Stoichiometry: mass,

formulas, and reactions

(material from Norton Chapt. 3)

Moles, Avogadros Number, molar mass

What is the mass (in g) of one atom of silver?
(1 amu = 1.6605402x10-24 g)

What is the mass (in g) of one formula unit of (NH4)2CO3?

To generalize, for compounds the molecular mass = ____________________.

Problem..
Dont work with individual atoms, molecules, or formula units in lab. Cant even see a
sample of chemical until have >1015 molecules present. In lab, work with collection of
molecules on larger scale..MOLES!!

The mole and Avogadros Number

Mole:

- SI unit for amount of substance

- one mole of any substance contains the same #
entities as the atoms in 12 g of 12C.

How many atoms is this? (12 g 12C ? atoms 12C)

So.

1 mol of anything = ______________ things

Avogadros Number (NA) = 6.022x1023
1 mol

Examples:
How many moles is 6.091x1032 molecules of water?

How many molecules in 0.75 mol N2O5?

Amedeo Avogadro (1775-1856)

Italian physicist and mathematician
Avogadros number named for him in
honor of contributions to molecular
theory
Crater on far side of moon named for
him
Check out the ChemTour on p. 78
For further practice, look over
Sample Exercises 3.1 & 3.2

Mole as a Conversion Factor

To convert between number of particles and an equivalent
number of moles:

Using subscripts within chemical

formula as conversion factors
Examples:
In 0.347 mol Cl2O7, how many atoms of oxygen are present?

How many moles of calcium are combined with 7.67 mol N in Ca3N2?

Microscale

measure chemicals in terms of atoms, molecules, and formula units

(atomic scale)

Macroscale

measure chemicals in terms of moles or mass (g, lb, kg) (lab scale)

Use Avogadros number whenever convert macroscale microscale.

Use molar mass whenever convert moles mass.
For further practice, look over Sample Exercises 3.3 & 3.4

Conversions: Moles-to-Mass
To interconvert between moles and mass, use molar mass:

Molar Mass
Molar Mass: mass (in g) of one mole of a substance. Is numerically equal to the
atomic mass (or formula/molecular mass).
1 atom 12C = _____ amu Atomic Mass
1 mol 12C = _____ g Molar Mass
1 atom Br =
1 mol Br =
1 formula unit (NH4)2CO3 =
1 mol (NH4)2CO3 =
Examples:
What is the mass of 5.2 mol beryllium?

How many moles is 211 g molybdenum?

Molar Mass
Examples:
1) What is the mass of 10.57 mol sodium phosphate?

2) How many moles is 2.573 g tetraphosphorus decaoxide?

3) What is the mass (in g) of 1 molecule of P4O10? (Give the answer w/4 sf.)

4) In a sample of Fe3O4 there are 11.7 g of oxygen. What mass of iron is combined
with the oxygen?

For further practice, look over Sample Exercises 3.53.7

C.O.A.S.T.: Mole Calculations

The uranium used in nuclear fuel exists in nature in several
minerals. Calculate how many moles of uranium are found in
100.0 grams of carnotite, K2(UO2)2(VO4)23H2O.
Collect and Organize: We are given a mass of carnotite and need to
calculate moles of uranium. We will need to use the molar mass of
carnotite (902.2 g/mol) as a conversion factor. Note that the molecular
formula of carnotite includes 3 water molecules, so we need to include
them in the calculation of molar mass.
(2*39.1g K) + (2*238.0g U) + (15*16.0g O) + (2*50.9g V) + (6*1.0g H) = 902 g / mol carnotite

Analyze: Starting with g of carnotite we can convert to moles by dividing by the

molar mass (902.2 g/mol). From the molecular formula we see that there are two
uranium atoms per formula unit (note the subscript for the UO2 part), so there are
two moles of uranium per mole of carnotite. We can use this mole ratio (2 moles
U/mole carnotite) to find moles of uranium.

