BFC10502

CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

SECTION 3

ASSIGNMENT 3
REPORT PROBLEM BASED LEARNING (PBL)
IM SUPPOSED TO BE STRONG BUT IM WEAK

LECTURERS NAME
MR. AHMAD ZURISMAN BIN MOHD ALI

NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

STUDENTS NAME
NUR FATHIN NADIAH BINTI MOHD NOH
ANIS ADIBAH BINTI ISMAIL
NUR FARHANA BINTI CHE ROS
MUHAMMAD ILHAM BIN DZIAUDDIN
MUHAMMAD RADZI BIN MANSOR ARBI
AHMAD SHAHMI BIN SUHARDI
MOHAMAD TARMIZI BIN MOHAMAD FADZLI

MATRIC NO.
DF130048
CF140257
DF130047
CF130024
AF140074
AF140133
CF140101

TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE

PAGES

1.0 Fila Table

2.0 The way to overcome the

2.1 Propotion Of Water Cement In The Mix

4-5

2.2 Buckling And Yiedling Of Reinforment On Concrete.

6-9

2.3 Column Design

10-12

2.4 Fine And Random Craze Cracks

13-14

2.5 Rapid Drying Of Concrete

15-16

2.6 Failure Mode in Concrete Column

17-19

3.0 References

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1.0 FILA TABLE

FACTS

IDEAS
The causes for buckling and yielding of
reinforcement in concrete structures
occur due to unexpected application of
loads for which the member was not
designed or due to durability problems
in concrete.

Failure in column

Failure in concrete

LEARNING ISSUES

How the buckling and yield

process occurs on a concrete
column?

ACTION PLAN
Steel bars should be placed at strategic
parts to add power voltage on the
portions.
Iron reinforcement is needed at the
bottom because the part is the part
that is experiencing severe stress load.

Poor workmanship
Miss calculation in water ratio of
concrete column and strength of
concrete column

What is the proper way to

calculate strength of column?

Make sure the calculation of concrete

ratio is correct

Strength of concrete

What are the most important

factor controlling the strength
of concrete?

Know about the water cement ratio or

the proportion of water cement in mix

Rapid drying of the concrete

What does reaction take place

to form concrete from liquid to
solid requires water?

Make sure that the necessary water is

available for reaction by adequately
curing the column

Failure in reinforcement

How the arrangement of

reinforcement bar?
Fundamental in reinforcement concrete
design for column.

Overload

BFC 10502 | CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

What is the suitable diameter

of reinforcement bar?

What is the main factor in

column design?

The column design should follow the

standard in Code of Practice.

Make sure good load test is checked.

Slenderness ratio is important.

2.1 PROPOTION OF WATER CEMENT IN THE MIX

What the most important factor controlling the strength of concrete ?

The most important factor is the water cement ratio or the proportion of water cement in the
mix .

There are many factor that controlling the strength of concrete :

1.Water cement ratio.
2.Quality of raw materials.
3.Fine aggregate ratio.
4.Compaction of concrete.
5.Temperature.
6.Relative humidity.
7.Curing of concrete.

What is water cement ratio.

Water cement ratio can be defined as the ratio of weight of cement that has been used in the
certain of concrete mix .

Water to Cement ratio

The most important factor determining the strength of concrete is the water to cement ratio. It
is the ratio of weight of mixing water (free water available for the reaction with cement) to
that of cement in the mixture. Cement needs water of about 38% by weight for complete
hydration. But since the complete hydration is a long term process, and under practical
conditions, the period of concrete mixing and casting being short, the cement combines with
only 23% of water.
If only 23% of water is added while mixing, the concrete wont be workable because the
water-cement ratio of 0.23 will be too less. So additional water will be required for
workability. This water in excess of 23% by weight will evaporate on drying of concrete,
creating voids in it due to trapping of air bubbles insides, thereby reducing the strength of
concrete.

