AQUACULTURE mar/apr 05

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ISSUE 04

Page 1

MARCH/APRIL 2005

$5.00

A blueprint for
mussel farm design
Looking at diseases
in aquaculture
Shellfish
breeding a first

LINES IN
IN THE
THE WATER
WATER
LINES
a history
history of
of green
green
a
shell mussel
mussel farming
farming
shell

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Page 2

CONTENTS

11

EDITORIAL
The strength of unity should never be squandered, says guest editor Peter Stevens

NEWS
A look at whats happening in the industry

GRASS CARP CLEAR EXOTIC WEEDS

As well as controlling weeds, Chinese grass carp are featuring on restaurant menus

PROACTIVE APPROACHES TO DISEASE PROBLEMS IN

AQUACULTURE
Disease prevention should be an important part of a business plan

A BLUEPRINT FOR BETTER MUSSEL FARM DESIGN

Waves are the biggest hurdle facing offshore mussel farmers

10 BOOK REVIEW
Thinkers and tinkerers started the mussel industry
11 LIFE IN THE FREEZER
A New Zealand project has achieved success in cryopreservation
14 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND
MATURATION IN THE HATCHERY
A good understanding of systems biology is important
ON THE COVER:
Lady Marie
harvesting a line for
the Marlborough
Mussel Co. Photo
Courtesy NZMFA

EDITOR: Keith Ingram

MANAGER: Vivienne Ingram
ISSN 1176-5402 ISSN 1176-8657 (web)

An informative journal
for the aquaculture industry
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EDITORIAL ASSISTANT:
Mark Barratt-Boyes
CONTRIBUTORS:
Andrew Morgan, Ian Horne,
Peter Stevens, Amanda Steenhart,
Michelle Hollis, Ben Dingles,
Craig Stevens, Bob Spigel

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General: Reproduction of articles and materials published in New Zealand Aquaculture in whole or part, is permitted provided the source and author(s) are
acknowledged. However, all photographic material is copyright and written permission to reproduce in any shape or form is required. Contributions of a nature
relevant to the aquaculture industry are welcomed and industry participants are especially encouraged to contribute. Articles and information printed in
New Zealand Aquaculture do not necessarily reflect the opinions or formal position or the publishers unless otherwise indicated. All material published in
New Zealand Aquaculture is done so with all due care as regards to accuracy and factual content, however, the publishers cannot accept responsibility
for any errors and omissions which may occur. New Zealand Aquaculture is produced bi-monthly.

NZ AQUACULTURE MAR/APR 05

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Page 3

EDITORIAL
BY PETER STEVENS

WHAT PRICE POSITIVE?

ositive is elusive and like democracy has to be

continually nurtured in order to survive. Negative, on
the other hand, is always just around the corner and
needs no invitation to visit.
As someone who has written and reported a fair bit about the
aquaculture industry over past years, I have come to the point
whereby I have to confess that its getting harder to write about
the industry, in the sense that its becoming impossible to avoid
repetition by covering the same old territory.
You know the sort of thing.Why arent we realising the
potential of the industry? Why isnt officialdom doing more to
remove the barriers? Why are we lagging behind other countries
in getting behind our marine farmers? Why have the necessary
legislative requirements always been relegated to the back burner?
There are far too many negatives, and there is a natural limit as
to how many times one can repeat them without fostering
depression and creating an unproductive aura of gloom and doom.
At various stages right from the small beginnings of the
aquaculture industry, various governments have declared that
they will fix things once and for all and assist the industry to
move forward. On each of those occasions Im sure that those in
the industry have breathed a sigh of relief and looked forward to
a positive future with renewed confidence.At long last, they
would have thought, someone is listening and taking notice.
However, their hopes have ended up being dashed on the
rocky shores of the sea of procrastination, bogged down in the
swamp of political maneuvering or tangled in webs of
bureaucratic red tape.The latest fix it once and for all move
seems now to be the granddaddy of them all, and the light at the
end of the tunnel has almost flickered out. Not for those already
established, of course, but it must be remembered that many, if
not all, had a hard row to hoe in order to get their operation up
and running.They will have to maintain the status quo for some,
and its to be hoped that they will, instead of taking their capital
and expertise offshore.
I dont think that it is entirely a one-way street in terms of the
problems facing the industry, and many participants should
shoulder some of the blame. Its no secret that on many
occasions industry participants have opposed progress, if not
exactly overtly then at least covertly.
Some farmers have opposed development out of fear that
their market opportunity would be eroded. In taking that
stance they ignore the rules and benefits of critical mass.
They seem to ignore the actual size of the potential market,

which is not domestic but global.

The industry didnt really move until production reached a
certain critical mass and developed the ability to fill orders with
volume and certainty.There are those who have opposed the
siting of new farms in locations near their own out of the fear
that their farm may suffer from reduced plankton flow-by.That is
a genuine concern of course where farms have been sited in
areas of low nutrient production and/or bad flow, but that, more
often than not, is not necessarily the case.
When an industry is divided on issues, and that division
becomes evident to policy makers and officials, everybody in the
industry pays a price.The strength of unity, both in terms of
purpose and numbers, is a priceless asset that should never be
squandered.The organisations that oppose marine farming are
heeded because they can claim large numbers - numbers
incidentally, that they work hard to maintain, in the certain
knowledge that without them they have no clout whatsoever.
Personally, I am of the opinion that the mussel industry, given
the right backing and encouragement, could have (dare I say
should?) been producing $1 billion worth of product by now.You
have no idea how mixed the reactions are when I voice that
opinion in aquaculture circles.
Impossible is one retort - wed never market that much in a
million years.Well, I think (but dont say), the seafood industry
went from $25 million to $1.5 billion in something like 25 years.
Others say wed never get enough space. I think, hell, it would
only take four times the space currently under production - not
even as much in total as a large sheep or cattle farm.
Others who are still happy with the cottage farming lifestyle
shiver at the thought, and probably think - who brung him? The
rest say, youre dead right.We could and should, and given the
right breaks we certainly would!
I am still certain that the mussel farming industry will reach
that level of production at some future time and perhaps even
exceed it.The pity of it, in my estimation, is that it could have
been raised significantly towards that level or up to it by now, and
the benefits realised both in confidence and fiscal return.
As it now stands, the costs of litigation and the legal expenses
associated with space applications will increasingly erode a large
proportion of the working capital required for essentials such as
ropes, floats, anchors, machinery and vessels.
I sincerely hope that the industry can hold together and that
the future provides some really positive aspects upon
which to comment.