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C.O.A.S.T.: Mole Calculations

The uranium used in nuclear fuel exists in nature in several
minerals. Calculate how many moles of uranium are found in
100.0 grams of carnotite, K2(UO2)2(VO4)23H2O.
Solve: (100 g carnotite) (1 mol / 902.2 g) (2 moles U / mole carnotite )
= 0.222 moles U
Think About It: The molar mass of carnotite is a little less than 1000 g, so
100 g would represent a little more than 0.1 moles. Since there are 2 U
per formula unit, we should have twice as many moles of U, or ~ 0.2
moles U, which matches our calculated result.

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Percentage Composition (Theoretical

Weight/Mass Percent)
As an example..In lab, a student attempted to prepare the compound iron(III)
chloride. The student sent a small portion of the sample away for chemical analysis
(Gailbraith Labs). The lab returned the following results of percentages of each
element in the compound.
Element Exp. %
Fe
34.0%
Cl
66.0%
Did the student prepare iron(III) chloride?
To decide, calculate the theoretical mass percent of each element in the
compound and compare it to the experimental values.
Theoretical Mass Percent = mass of element in 1 mol x 100
mass of 1 mol of cmpd

Look over the ChemTour on p. 99 for further explanation.

Percentage Composition (Theoretical

Weight/Mass Percent)
Examples:
1) Calculate the theoretical mass percent of carbon in LSD (C20H25N3O).

2) In 7.59 g CO2, what mass of carbon is present? What mass of oxygen is present?

For further practice, look over Sample Exercise 3.14

Chemical formulas: molecular vs. empirical

Molecular formula
Empirical formula
Compound
acetylene
ethane
benzene
butane

Molec. Formula
C2H2
C2H6
C6H6
C4H10

Emp. Formula

Note: Ionic compounds only have empirical formulas due to the definition of
the formula unit.

Empirical formula from Wt% & mass data

Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:

Find masses of all elements present.

Convert masses to moles.
Divide by smallest # moles found to obtain mole ratios.
If mole ratios are close enough to whole numbers, round, and use
these as subscripts in empirical formula.
Step 5: If mole ratios are NOT close enough to whole numbers, multiply by a
small whole # to obtain whole numbers.
Examples: Wt % Data
In solution, a student reacted ruthenium(III) chloride and lithium sulfide. The black precipitate
obtained was heated in H2S. After heating, the black precipitate was found to contain 61.18%
Ru and 38.82%S. What was the empirical formula of the black precipitate?

For further practice, look over Sample Exercises 3.15 & 3.16

Empirical formula from Wt% & mass data

Examples: Wt % Data
In solution, a student reacted ruthenium(III) chloride and lithium sulfide. The student was in a
hurry and did not heat the black precipitate in H2S. After heating, the black precipitate was found
to contain 67.75% Ru and 32.25%S. What was the empirical formula of the black precipitate?

Examples: Mass Data

A 0.8961 g sample of sodium pertechnetate was analyzed and found to contain 0.1114 g Na,
0.4562 g Tc, and oxygen. What is the empirical formula of sodium pertechnetate?

Empirical Formulas From Hydrates

Hydrate Analysis
A 0.789 g sample of the hydrate Na2HPO4xH2O was heated to a constant weight of 0.418g.
What is the empirical formula of the hydrate? (HINT: Find x)

Obtaining the Molecular Formula

Two pieces of information are needed:

1. Empirical formula
2. Molar mass

Remember..molecular formula is whole # multiple of empirical formula.

Ex.CxHy (x n) = CnxHny
To find the molecular formula, it is necessary to find the whole #!!
Whole # =

Molar Mass
Empirical Mass

Examples:
1) A compound has an empirical formula of C10H21 and a molar mass of 282.54. What is
the molecular formula of this compound?

2) A compound has the empirical formula CH. Which of the following molar masses are
not possible for this compound: 26.0, 32.6, 39.1, 52.1, and 61.8?

For further practice, look over Sample Exercise 3.17

Balancing Chemical Equations

Balanced chemical equations follow the Law of
Conservation of Mass.
(not balanced below)

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Balancing Chemical Equations

There are no set rules for balancing chemical equation!

