaths
ion energy
and current
chemical
etching
desorption of
etch products
physical
sputtering
etch rate
selectivity
homogeneity
References

Fundamentals of Plasma

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Institute for Experimental and Applied Physics

Fundamentals of Plasma Physics III

Summer School on Plasma Physics, BNPT

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

electron beam plasma

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

low pressure dc glow discharge in neon (positive column)

low pressure rf discharge in argon

atmospheric pressure discharge

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

electrons and their collisions carry and distribute the energy

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

electron collisions with

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

dominant at high energy

dominant at low energy

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692-1761)

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

presence of at least one dielectric

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

Microdischarges of short duration

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

breakdown voltage depends on pressure, distance and gas

3.1. Gas Discharge Plasmas

Johann W. Hittorf (1824-1914)

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

merging of of glow edge

ideal plasma: only negative glow

hollow cathode effect

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

principle of dc cathode sputtering,

influence of magnetic field

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

Capacitive discharges are used in

Radiofrequency domain is such that

Gas pressure is low (a few Pa);

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges

rf discharge : CCP, ICP

3.2. Stationary Gas Discharges