ac

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MAR/APR 05 NZ AQUACULTURE

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NEWS

BRAKES COME OFF

AQUACULTURE
INDUSTRY
The $1 billion-a-year potential of New
Zealands aquaculture industry can now be
realised with the passing of the Aquaculture
Reform Bill, says Fisheries Minister David
Benson-Pope.The bill passed its final reading
on December 15 by 83 votes to 36.
In November 2001 a moratorium was
placed on the issuing of new consents for
marine farms to allow for the creation of a
new management regime.This was in
response to the gold rush for space that
had developed within the industry.
The act had created a new regime under
the Resource Management Act, and enabled
councils to effectively manage aquaculture
and encourage the aquaculture industry to
develop in a sustainable way, he said.
While it has taken time to reach this
point, I am confident we have come up with a
workable solution that will take us into a
future that will see the exciting potential of
the marine farming industry realised.
We have acted to protect the coastline
for all users.The whole purpose of the
reform is to provide clarity and certainty to
users, which was not there before.
Benson-Pope said the aquaculture industry

would provide many regions of New Zealand

with new employment opportunities, and
represented an important economic driver,
especially in rural coastal areas where growth
and job opportunities were needed most.
This new legislation has created a sound
and well thought out platform from which
strong future development can take place. Im
confident that it balances economic
development, environmental sustainability,
Treaty obligations and community concerns.
Maori interests in commercial marine
farming space had also been addressed by
providing iwi, where possible, with 20 percent
of marine farming space allocated since 1992,
and 20 percent of any future new space, the
minister said.
This is an important step. Settling
contemporary commercial claims removes a
major impediment to progress and certainty.
This is consistent with the 1992 Fisheries
Settlement - aquaculture being the unfinished
business of that legislation.
PARTY SAYS REFORMS
CAUSE CONCERN
The National Party says it is still opposed
to the new Aquaculture Reform Act,
though it acknowledges that the Select
Committee process has changed significant

NATIONAL BIOSECURITY CENTRE PLANNED

The government has approved in principle the establishment of a National Centre for
Emerging Diseases and Biosecurity at Wallaceville, Upper Hutt.
The new centre would add significantly to the countrys ability to safeguard human and
animal health and to protect the economy. It combines state-of-the-art Environmental
Science and Research laboratories and new staff with the existing facilities at the Ministry
of Agriculture and Forestry National Centre for Disease Investigation and AgriQuality.
Biosecurity Minister Jim Sutton said on November 26 that the proposal would enhance
New Zealands ability to provide animal health protection and biosecurity services. It would
also enable an enhanced proactive, national response to human diseases such as
meningococcal and influenza epidemics.
Biosecurity is extremely important to New Zealand, and the government takes its
responsibilities to ensure that foreign pests and diseases dont establish in New Zealand
seriously, Sutton said.
The Minister for Crown Research Institutes, Pete Hodgson, said the addition of new ESR
personnel and facilities would boost New Zealands ability to monitor and respond to new and
emerging human and animal health disease threats, such as SARS and avian influenza variants.
It would be a very significant move. It would concentrate our best scientists in the field
in a single place where they can all work together using the very best facilities.
Aquaculturalists will find the costs of business compliance should drop significantly with
the passing of the Fisheries Amendment Act, says the Ministry of Fisheries.The act, which
introduced many new species into the quota management system, removed many of the
extensive rules, constraints and limitations that had previously been necessary.
One example was that fishers wanting to harvest mussel spat from Ninety Mile Beach
had previously required two sets of exemption permits because of moratoriums on
harvesting seaweed and spat around the beach. As from October 1, if they wish to catch
spat, they use their annual catch entitlement or pay the deemed value.

NZ AQUACULTURE MAR/APR 05

aspects, says the partys spokesperson for

fisheries, Phil Heatley.
Heatley said the allocation of up to 40
percent of new marine farming space to be
set aside for Maori addressed what is
referred to as the unfinished business of
the 1992 Fisheries Settlement. We called
for, but have not received, any historic
documentary evidence that proves there
was such unfinished business, despite
assurances that such evidence existed.
Under the terms of the act, the Crown is
to use marine farming applications put on
hold by the moratorium to settle
contemporary Maori claims. That an
applicants space can be re-allocated to
someone else is unfair; the settlement of
one grievance will create another, he said.
Most Maori submitters did not
acknowledge this action as a settlement,
as there was no negotiation. There was no
deed of settlement to point to, unlike with
the 1992 Fisheries Settlement. He said the
National Party saw the Treaty Settlement
approach, which gave preferential tendering
rights for aquaculture space, was a
satisfactory way of addressing aquaculture
claims that have merit.
Such settlements with iwi should be
addressed on a case-by-case basis and be
solely between the Crown and Maori, not
involving or interfering with the
operations of current or future marine
farmers.
National was still concerned that the
undue adverse effects test and associated
processes might not fully solve the conflict
between commercial fishing and marine
farming. It also had concerns over regional
councils abilities to quantify and qualify
aquacultures other effects on fishing
besides access issues, such as spawning and
stock development.
An incumbent marine farmer should have
priority over a newcomer due to their preexisting investment. Marine farmers should
ask for a right of first refusal to provide
certainty, and it was vague and subjective
that incumbents had to manage their farms
according to industry good practice to
gain renewal.
Further, regional councils were able to
re-tender out occupied space if they
deemed it necessary. We have
reservations over whether these
requirements and tests are sufficiently
robust to provide the certainty that
ensures ongoing investment in this
vital industry.