General guidelines:
A. Write correct formulas for reactants and products,
including physical states.
B. Balance an element that appears in only one
reactant and product first.
C. Balance polyatomic ions as a group
D. Choose coefficients to balance other elements as
needed.
E. Always make sure coefficients are smallest set of
whole numbers
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Balancing Chemical Equations

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Balancing Chemical Equations

For further practice, look over Sample Exercises 3.9 & 3.10

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Examples: Balance the following chemical equations.

A.
O2 + SO2 SO3
B.

C4H10O + O2 CO2 + H2O (complete combustion of butanol)

C.

Complete combustion of C8H18

D.

Al2O3 + H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + H2O

E.

Na3PO4 + Ba(NO3)2 Ba3(PO4)2 + NaNO3

F.

H2S + Fe(NO3)3 Fe2S3 + HNO3

G.

CaCl2 + H3PO4 + NaOH Ca3(PO4)2 + NaCl + H2O

H.

Complete combustion of C8H6N2.

I.

Complete combustion of C10H8O.

Stoichiometry
Use of coefficients in a balanced equation to relate amounts of chemicals.

Calculating mass of product from mass of reactant requires:

1.
2.
3.

The mole ratio from the balanced chemical equation

Molar mass of the reactant
Molar mass of the product

Balance the following chemical equation:

Al2O3 + H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + H2O

(unbalanced)

Examples:
A.

If 0.347 mol sulfuric acid are reacted with excess Al2O3, how many moles of aluminum
sulfate can be produced? (Use eqn. shown above.)

B.

How many moles of sulfuric acid are needed to react with 1.07 mol Al2O3? (Use eqn.
shown above.)

More Stoichiometry examples

C. What mass of phosphoric acid can be produced by the reaction of 8.5 mol diphosphorus
pentoxide with excess water?

D. How many moles of water are needed to completely react with 0.579 mol diphosphorus
pentoxide?

E. What mass of phosphoric acid can be produced from 18 g of water reacting with an excess
of diphosphorus pentoxide?

More Stoichiometry examples

F. Magnesium nitride is formed by the reaction of magnesium metal with gaseous
ammonia. What mass (in g) of magnesium nitride can be produced from 10.57 g
magnesium? (The other product is gaseous hydrogen.)

G. What mass of gaseous ammonia is needed to react with the 10.57 g magnesium?

For further practice, look over Sample Exercises 3.12 & 3.13

Stoichiometry Example (C.O.A.S.T.)

How much carbon dioxide would be formed if 10.0 grams of
C5H12 were completely burned in oxygen?
C5H12 + 8 O2 5 CO2 + 6 H2O

Collect and Organize: We know the mass of reactant and need to

calculate the amount of product that would be formed.
Analyze: We will need to convert from mass of reactant to moles of
reactant (using the molar mass), and then use the molar ratio from the
balanced chemical equation to calculate moles of product. Knowing
the molar mass of the product, we can convert moles of CO2 into a
mass of CO2.
Solve: (10.0 g C5H12) (1 mol C5H12/72 g) (5 mol CO2/mol C5H12)
(44 g/mol CO2) = 30.6 g CO2
Think About It: The magnitude of CO2 is about right and the units work!
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Combustion Analysis
The % of C and H in CaHb determined from the
mass of H2O and CO2 produced by combustion:
CaHb + excess O2(g) a CO2(g) + b/2 H2O (g)

For further practice, look over Sample Exercise 3.11

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Empirical Formulas From Reaction Data

Combustion Analysis Data
A 5.048 g sample of a compound containing only C, H, and O was placed in a combustion
furnace. Combustion of the sample yielded 7.406 g CO2 and 3.027 g H2O. Calculate the
empirical formula of this compound.
NOTE: All C from compound ends up in CO2 and all H in H2O.
Step 1: Calculate mass C from CO2 produced.

Step 2: Calculate mass H from H2O produced.

Step 3: Calculate mass O (or other element) from law of conservation of mass.

Step 4: Find empirical formula.

