PART I

ETHNOGRAPHY
I.

DEFINITION
Ellingson in Rachmat Kriyantono (2012) states that the term of ethnography comes
from ethno and graphy. Ethno means culture, and graphy means description. So,
ethnography is describing how individuals use their culture to interpret the reality and
construct the social interaction among individuals in groups. According to Watson-Gegeo
cited in Juanita Heigham and Keiko Sakui, ethnography is a research approach that focuses
on peoples behavior in natural occurring, ongoing settings, with a focus on the cultural
interpretation of behavior (Juanita Heigham and Robert A. Croker, 2009: 107). Marzali
explains that ethnography is a study report that refers to a research methodology and it is
the basic of anthropology (Sukidin, 2001: 75).
Ethnography is not a qualitative research approach that is commonly used in applied
linguistics, but it is an approach that has some unique offerings for the field. It is because;
ethnography is an excellent way to explore the unique mysteries in a culture. Ethnography
is the principal data gathering method in cultural and social anthropology, (Chegg, 2015). It
can be concluded that, ethnography is a qualitative research that departs from anthropology.
This study uses the approach in cultural perspective as way of life in investigating a
problem (Anne Suryani: 2008). The researchers directly contact with the problem studied
by looking for informants from the area where the problem is.

II.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

We can conclude some characteristics of ethnographic research, such as:
- Ethnographer studies groups, not individuals.
Ethnographic research focuses on the culture, and the culture is found in a group
of people. Groups can be large or small.
- In ethnography, the topics that are studied are typically broad.
Ethnographers investigate issues, behaviors, or situations that are little
understood.
- The research process is fluid and iterative. Data collection, analysis, and
interpretation overlap.
- Ethnographic report is rich and deep description.
The description about the culture that is studied is meticulous. The researchers
describe very clearly the context, participants, and events they witness.
- Ethnographic reports do not usually follow a traditional form. Sometimes, they
are presented in narrative form, very long, include very detailed description. They
can also be presented as novels, short stories, dance performance, films, and so
on.
- Ethnographic research requires long time commitments.

III.

THE WAYS FOR COLLECTING DATA

In collecting the data, the ethnographic research needs some aspects, those are:
- Wide fieldwork
Ethnographers must develop a visceral understanding of the culture that they
study, therefore, they need extended fieldwork within the culture.
- Detailed field notes
Ethnographers enter the field with an open mind, not an empty head. Because the
special characteristic of ethnography is rich and deep description, researchers
should have detailed notes about the culture they will study.
- A gatekeeper
He or she is a person who has a power in particular area. This person will let the
researcher in the certain location, and keep the researcher out of it.

IV.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1. Participant Observation
It is crucial to develop an understanding of the culture. While observing,
researchers may participate to varying degree with the target culture. In traditional
ethnography, researchers come from outside, moving into a community and living
there for an extended period of time. In contrast, in focused ethnographies they
may continue to live at home but shadow the people in the study for a specific
period of time, or temporarily become a member of the group. An important
criterion is that a researcher maintains an emic (insider or participant perspective)
and etic (outsider or researchers perspective).
2. Interviewing
Conducting good interviews is a skill that needs careful development. Each
researcher formulates interview questions based on his own unique etic position.
Ethnographers have to find informants from within the target community to
interview. Finding good informants is essential because the information
researchers get from their informants can provide some of the mainstays of the
research data.
3. Artifacts
Ethnographers use artifacts in their research. They can be pre-existing documents
such as past English grades, standardized test score, handouts from lessons, end of
term tests, or pre-existing video footage or photos.

V.

ORGANIZING AND INTERPRETING THE DATA

It is good practice and it is essential to keep the collected data well organized from
the beginning of the research process. It is important to create the researchers system that
suits their style.

In the first stage of analysis, the researcher reads the various kinds of data carefully
and repeatedly. While reading, he writes analytic memo. They can help to organize the
emerging interpretation.
At the next stage, the researcher can read these texts line-by-line and code them.
Coding means that the researcher gives a label for a small chunk of data. By the code, the
researcher can use those codes to look for relationships among the categories.
Lastly, it is important to carefully consider the role of researchers in the research
process. The researchers decide who to interview and how to present interview questions.
The researchers determine how to collect the data and how to connect all the threads of that
data throughout the research process.

PART II
ACTION RESEARCH
I.

DEFINITION

According to Carr and Kemmis cited in Anne Burns, Action Research is a form of
self-reflective inquiry conducted by participants in a social situation, such as an educational
context, with a view to changing and improving that situation (Juanita Heigham and Robert
A. Croker, 2009: 115). This research involves a systematic approach in collecting
information or data, usually using qualitative research method.
Action research is known by many other names, including participatory research,
collaborative inquiry, action science, and action learning, but all are variations on a theme.
is an approach commonly used for improving conditions and practices in a range
environment (Lingard et al., 2008). Put simply, action research is learning by doing researchers identify a problem, do something to resolve it, see how successful their efforts
were, and if not satisfied, try again (Rory Brien, 1998: 1).
II.
THE STAGES OF ACTION RESEARCH
Kemmis and McTaggart, cited in Anne Burns, describe the essential stages as selfreflective action research cycle of planning, action, observation, and reflection, where the
researchers:
- Identify a focus area of the practice that present a puzzle, problem, or question
-

III.

IV.

and plan strategies to change or improve the situation.

Collect information systematically about this focus area
Analyze and reflect on what the data you have collected are telling you about the

situation.
- Act as necessary again to change or improve the situation.
THE PURPOSE OF CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH
Action research is used in applied linguistics because of some reasons, namely:
- Many teachers believe that it is a winsome way to refresh their teaching and
extend them professionally.
- This kind of research can take our thinking in new directions.
- Action research actively encourages dialogue with colleagues who may be facing
the same teaching dilemmas and wanting to share their ideas with others.
- Action research empowers teachers by enabling them to be agents rather than
recipients of knowledge.
- Action research that is done by language teachers also potentially contributes to
the theory for deeper knowledge about effective English language teaching.

THE WAY FOR COLLECTING DATA

In action research, there are two common methods of data collection, observational
methods and non-observational methods.
The examples of observational methods are:

1. Brief notes or recorded comments

2. Audio-recordings or video-recordings
3. Observation by self or a colleague on particular aspect
4. Transcript of classroom interaction
5. Maps or layouts of the classroom
6. Photographs of the physical context
The examples of non-observational methods are:
1. Questionnaires and surveys
2. Interviews
3. Class discussion/ focus group
4. Diaries, journals, and logs
5. Classroom documents