ac

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Page 5

GRASS CARP CLEAR EXOTIC WEEDS

BY AMANDA STEENHART
Chinese grass carp are a freshwater herbivore, native to
China.While they are proven to be an efficient weed
controller in New Zealand, more recently they have been
commercially bred and are developing a market niche in the
restaurant trade.
First introduced into New Zealand
by the University of Auckland in
1966, grass carp should not to be
confused with their distant cousin,
koi carp, the possum of the
waterways. Grass carp are a
beneficial fish stock, introduced as a
biological weed control agent and
assisting in clearing exotic weed
from farm drainage channels and
dams.

rwie
Dr Tagried Ku e
monitoring th
incubators

Andrian
Paarman with
a fine example
of a chinese
grass carp

However, as their reproductive cycle is extremely

complicated, they cannot naturally reproduce in this country.
An early breeding programme by the National Institute for
Water and Atmospheric Research was not commercially
viable, and did not survive the 1990s government research
science reshuffles.
Crown negotiations resulted in the entire brood stock of 11
fish being taken over by New Zealand Waterways Restoration
Ltd, a private company which remains the countrys only grass
carp suppliers.
So, as they are unable to reproduce in the wild, every kiwi
grass carp is born at the same place - Warkworth, the home of
the Mahurangi Technical Institute.The aquaculture tertiary
education provider is a partner in the grass carp breeding
programme with NZ Waterways Restoration.
The two key figures behind New Zealand grass carp are the
managing director of NZ Waterways Restorations, Gray
Jamieson, and the director of the Mahurangi Technical
Institute), Paul Decker.
There may be something to be said for the success of private
enterprises entrepreneurial approach versus government
research, though Paul points out that without the earlier NIWA
data, the Warkworth success wouldnt have happened.
Grass carp require considerable manipulation of water
temperature, light and water quality to come into egg, and
thats only the start of it, he says.
Grass carp are highly rated as a table fish among New
Zealands Asian community, with many stating that the New
Zealand fish has better texture and flavour than those
produced in China.
This January, NZ Waterways Restoration completed a joint
venture farming and marketing project with Lake Omapere
Trustees to supply live fish from Lake Omapere (40,000
fish stocks) to the Auckland restaurant trade.

ac

LETTERS
OCEAN RANCHING
Dear Sir
Congratulations on the first two editions of this new Aquaculture magazine. Pleasing to see some of the range of articles - hopefully we
should be able to contribute to these in the future.
One of the difficulties with a periodical such as this is timing, and many of our stories reflect very much the immediacy of an issue.There
will continue to be things about the Resource Management Act which will be topical if not controversial.There are some greenish elements
who believe what they read on the web from their fellow antagonists, and translate contentions or allegations as fact in New Zealand
(especially when they were not facts in the first place) - it is always a struggle to get balance in these things, as negativity sells first!
I notice in your latest editorial the suggestion that ocean ranching would be a boom. Unfortunately, not only was it not successful in New
Zealand in the 1980s but it has since died an economic death throughout the globe as margins have got finer and finer for the big industrial
growers in the northern hemisphere.We have looked at this carefully and it simply does not work on any scale.
So, best wishes for 2005 and with NZ Aquaculture.
Paul Steere, Chief Executive,The New Zealand King Salmon Co Ltd
Thanks Paul for your comments on the viability of ocean ranching of salmon.While salmon have proved uneconomic, I still believe we have a number
of species that would be viable. Paua is an obvious example. Ed...

MAR/APR 05 NZ AQUACULTURE

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Page 6

PROACTIVE APPROACHES

to disease problems in aquaculture

BY BEN DIGGLES OF DIGSFISH SERVICES

Prevention is
the key to
husbandryrelated
problems
such as this
shell disease
in a rock
lobster

hen any species of aquatic animal is farmed, but

particularly if a new species is being farmed for
the first time, there is a huge learning curve
that inevitably includes a number of husbandry-related challenges
for aquaculturalists to overcome.
Under any circumstances when husbandry conditions arent
ideal, the door is left open for disease problems to emerge.
But even when farming established species for which the
husbandry requirements are well known, unforeseen
circumstances can result in a disease outbreak in stock which
could affect bottom-line profitability.
When a logical, structured approach is undertaken to diagnose
and manage disease problems, in hindsight what initially may have
appeared to be a disaster waiting to happen can turn out to be a
valuable lesson.
However, this sort of reactive approach towards dealing with
disease issues makes aquaculture is inherently risky. Fish and
shellfish often respond slowly to disease treatments, resulting in
mortality, morbidity and lost production. In aquaculture, disease
prevention is the key, and prevention requires a proactive
approach to addressing disease problems before they occur.
The idea of promoting prevention rather than cure when
talking about disease in aquaculture is not new or revolutionary.
However, in my experience, many aquaculturalists look upon
disease as a taboo subject.
Certainly the prospect of stock developing a disease which
could adversely affect the bottom line never seems to be
mentioned in business plans and prospectuses sent to potential
investors.While it is understandable to want to paint an
aquaculture opportunity in the best possible light, acknowledging
the real possibility of a disease outbreak at some stage during the
production cycle can make aquaculturalists begin to think about
making disease prevention an important component of their
business plan.
This can be used to show potential investors that all
contingencies have