C.O.A.S.T.: Combustion Analysis

Combustion analysis of an unknown compound indicated that it
is 92.23% C and 7.82% H. The mass spectrum indicated the
molar mass is 78 g/mol. What is the molecular formula of this
unknown compound?

Collect and Organize: Assuming 100 g of sample, elemental analysis

indicates that we have 92.23 g C and 7.82 g H.
Analyze: We can use masses of C and H, and atomic masses, to
calculate molar ratio of C:H in compound to obtain empirical formula.
With empirical formula and molar mass we can determine actual
molecular formula as some multiple of empirical formula.
Solve: (92.23 g/12.01 g/mol = 7.68 mol C; 7.82 g/1.008 g/mol) = 7.76
moles H. Converting to simplest mole ratio, C7.68H7.76 ~ C1H1. The mass
of the empirical formula is 13.02 g. Molar mass is (78 g/mol/13.02 g/mol)
= 6 times greater than empirical mass, so molecular formula is (empirical
formula) 6 = C6H6.
Think About It: The molecular formula (C6H6) is consistent with benzene.

Limiting reagents
Hydrogen and oxygen react to form water:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)

H2 (g) = white; O2(g) = red. Which runs out first?

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Limiting reagents
Limiting reactant:
Substance that is completely consumed in the chemical reaction
Determines the amount of product that can be formed during the
reaction
Identified by:
# of moles of reactants
Stoichiometry of balanced chemical equation

Excess reagent: more than necessary to carry out reaction

Why would an excess of a reagent be used?
Some reactions proceed better (more to completion) in the presence of
an excess of one reagent.
One reagent may be expensive. Use an excess of the cheaper reagent
to ensure that the more costly reagent is used up and not wasted.
For further explanation, look over the ChemTour on p. 111

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Limiting reagents: Method 1

Method 1: calculate product formed from amount
of reactants given. Result gives theoretical yield.
SO3(g) + H2O(g) H2SO4()
How much product is obtained from the reaction of 20.00 g
SO3 and 10.00 g H2O?
Product from each reactant:
3
SO3: 20.00 80.06

2 4 98.08 2 4
2 4
3 3

= 24.50 2 4

2 2 4 98.08 2 4
H2O: 10.00 18.01
= 54.42 2 4

2

Limiting reactant = SO3! (smaller amount of product is formed)

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Limiting reagents: Method 2

Method 2: compare mole ratio of the reactants to
mole ratio required by the reaction:
1. Convert masses of reactants A and B into moles
2. Calculate ratio of A to B
3. Compare mole ratio with stoichiometric ratio from
balanced chemical equation. If

>

then B is limiting reagent. If vice versa

<


then A is limiting reagent. If two ratios are equal, then A and B are
completely consumed.
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Limiting reagents
To identify a limiting reagent problem Amounts (mol, g, etc.) for two different
reagents are given.
Examples:
A.
Consider the balanced equation shown below. If 2.0 mol RuCl3 is
reacted with 5.0 mol Li2S, how many moles of Ru2S3 can be formed?
How many moles of which reagent are left?
3 Li2S + 2 RuCl3 Ru2S3 + 6 LiCl

B.

If 0.10 mol RuCl3 is reacted with 0.12 mol Li2S, how many moles of Ru2S3
can be formed? How many moles of which reagent are left?

Limiting reagents
C.

If 7.0 mol hydrogen sulfide are reacted with 3.0 mol sulfur dioxide, how many
moles of sulfur (s) can be formed (the other product is water)? How many moles
of which reagent are left?

D.

One step in the process for producing nitric acid is the following:
NH3 + O2 NO + H2O (unbalanced)
What mass (in g) of NO can be formed by the reaction of 30.00 g NH3 with 40.00 g
O2? After the reaction, what mass of which reagent is left?

For further practice, look over Sample Exercises 3.20 & 3.21

C.O.A.S.T.: Limiting reagents

If 10.0 g of methane (CH4) is burned in 20.0 g of oxygen (O2)
to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O):
a) What is the limiting reactant?
b) How many grams of water will be produced?