BFC 10502 | CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Assuming full compaction, and at a given age and normal temperature, strength of concrete
can be taken to be inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio. This is so called the
Abrams law.
Abrams law is a special case of a general rule formulated empirically by Feret:

S = strength of concrete
K = a constant
c, w & a = volume of cement, water & air respectively

Degree of Hydration

Generally, strength of concrete is expressed as a function of water-cement ratio. But actually,

strength at any water-cement ratio depends upon the degree of hydration of cement.
Strength of the concrete is dependent on solid products of hydration of cement to the space
available for formation of this product: gel/space ratio. The conventional relation between
strength and water-cement ratio will hold good primarily for 28 days strength for fully
compacted concrete.
Instead of relating the strength to water-cement ratio, the strength can be more correctly
related to the solid products of hydration of cement to the space available for the formation of
this product. This ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of the hydrated cement paste to
the sum of volumes of the hydrated cement and of the capillary pores.
Workability .
The workability of the concrete is reduces if the water cement ratio is reduced if the water
cement ratio is reduced . A lower water cement ratio means less water or more cement and
lower workability . However if the workability becomes too low the concrete becomes
difficult to compact and the strength reduces . For a given set of materials and environment
conditions , the strength at any age depends only on the water cement ratio , providing full
compaction can be achieve .

BFC 10502 | CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

2.2 BUCKLING AND YIEDLING OF REINFORMENT ON CONCRETE.

Definition of buckling
An uncontrolled deformation pattern perpendicular to the surface of a sheet caused by
compressive stresses. Buckling in the flange of the part is referred to as wrinkling, and
buckling in the wall of the part is referred to as puckering.
What are the causes for buckling and yielding of reinforcement in concrete structures?
Excessive yielding and buckling of reinforcement occurs in severely damaged concrete
structural members. The reinforcement may have buckled, elongated or excessively yielded
in such members. The causes for buckling and yielding of reinforcement in concrete
structures occur due to unexpected application of loads for which the member was not
designed or due to durability problems in concrete.
The unexpected load such as earthquake forces, increase in occupancy loads, heavy wind
loads, etc. under such circumstances, the reinforcement in load bearing concrete members
may buckle or yield. Buckling and yielding of reinforcement may also occur in structures as
it gets old and durability problems such as corrosion of steel reinforcement which may have
reduced the strength of concrete.
The repair of fractured, excessively yielded and buckled reinforcement can be done by
replacing the damaged portion of steel reinforcement with new steel using butt welding or
lap welding. Additional stirrup ties are added in the locations of damages and then asked
concreted to provide required confinement of concrete in the repaired zone and prevent future
buckling of member.
Sometimes additional steel reinforcement will have to be anchored into existing masonry or
concrete structural members. In such cases, a hole larger than the bar diameter is drilled. The
hole is filled with grouting material such as epoxy, cement or other high strength grouting
materials. The reinforcement bar is then pushed into place and held till grout hardens.

BFC 10502 | CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Compressive Stress

Concrete is particularly resistant to compressive or vertical loads, which is why it is used

widely in foundations. However, if the force falling on a concrete structure exceeds its
maximum load, also known as critical force, it will cause the concrete to buckle under the
weight. The critical load of a concrete column or structure is determined by its cross-section
the elasticity of the materials that compose it and the area over which the load is distributed.

Lateral Forces

Concrete may be good at withstanding vertical loads but it is comparatively vulnerable to

lateral loads. That is why concrete structures are often reinforced with steel, which has
complementary characteristics: weak on vertical loads, strong on lateral forces. If a concrete
structure receives an extra lateral horizontal load, it could buckle. This occurs often during
earthquakes, which inflict huge lateral forces on buildings.

Changes In Heat

Materials expand and contract with heat and cold. That is why engineers design concrete
structures with expansion joints that allow the structure to expand and contract without
buckling. However, if expansion joints are not inserted, or if these expansion joints get filled
in with foreign material, it could cause the concrete structure to buckle when the temperature
increases. This often happens with concrete paving during the hot summer months.

BFC 10502 | CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Erosion

If a concrete structure is not protected from the erosive effects of the elements, such as water
and acids, its structural integrity could be compromised, causing the entire structure to buckle
and fall. This occurs in areas such as basements and foundations, where excessive water or
moisture accumulates. Salt water is particularly dangerous to concrete buildings because it
can also corrode the concrete reinforcement bar.