NZ AQUACULTURE MAR/APR 05

been considered during the design of the project and, hopefully,

that risk mitigation procedures are in place.
For example, a hypothetical marine finfish farm may be
experiencing unusual mortalities in a population of snapper due
to some type of unknown gill disease. Often under these
circumstances the first disease-related decision the aquaculture
manager is forced to make is a choice between whether to let
the status quo remain, or to try and locate expert advice and
initiate an investigation to determine the cause of the mortalities.
This is a completely avoidable situation.
A professional and well-planned approach towards
development of the original business plan would have already
addressed the possibility of a disease outbreak occurring by
examining the range of disease agents already known in the
culture of snapper and other closely related species.
This process of disease risk assessment benefits the business in
a number of ways. Firstly, by identifying the disease agents likely
to be encountered, a better informed decision can be made on
the inherent biological risks involved with the project.
Secondly, once the range of disease risks is known, this
knowledge can be incorporated into the design of the project
from the outset, ensuring that appropriate infrastructure,
resources, mitigation and contingency procedures are in place
from the very beginning to minimise the risk of diseases
emerging and/or causing significant damage to stock and the
farms bottom line.
With a disease mitigation and contingency framework already
in place, the aquaculture managers decision-making process
when confronted with diseased stock becomes better focused,
improving the chances of a positive outcome.
As another bonus, rather than being scared off by unknowns
and unmentionables, investors may feel more confident investing
in businesses which present realistic business plans complete
with disease risk assessments, and with mitigation and
contingency procedures in place.
Of course, even when all due care and consideration has
been exercised during the planning process, Murphys Law
often dictates that unforeseen problems arise.With well
developed disease mitigation and contingency plans in place,
however, well prepared fish farmers are better positioned
to make the best of the situation, because they know
whom to contact and how to collect the samples required
to allow aquatic animal health experts to achieve an
accurate diagnosis.
When new diseases emerge, this diagnostic process can
take time, which is a luxury few can afford in these
circumstances. Clearly, it helps to know who are the
most appropriate local aquatic animal health specialists,
and more importantly, how to contact them quickly if
the need arises.

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Page 7

A
A cultured
cultured paua
paua with
with heavy
heavy
mudworm
mudworm infection
infection and
and
shell
shell erosion.
erosion. Both
Both
problems
problems can
can be
be easily
easily
prevented
prevented by
by changing
changing
husbandry
husbandry practices
practices
and
and system
system design
design

Gas bubble disease in snapper. Even when all due care and
consideration has been exercised during planning, Murphys Law
often dictates that unforeseen problems arise

FIGURE 1.
Histology of numerous
multinucleate haplosporidian
plasmodia in the gills of paua
heavily infected with a new
species of haplosporidian
Scale bar = 106 m

economic outcome given a

certain set of circumstances.
DigsFish Services it is working with industry
partners in the northern hemisphere to develop and trial an
aquatic animal health economic software package which we hope
to eventually make available to aquaculturists so they can
improve their decision-making processes and maximise the
upside of any disease problems they may experience.
See www.digsfish.com

ac

REFERENCES
Diggles B K, J Nichol, P M Hine, S Wakefield, N Cochennec-Laureau,
R D Roberts and C Friedman 2002. Pathology of cultured paua
(Haliotis iris Martyn, 1784) infected by a novel haplosporidian
parasite, with some observations on the course of disease. Dis.
Aquat. Org. 50: 219-231
Hine P M, S Wakefield, B K Diggles,V L Webb and E W Maas 2002.
The ultrastructure of a haplosporidian containing Rickettsiae,
associated with mortalities among cultured paua Haliotis iris. Dis.
Aquat. Org. 49: 207-219
Reece, K S and N A Stokes 2003. Molecular analysis of a
haplosporidian parasite from cultured New Zealand abalone
(Haliotis iris Martyn, 1784). Dis.Aquat. Org. 53: 61-66

VIP.AC04

In New Zealand, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestrys

National Centre for Disease Investigation is responsible for
preventing, detecting and controlling exotic diseases.
MAF considers exotic disease to also include any new and
emerging diseases which are not known to occur in New
Zealand, regardless of their origins. Under such situations, the
diagnostic service provided by the NCDI is free of charge.
Aquaculturalists are encouraged to freephone 0800 809 966 if an
outbreak of a new or exotic disease is suspected in their stock.
If the disease is already known to exist in New Zealand, or it is
suspected that the disease outbreak is related to management,
water quality or environmental factors, the best approach is for
aquaculture managers to contact their regular aquatic animal
health specialist.
A classic example of the emergence of a new disease agent in
New Zealand aquaculture (which would nowadays require the
full involvement of the NCDI), was the detection of a new
haplosporidian parasite in cultured paua (Haliotis iris) in the
summer of 1999/2000.This parasite caused heavy systemic
infections (figure 1) and was responsible for mortalities of 90
percent of the juvenile paua in that facility (Diggles et al 2002,
Hine et al. 2002).
While this disease agent was new, it was also related to other
haplosporidian parasites of oysters in the northern hemisphere
that the world animal health organisation Office International des
Epizooties or OIE) lists as notifiable diseases of molluscs (Reece
and Stokes 2003).
A disease risk assessment undertaken prior to developing the
paua culture facility would have considered haplosporidians,
because they cause diseases listed by the OIE. Its possible,
therefore, that disease mitigation recommendations (resulting
from a risk assessment) designed to prevent infection by
haplosporidians (eg by filtration of the incoming water) would
have excluded the parasite from this facility.
While all efforts made in the name of disease prevention
should be supported, if a problem arises there remains a need
for guidance in the disease control decision-making process. In
my opinion, one aspect of fish health management which has yet
to be fully explored is the area of aquatic animal health
economics.
The tools used to assess the economic performance of a
response to a disease outbreak vary from measures as simple as
the cost of treatment per fish, cost-benefit analysis and breakeven point analysis, to more applied tools such as decision tree
analysis and systems simulation.
By employing these tools and others, we can evolve from
simply treating diseased aquatic animals to effect a cure, to
choosing the most appropriate treatment which will optimise the

MAR/APR 05 NZ AQUACULTURE

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Page 8

A BLUEPRINT FOR

better mussel farm design

BY CRAIG STEVENS AND BOB SPIGEL OF NIWA,
DAVID PLEW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY,
AND DAVID FREDRIKSSON OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE

A mussel farm longline is a complex

collection of masses, floats and ropes
(Craig Stevens, NIWA)