Collect and Organize: We must start with balanced chemical equation:

CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
We know the amounts of reactants (10.0 g methane and 20.0 g O2), and
the balanced chemical equation.

Analyze: We can convert masses of reactants to moles and then use

mole ratios to identify which is limiting reactant. From limiting reactant
we can use mole ratios to calculate moles of water that will be formed.
We can convert moles of H2O to mass using molar mass (18.02 g/mole).

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C.O.A.S.T.: Limiting reagents

If 10.0 g of methane (CH4) is burned in 20.0 g of oxygen (O2)
to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O):
a) What is the limiting reactant?
b) How many grams of water will be produced?
Solve: 10.0 g methane = (10.0 g/16.04 g/mol) = 0.623 mole methane
20.0 g oxygen = (20.0 g/31.999 g/mol) = 0.625 moles oxygen
Based on the mole ratio, we need 2 mol of O2 for every 1 mol of
methane (remember the chemical equation). Therefore, the oxygen will
run out first and is the limiting reactant. From the balanced chemical
equation, we calculate that 0.625 mol of O2 will form 0.625 mol of water.
This corresponds to (0.625 mol 18.02 g/mol) = 11.26 g water.
Think About It: The balanced chemical equation indicates that number of
moles of oxygen and water are the same. Since water has a molar mass
(18 g/mol) that is slightly more than half the molar mass of oxygen (32
g/mol) we would expect 20 g of oxygen to produce a mass of water that
is a little more than half the mass of oxygen. Our answer of 11.26 g is
consistent with this expectation.
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Percent Yield
Most reactions do not proceed 100% to completion. As a result, the
percent yield is less than 100%.
Percent Yield =

Actual Yield
x 100%
Theoretical Yield

Actual Yield - ___________________________________________________

Theoretical Yield- _______________________________________________
Actual Yield < Theoretical Yield due to..
1.
2.
3.
4.

Mechanical losses (product stuck to glassware, filter paper, etc.)

Product evaporation
Competing reaction that uses up some of reagent to produce undesired product.
Reaction proceeds less than 100% to completion.

Percent Yield
Examples:
A. When 25.00 g chlorine are reacted with excess phosphorus (P), 26.7 g phosphorus
trichloride are experimentally isolated. What is the percent yield of phosphorus trichloride?

B. For the reaction shown below, the percent yield is typically 17% RuS2. To experimentally
isolate 15.0 g RuS2, what mass of RuCl3 should be reacted?
3 Li2S + 2 RuCl3 + H2S 2 RuS2 + 6 LiCl + H2

C.O.A.S.T.: Percent Yield

Aluminum burns in bromine liquid, producing aluminum
bromide. In one experiment, 6.0 g of aluminum reacted with an
excess of bromine to yield 50.3 g aluminum bromide. Calculate
the theoretical and percent yields.
Collect and Organize: We are given the initial amounts of aluminum and
the amount of product formed. The balanced chemical equation for the
reaction between Al and Br to form AlBr3 is:
2 Al(s) + 3 Br2() 2 AlBr3(s)

Analyze: Converting the mass of aluminum to moles, we can use the

mole ratio from the balanced chemical equation to calculate the
theoretical yield of AlBr3. Comparing the actual yield (50.3 g) with the
theoretical yield, we can calculate a percent yield.

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C.O.A.S.T.: Percent Yield

Aluminum burns in bromine liquid, producing aluminum
bromide. In one experiment, 6.0 g of aluminum reacted with an
excess of bromine to yield 50.3 g aluminum bromide. Calculate
the theoretical and percent yields.
Solve: (6.0 g Al/26.98 g/mol) = 0.2224 moles Al. Using the mole ratio, we
obtain (0.2224 mol Al ) ( 2 mol AlBr3/2 mol Al) = 0.2224 mol AlBr3.
Converting moles to mass we obtain (0.2224 moles AlBr3) (266.7
g/mol) = 59.3 g AlBr3.
The percent yield is (50.3 g/59.3 g) 100 = 84.8%

Think About It: A percent yield of <100% is reasonable.

For further practice, look over Sample Exercises 3.223.24.

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