BFC 10502 | CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

PICTURE

Examples of buckling failure

BFC 10502 | CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIAL

2.3 COLUMN DESIGN

1. Types of load
Structural members must be designed to support specific loads. Loads are those forces for
which a structure should be proportioned. Loads that act on structure can be divided into
three categories :
i) Dead loads.
ii) Live loads.
iii) Environmental loads.

i)

Dead Loads:

Dead loads are those that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the
lifetime of the structure. It includes the weight of the structure and any permanent material
placed on the structure, such as roofing, tiles, walls etc. They can be determined with a high
degree of accuracy from the dimensions of the elements and the unit weight of the material.

ii)

Live loads:

Live loads are those that may vary in magnitude and may also change in location. Live loads
consists chiefly occupancy loads in buildings and traffic loads in bridges. Live loads at any
given time are uncertain, both in magnitude and distribution.

iii)

Environmental loads:

Consists mainly of snow loads, wind pressure and suction, earthquake loads (i.e inertial
forces) caused by earthquake motions. Soil pressure on subsurface portion of structures, loads
from possible ponding of rainwater on flat surfaces and forces caused by temperature
differences. Like live loads, environmental loads at any given time are uncertain both in
magnitude and distribution.
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2. How the arrangement of reinforcement bar and what is the suitable diameter of
reinforcement bar?

Reinforcement details: longitudinal reinforcement (clause 3.12.5, BS 8110)

Size and minimum number of bars bar size should not be less than 12 mm in
diameter. Rectangular column should reinforced with minimum 4 bars; circular
column should reinforced with minimum 6 bars.

The area of longitudinal reinforcement should lie in the limits:

Spacing of reinforcement the minimum distance between adjacent bars should not
be less than the diameter of the bar or hag + 5 mm.

Reinforcement details: links (clause 3.12.7, BS 8110)

The axial loading on the column may cause buckling of the longitudinal
reinforcement and subsequent cracking and spalling of concrete cover.

Links are passing round the bars to prevent buckling.

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Reinforcement details links (clause 3.12.7, BS 8110 )

Size and spacing of links the diameter of the link should be at least one quarter of
the largest longitudinal bar size or minimum 8 mm. The maximum spacing is 12 times
of the smallest longitudinal bar.

Arrangement of links.

3. Codes of Practice
Code is a set of technical specifications and standards that control important details of design
and construction. The purpose of code is to produce sound structures so that the public will
be protected from poor and inadequate design and construction

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2.4 FINE AND RANDOM CRAZE CRACKS

Craze cracks are small pattern cracks on a slabs surface. They are associated with
early surface drying, causing the immediate surface to shrink differently than the underlying
concrete. Crack patterns typically form grids of about 2-inch diameters. Craze cracks are very
small and are found in the top surface of a slab. They are typically 1/10 millimeter (0.004
inches) or less in thickness, and 1 millimeter (1/32-inch ) or less in depth, according to Ron
Strum, a petrographer for CTLGroup, Skokie, Ill. Many craze cracks are not even visible
until the surface of a floor gets wet and starts to dry. Outside of appearance, they do not affect
the performance of a slab.

Crazing is caused by drying out of the concrete surface, so it is particularly common

when the surface has been exposed during placement to low humidity, high air or concrete
temperature, hot sun, or any combination of these. Concrete contractors can minimize or
prevent craze cracks by starting to cure as soon as possible after final finishing, especially on
a hard-troweled floor. Moist curing is best, although a spray-on monomolecular curing
compound also can be effective. Using a drier, stiffer mix can reduce crazing as well. For
exterior slabs, minimize the amount of working or troweling of the surface and use a
broomed finish, which tends to mask minor cracks and surface blemishes.

Craze cracking is only one of the types of cracks that occur due to shrinkage of the
concrete. Others are plastic shrinkage cracks and drying shrinkage cracks. By definition,
plastic shrinkage cracking occurs while the concrete is still plastic and typically while the
slab is still being finished. These cracks are deeper and farther apart and also are caused by
drying, as surface moisture evaporates. Synthetic fibers can help prevent plastic shrinkage
cracking, as can fogging to reduce evaporation.

Drying shrinkage cracks occur after the slab has hardened and are due to the loss of
moisture in the concrete matrix. Reduce drying shrinkage cracks by using lower watercement ratio mixes. Control drying shrinkage cracks by properly placing joints in the slab2

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1/2 to 3 times in feet the thickness of the slab in inches (so 15 to 18 feet apart for a 6-inch
slab).

Ways to avoid crazed concrete:

-Use a moderate slump concrete without bleeding and segregation
-Do not finish concrete until all water has evaporated
-Do not dust cement on the surface while water is present at the surface
-Do not sprinkle water over the concrete while finishing it
-If the weather could produce high evaporation rates, spray some water onto the subgrade, so
it will not absorb the water from the concrete mix
-Use a broom finish instead of using a steel trowel
-Cure adequately concrete so it can retain the necessary moisture for the hydration process

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2.5 RAPID DRYING OF CONCRETE

Rapid drying of concrete may increase the possibility of cracking. This is due to the chemical
reaction that react during the process of turning liquid concrete into solid, which requires a
high amount of water.