NIWA scientists attach sensors to floats, droppers

and mooring lines to obtain measurements
(Murray Smith, NIWA)

s mussel farms near the shore face increasing

space constraints, people are beginning to
consider new developments further offshore. But
its not a matter of simply beefing up the design of an
inshore mussel farm.
The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research
has been working with the University of Canterbury and the
University of New Hampshire in the United States to improve
mussel farm design.
It all comes down to drag.When water flows past an object
like a mussel dropper, it tries to drag the object along with it. In
doing so, the water flow loses energy to turbulence. If enough
energy is lost, the waves and currents will change.As some
proposed mussel farms contain 1000km or more of rope,
predicting the likely drag and its effects will help in farm design,
site selection, consideration of nutrient requirements, assessment
of environmental effects and preparation of permit applications.
The main findings of the research to date are:
Designs cant simply be scaled up. If a farm is hit by waves
twice as big, itll have to withstand more than twice the
amount of drag, especially if there are reasonable currents.
Surface longlines can be hit directly by waves, but even
submerged backbones experience significant loading in ocean
swell.
Large farms affect the waves, currents and mixing of water
around them.The environmental effects might not be bad,
but they still need to be understood and quantified.
WAVE DAMAGE
Waves are the biggest hurdle faced by offshore farmers.They
buffet the farm, creating constant acceleration and deceleration.
When waves and currents combine, the whiplash effects can be
devastating. Existing large farms in areas such as Golden Bay
and the Firth of Thames are relatively sheltered, but it is much
more difficult to build farms on less sheltered coastlines.
8

NZ AQUACULTURE MAR/APR 05

Measuring mussel float motion by radar. The radar is equivalent

in operation to having 30 police traffic radars monitoring
different points on the water surface. It also provides
information about the speed of the water (Craig Stevens, NIWA)

Computer modelling is the best way to test how the mussel

farm will cope with waves. Models can show how altering
aspects of the farm design, such as the stretchiness of the
rope, float buoyancy and longline length, reduce or enhance
the impact of wavy conditions.
Over the past decade, the open-ocean aquaculture group at
the University of New Hampshire has developed a
complicated computer model called Aquafe that shows how
fish cages move in large ocean waves. Scientists from NIWA
and the University of Canterbury have been working with
them to convert the model into one which deals with longline
motion and loading.
The goal is to create a blueprint for better farm design
within the next two years.This will improve the ability of
mussel farms to survive wave loading and reduce their effect
on currents.
Why are waves and currents important for
mussel aquaculture?
The research is being funded by the Foundation for Research,
Science and Technology, and the Royal Society ISAT Linkages
Fund. It has three main purposes. Firstly, to understand the
productivity of any mussel farm, we need to know the amount
of pre-existing nutrients being removed from the water.This
requires knowledge of how the water moves through the farm.
Secondly, it is important to understand what effects changes
in waves and currents will have on the local environment, such
as beach erosion. Lastly, as future developments move offshore,
it is vital that farm structures are strong enough to survive the
harsh conditions.
WATER MOTION
Studies of kelp forests show that a large amount of drag can
reduce water motion.The same is true for large mussel
farms.The longer it takes for a blob of water to pass

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through a mussel farm, the more nutrients the mussels filter

out of that water.
To estimate this rate of nutrient depletion before a farm is
built, we need to know the rate at which the mussels feed and
the speed of the water flow.We already know about feeding
rates from previous studies, and existing models and
measurements can predict tide and wind-driven coastal
speeds.The problem is that these current estimates do not
include the effect of the farm itself.
Finding out what effect a farm has on flow is not easy.
Even if we could instantly install and remove a farm (the
foolproof method), conditions in the ocean are constantly
changing.Weve had to use a number of other approaches,
including field measurements, laboratory experiments and
computer modelling.
As well as traditional oceanographic measurements such as
current speed and direction, temperature and salinity, we are
measuring water turbulence and farm structure motion.The
instruments we use to measure turbulence capture the small
eddies created as water moves past the mussel lines.This tells
us the energy lost from the main flow, and from the flow
around the mussels themselves.
One feature we did not expect to see was the strong
affect of drag from mussel farms on water stratification. This
discovery could help us to develop more reliable estimates
of nutrient depletion and productivity, and better
understand how brackish plumes from rivers spread
through a farm.

Mussel farms influence the environment away from the farm

as well. For example, if a large farm slows down currents, it will
also reduce the height of waves.A change in the currents and
waves on a coastline will probably affect the movement of
sediment.This is why it is important to try and gauge the
effect of the farm on waves and currents, as well as the effect
on the environment as a whole.
These factors are not just an issue for large, offshore farms.
Presently, the changes to flow caused by farms can only be
reliably measured near large farms because they have a clear,
strong effect on the flow.This does not mean that small farms
do not have an effect.The effect of a small farm is often
hidden, because water movement close to the coast is so
highly variable anyway.
Also, it takes a good computer model to distinguish a
particular farms contribution from the cumulative effects of
several small farms in a bay. Studies on large farms can provide
clues as to how to design both large and small farms to
minimise their impact on the local ecology.

This model of a
longline riding a
wave shows
how the
structure is
buffeted about.
The surface
floats are shown
as black circles
and the mussel
droppers as
green. The red
line represents
the backbone
and mooring
line. The blue
arrows show
the water
current (Craig
Stevens, NIWA)

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BOOK REVIEW

THINKERS AND TINKERERS

STARTED MUSSEL INDUSTRY
Lines in the Water - a history of
Greenshell mussel farming in New
Zealand
What do old washing machines, cracked milk
bottles and a toy knitting machine have in common?
Thirty years ago they each played a vital part in developing
the Greenshell mussel industry, according to a new book
launched on December 10. Lines in the Water - a history of
Greenshell mussel farming in New Zealand (River Press,
$79.95), tells how the industry developed from mussel rafts to
longlines, how pioneer mussel farmers developed the
technology to grow and harvest mussels, and how the first
entrepreneurs set out to create a market for New Zealands
unique Perna canaliculus.
Commissioned by the New Zealand Marine Farming
Association Inc, Lines in the Water, written by Carol Dawber, is
informal and anecdotal in style, using the voices and
photographs of those in the industry to record the way it
developed. Scientists, fishermen, teachers and business people
became mussel farmers, often working long nights in their
workshops and weekends in the Marlborough Sounds while
they kept their day jobs to finance the new venture.
The book tells of the Cook Strait cowboys who carried
mussel floats illegally across Cook Strait, the heartache of losing
crops in a storm, the never-ending battles with bureaucracy, and

the families who harvested their mussels by hand and sold

them at fairs and market days to keep their businesses viable.
Today Greenshell mussel farms are scattered along the New
Zealand coast, but the industry started in the Marlborough
Sounds and is still largely based there. Modern mussel
harvesters are purpose-built, highly sophisticated processing
units crewed by trained and qualified career people. Its a far cry
from the Fordson tractor that was tied securely onto a barge
and towed into Kenepuru Sound to lift the first mussel ropes
from the water in 1972.
As for the washing machines, milk bottles and knitting
machine - wringer washing machines set up on small boats and
work rafts were used to separate the clumps of immature
mussels grown from seed on single drop ropes.The mussels
had to be thinned and re-attached to growing ropes.
Cracked milk bottles, tin cans and other small containers
were filled with cement and sand to make weights to hang the
drop ropes from. And a plastic toy knitting machine designed
for making dolls clothes was adapted to make the first
biodegradable mussel stocking. The book is about Kiwi
ingenuity, and the story of an industry that took an indigenous
product and sold it to the world.
Lines in the Water is 320pp, hard cover, with more than 400
photographs. It is available from the NZMFA (Ph 03 578 5044
or email janet.nzmfa@xtra.co.nz) and bookshops.

ac

Lines in the Water,

a History of Greenshell
Mussel Farming
in New Zealand
Retailing for $79.95, the book is 320 pages, hard cover,
with more than 400 colour photographs.
Available from
The NZ marine Farming Association Inc, PO Box 86, Blenheim,
Ph 03 578 5044, Fax 03 578 5046, e-mail nzmfa@xtra.co.nz
and from all good bookshops
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LIFE IN THE FREEZER -

how Kiwi science is creating a

world-first shellfish breeding tool
BY LINDA MORRIS

ryopreservation used to be the stuff of science

fiction - chilling life forms in storage until theyre
needed. Now the future is here, and the ability to
store live sperm and embryos indefinitely at ultra-low
temperatures is a technique that is routinely used to help with
human reproduction and livestock breeding.
Until fairly recently, when structured selective breeding
programmes began to be developed, cryopreservation hadnt
been used in aquaculture.A research programme led by the
Cawthron Institute is changing that, and has broken new
ground in cryopreservation for shellfish.
The Cryopreservation for Aquaculture project began in
1998. It covers the eggs, sperm and larvae of Greenshell
mussels, Pacific oysters and paua. Pacific oyster sperm
cryopreservation is fully commercial, and mussel and paua
sperm freezing are also well advanced.
In a major breakthrough, the project has achieved success
with cryopreservation of eggs.This has never before been
achieved for any fish or shellfish, and it has not become
routine for any terrestrial animal either.
We first reared oysters from cryopreserved eggs in 2003,
and recently demonstrated that our techniques can produce
the numbers required for selective breeding, says research
leader Rodney Roberts.
Mussels have proven more difficult, although they look
promising, while paua eggs are still a long way off, he says.
Larval freezing is also looking good, but the team has now
diverted its attention to eggs, as theyre much more useful for
selective breeding.
Sperm is traditionally regarded as being much easier to
cryopreserve than eggs, but our egg freezing is now more
successful in terms of proportion surviving than our sperm
freezing, says Roberts.
The majority of eggs survive and develop in good
treatments, whereas the fertility of sperm is reduced by 10 to
1000-fold by freezing.This is the case for sperm
cryopreservation in all species, and implies that most sperm
are compromised by cryopreservation.
For many animals you can get away with such losses simply
because they produce so many sperm - about 200 billion in a
large male oyster. But when were aiming for commercially
robust protocols, the numbers matter, so we need to minimise
the loss of fertility.
The project is also developing techniques to cryopreserve
microscopic plants. It has been successful with several key species
used as feeds in bivalve hatcheries. Cryopreserved samples
provide a stable backup that is not subject to the genetic drift
that occurs in live cultures.The next cryopreservation target is

Cryopreservation is the storage of living things at temperatures so low that all

biological activity is suspended. Live organisms can be held indefinitely in liquid nitrogen
- the tricky bit is to freeze and thaw the material without causing lethal damage

Colour-coded
straws
containing live
sperm are
stored in liquid
nitrogen at a
temperature of
-196 Celsius

algal species that contain chemicals important for biotoxin

research or their pharmaceutical potential.
TOOLS OF THE TRADE
The primary driver behind the cryopreservation research is to
provide a powerful tool for selective breeding. Cawthron
scientist Nick King says it is all about time travel.As a shellfish
breeder, Id love to be able to cross any parents, any place, any
time - even beyond the lifespan of the shellfish.Thats the
ultimate in breeding control, but it hasnt been achieved for
any animal, anywhere in the world, so far.With our progress
CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

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CONTINUED FROM PREVIOUS PAGE

Oysters from cryopreserved eggs are a

world first for any aquatic organism

on freezing eggs, as well as sperm, were very close to

achieving that for the first time.
One of our strengths is that were developing
cryopreservation and selective breeding in concert, so the
cryopreservation transfers seamlessly into its primary
application.Weve already used sperm cryopreservation in our
oyster and mussel breeding programmes.
Cryopreservation comes with swag of other advantages. It
can provide a year-round supply of juveniles for aquaculture,
and avoid the unpredictability and costs of conditioning
broodstock. It can be used to maintain genetic diversity or
preserve particular strains, and allows transport without risk
of spawning, and with reduced disease/biosecurity issues.
Breeding programmes around the world want
cryopreservation techniques to reduce the cost of maintaining
numerous family lines over long periods. Cawthron has also
had enquiries from people wanting cryopreserved shellfish for
toxicity bioassays or as food for larval finfish.

and shellfish experts has proven to be highly effective.