HOW TO PREVENT THE CONCRETE FROM DRY RAPIDLY?

There are several ways on preventing the concrete from dry rapidly and causing it to crack.
1. Water Curing
Curing concrete with water prevents loss of moisture when the concrete is covered
with layer of water for a predetermined period of time. This will allow controlling the
evaporation of moisture from the surface and the concrete gradually produces its
chemical reaction that will eventually harden the concrete.

2. Chemical Membrane
Curing concrete with membrane is the most practical and efficient way to cure
concrete. Sometimes water is unavailable to cure concrete or if done an incorrect
procedure can alter the finishing of the concrete. This chemical membrane method
can be use by spraying chemical product directly over the concrete surface, and
allowing it dry forming an impermeable membrane that retards the loss of moisture
from the concrete.

3. Seal Of Waterproof Paper

Curing concrete with waterproof paper requires covering all exposed area of the
concrete as soon as possible without damaging the concrete finish. When this
waterproof paper is used over flat surfaces, such as pavements or slabs, it should
extend beyond the edges of the slab at least twice the thickness of the slab.

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PICTURE

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2.6 FAILURE MODES OF CONCRETE COLUMNS

Reinforced concrete column is a compression member and transfers the loads from structure
to the ground through foundations. There are three types of concrete columns based on its
height and lateral dimension are those whose ratio of height to least lateral dimension is more
than 12. When the height to least lateral dimension is less than 3, it is called a pedestal and if
it is between 3 and 12, it is called as a short column.
The load carrying capacity and modes of failure of a reinforced concrete column is based on
the slenderness ratio. Slenderness ratio is the ratio of the effective length Le and least lateral
dimension of the column as per Indian and British Standards. But as per American Concrete
Institute Code of Practice, the slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio of effective length of
column to its radius of gyration, which is same as used for structural steel design as per IS
Code. Effective length of a column depends on its support conditions at ends.

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Based on the slenderness ratio of the column, there are three modes of failure of reinforced
concrete columns. The columns are assumed to be centrally loaded (no eccentric loads).
Mode 1: Column Failure due to Pure Compression:
When reinforced concrete columns are axially loaded, the reinforcement steel and concrete
experiences stresses. When the loads are high compared to cross-sectional area of the
column, the steel and concrete reach the yield stress and column fails without undergoing any
lateral deformation. The concrete column is crushed and collapse of the column is due to the
material failure. To overcome this, the concrete column should have sufficient cross-sectional
area, so that the stress is under the specified limit. This type of failure is generally seen in
case of pedestals whose height to least lateral dimension is less than 3 and does not
experience bending due to axial loads.
Mode 2: Column Failure due to Combined Compression and Failure:
Short columns are commonly subjected to axial loads, lateral loads and moments. Short
columns under the action of lateral loads and moments undergo lateral deflection and
bending. Long columns undergo lateral deflection and bending even when they are only
axially loaded. Under such circumstances when the stresses in steel and concrete reach their
yield stress, material failure happens and RCC column fails. This type of failure is called
combined compression and bending failure.
Mode 3: Column Failure due to Elastic Instability:
Long columns are very slender, i.e. its effective length to least lateral dimension is more than
12. Under such condition, the load carrying capacity of reinforced concrete columns reduces
drastically for given cross-sectional area and percentage of reinforcement steel. When such
type of concrete columns are subjected to even small loads, they tend to become unstable and
buckle to any side. So, the reinforcement steel and concrete in such cases reach their yield
stress even for small loads and fail due to lateral elastic buckling. This type of failure is
unacceptable in practical concrete constructions. Code prevents usage of such long columns
for slenderness ratio greater than 30 (for unbraced columns) for the use in concrete structures.

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Fig: Failure Modes of Concrete Columns For Different Slenderness

Ratio

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3.0 REFERENCE
http://construction.about.com/od/Concrete/tp/Common-Concrete-Problems.htm
http://www.concreteconstruction.net/concrete-surfaces/fine-and-random-crazecracks.aspx
http://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/concrete_cracks/preventing_concrete_cracks.html
http://construction.about.com/od/Concrete/a/Concrete-Curing-Methods.html

Buku Kejuruteraan Bahan Awam Diploma.

http://www.buildingresearch.com.np/services/ct/ct8.php

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