Robin Tervit pioneered embryo-freezing techniques for goats
and sheep in the 1980s before leading the AgResearch Ruakura
Reproductive Technologies group.When Cawthron rang me and
suggested collaborating on shellfish cryopreservation, I told them
that we dont do shellfish. But fortunately they didnt see that as a
problem, and the partnership has worked out extremely well.
AgResearch offered a lot of cryopreservation knowledge and
Cawthron had all the facilities and expertise on the shellfish side.
Tervit says there are pros and cons in relation to working
with shellfish.The limited past work on shellfish, and their
totally different living environment, mean that we are just
about starting from scratch in some respects. But the numbers
of gametes we have to work with is wonderful. In livestock
work, you are lucky if you get a dozen eggs or embryos to
work with. I could hardly believe it when told that a single
shellfish could give us fifty million eggs!

RESEARCH PARTNERS
Cawthron has teamed up with AgResearch and the University of
Otago for this project, and the combination of cryopreservation

INDUSTRY SUPPORT
This vital research has huge support from the industry, which
has recognised the importance of cryopreservation as a tool in
selective breeding.The New Zealand Mussel Industry Council

MOBILE
SKIPPERS COURSES

WE WILL COME TO YOU!

Local Launch Operator
Inshore Launch Master

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NZ AQUACULTURE MAR/APR 05

Darcy Ranger Ph/fax 07 866 8276

Email dranger @wave.co.nz. VIP.AC03

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Newly metamorphosed
oyster spat reared
from cryopreserved
eggs. No genetic
engineering, just good
breeding!

contributes funding, while various private companies source

and donate ripe broodstock for the project.
The executive officer of the council, Lorna Holton, is
enthusiastic about the role of cryopreservation and selective
breeding.We need research like this to stay ahead of the
competition, she said.We see the potential for selective
breeding to take our industry to a whole new level of
sophistication where the best mussels are grown naturally
from the best parents.
Aquaculturalists already know the benefits of
cryopreservation. New Zealands leading paua farm, OceaNZ
Blue, is one of those who are keen to apply cryopreservation
in their breeding programme.
Weve already had Cawthron staff on site showing us the
methods for sperm preservation.Well preserve sperm from
stud males, and also want to preserve genes from places like
the Three Kings Islands, where paua might not be available in a
few years, said the general manager, Jimmy Miller.
THE FUTURE
Much of the future work on the cryopreservation project
will focus on ensuring that the techniques are commercially
useful. Roberts says too much science gets left at the
experimental stage. We could stop when we have
demonstrated success in the lab, but our goal is to make sure
that the technology is robust enough to be applied for
industry.
Roberts is grateful for long-term funding from the
Foundation for Research Science and Technology.The easy
gains happen early in the research, but the tough stuff takes
time. For commercial application, we need to improve
methods to the point that they still work on the bad days.This
requires in-depth research to figure out what makes one
shellfish good for cryopreservation, while another is poor.
Roberts says they hope to have further successes within the
next 18 months.
If you have any questions please email Rodney Roberts
at Cawthron - Rodney.Roberts@cawthron.org.nz

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ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

and maturation in the hatchery

BY DR ANDREW MORGAN

I
Broodstock
sea
cucumbers
placed in
individual
containers with
mesh screens
in a flowthrough
seawater bath
for conditioning
in preparation
for spawning

would like to share some experiences in working with and

breeding marine organisms over the past 10 years. In part
because there are often a number of similarities in working
with different animals across different species, but mainly because
of the shared enthusiasm for working with and understanding
the life cycles of animals.
Although common scientific principals underpin the breeding
of following organisms and it is an area that I work a lot in, I will
focus on the practical aspects, as these have been interesting and
very rewarding experiences.
In terms of the practicalities of breeding I have seen some
interesting ways in which species such as pipis, scallops, mussels,
sea slugs, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, crabs, prawns, Moreton bay
bugs, flatfish and snapper have been exploited in captivity to
enable successful breeding.
In some circumstances this has
been achieved from pure trial
and error, in others from tried
and proven methods, and still
others from more rigorous
fundamental research, or in
fact any combination of these.
For instance, sea
cucumbers are sensitive
creatures in captivity and do
not like to be disturbed.
Perhaps the most critical
key to breeding them is a
stable environment with
no interruptions to
established routines,
combined with careful
handling.
I have found that they
A lobster ripe with a brood
ready to be spawned

14

NZ AQUACULTURE MAR/APR 05

are easily disturbed both before and during spawning, which can
frustrate efforts to breed them. However, exploiting their natural
cycle of maturation and spawning, their spawning behaviour, and
then augmenting it has proven to be very successful.
By trial and error and then by rigorous experimentation I found
that these guys are sparked off to do their thing by a romantic
full moon during the reproductive season, although they tend to
be less enthusiastic about the whole process later in the season.
Having an understanding of an organisms interaction with the
environment and sound knowledge of whole-organism biology is
a great tool to exploit in aquaculture practices. Once these
processes are understood I feel more fundamental processes can
then be exploited in organismic biology at the biochemical and
perhaps the molecular level.
These days, a good understanding of systems biology or multilevel processes is important. How everything relates, from the
level of the cell to the whole organism, provides a better
understanding of why things are the way they are.
After all, knowledge of cellular processes is difficult to translate
into knowledge of how an organism interacts with its
environment, or how its behaviour is related to the processes
going on that enable it to reproduce successfully.
Sea urchins are perhaps one of the most basic animals in terms
of breeding to work with in captivity and gain insight into some
of these processes. Because of the manner in which they go
about producing gametes and spawning them, they are easy to
exploit to gain an understanding of reproductive processes.
Consequently, the induction of spawning by injection is a simple
and effective process.There is no need for the more complex
understanding of reproductive processes needed for other
organisms such as sea cucumbers in order to successfully breed
them in captivity. So sea urchins are an ideal organism to use in
gaining an understanding of some basic principals in breeding.
It was interesting working with sea urchins as part of
undergraduate teaching at the Leigh marine laboratory. Basically
we collected a bunch of urchins during the summer months and
brought them into the laboratory on trays.
We injected them and obtained male and female gametes for
use in fertilisation assays.We investigated factors such as sperm
concentration versus polyspermy of embryos, and the numbers
of embryos undergoing normal cell division.
This is a key factor in the aquaculture industry, and is one of
the factors that was critical in cracking the commercial-scale
hatchery production of mussels.A number of other features
useful in aquaculture include sperm and egg age post-spawning,
contact times and sperm-to-egg ratios.
Hands-on experience in working with sea urchin gametes
enables a greater appreciation of the complex issues involved in
hatchery production of animals and breeding success in the
natural environment.

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The ability to obtain gametes from sea urchins on demand

during the reproductive season means that gametes can be used
to model fertilisation kinetics both in situ and in vitro.This
enables an understanding of the basic principals of fertilisation.
From this I feel a foundation can be built on whereby more
complex issues can be addressed, such as gamete quality and its
effect on fertility. In using sea urchins as a model system, the
principals of reproductive endocrinology can be highlighted.This
enables the linking of whole-organism biology with biochemistry
and molecular biology in what is now the proteomic era.
Without a good understanding of reproductive behaviour and
how it relates to reproductive physiology and its interaction with
the environment, shellfish can also be a real problem to work
with in captivity. In this case a lot of techniques have been
developed through trial and error and then exploited more
systematically in commercial production.
I remember we used to collect pipi from the beach to chop up
and feed to Moreton bay bug nauplii.These pipi were brought
back to the research centre and kept in 200-litre tubs.The tubs
were aerated vigorously and filled with a thick culture of
phytoplankton to enrich the pipi.
During their peak reproductive season they often spawned
spontaneously in these tanks, which resulted in millions of
gametes everywhere.
Scallops have also been observed to spawn spontaneously after
vigorous agitation of the water they have been contained in. Even
abalone have been observed to do this. I also remember that at
curtain times during the summer months sea slugs, another
mollusc, that had settled in our grow-out ponds would produce
large amounts of spiralling egg masses on the tank walls.
It seems to me that across species the subtle play of gamete
maturity and its interaction with environmental variables, and the
underlying physiological limits on breeding, are common and in
principal very similar.
However, you cannot say Eureka! and vigorously agitate a
species to make it spawn during the reproductive season. It
should be remembered that the process is more complex than
that and aspects are species specific.
For instance, chemical communication likely plays a key role in
the success and synchrony of maturation and spawning. In
mussels, scallops and sea cucumbers it is beneficial to keep
individuals in separate tubs in the hatchery prior to inducing
and/or augmenting spawning behaviours.
However, mesh screens are often used to allow mixing of
water which in some instances has been proven to allow
synchronisation of gamete maturation. I have done this with sea
cucumbers to some degree of success.
Once these animals are going to spawn it is not necessary to
have mesh screens, which is great for spawning as it allows more
control over selective breeding. Unless you are conditioning
animals over a long period of time in the hatchery this is not
always successful either.
Factors such as gamete age, whether animals have already
spawned in the wild, and the timing of spawning during the
reproductive season when animals are being exploited all
contribute to gamete viability and the success of breeding.
Similar trial and error methods or perhaps methods that have
been stumbled on have been developed for other species. In
terms of Moreton bay bugs, crabs and prawns, the process of

maturation and spawning is well understood.

Eyestalk ablation is often used in combination with continuous
dim light, resulting in constant access to mature, reproductively
ripe animals for gametes. I remember with mud crabs that the egg
clutch could be observed as it matured after mating, and the timing
of spawning predicted to within days using a qualitative index.
A similar condition index for
maturation has also been
developed for a number of species
of prawn to predict spawning after
being held in captivity under
consistent conditions.
Not that crustaceans are any
easier to breed, but the
physiological processes and
hormonal pathways involved are
better understood. In fact, in terms
of the whole organism, they are
also more accessible, thus the
success of using eyestalk ablation. If
you tried to do the same in
molluscs you would have to cut a
tiny nerve near a small ganglion
around the oesophagus.
In echinoderms it would be
nearly impossible to achieve the
same without killing the animal. In fact, in both phyla the whole
reproductive endocrine process is more of a black box.
I remember walking into the dark maturation room containing
16-tonne holding tanks that were being supplied with filtered
seawater at a constant temperature and a dim light source.We
would shine a torch into the tanks to spot the prawns, and the light
from the torch would show up their gonad or roe as it ripened.We
then recorded on a whiteboard an index of how ripe they were.
Close to spawning time we would be in there every day, as once
a drop in the condition index was observed we knew that they
had done their thing.Then it was a matter of shining the torch on
the water as the hatched larvae were positively phototactic and
swam towards it, making it easy to sieve them out of the tanks.
Dealing with mud crabs was a little different, as close to
spawning, which we knew by the development of an eye spot in
the egg clutch embryos, the female crab and her babies were
taken to a large, conical tank containing a plastic cage to
complete spawning of hatched larvae.
So, as you can see, it is amazing to see the similarities
underpinning the successes in working with various species, and
it is very rewarding to be able to identify the subtle differences
between species, both within and among phyla that enable more
success in hatchery production.
A key aspect of this is understanding how features of
reproductive endocrinology underlying maturation remain
conserved across species. Being able to exploit this in captivity is
achieved by recognising key features at the level of the whole
organism that differentiate how they respond to their
surrounding environment.This is expressed as reproductive
behaviours that differ between species and phyla, that through a
process of trial and error, development of methodologies and
then more rigorous experimental testing, enables the
commercial exploitation of species in the hatchery.

A gonad
tubule
(0.6mm
diameter)
filled with ripe
sperm as
evidenced by
the presence
of spawning
channels

A gonad
tubule
(0.6mm
diameter)
filled with ripe
oocytes
(unfertilised
eggs) ready to
be spawned

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