l

l
l

Understanding ruminant digestion and nutrient requirements.

Appreciating the interactions of feed intake and energy balance.
Assessing milk production and fertility needs.

A detailed knowledge of rumen physiology and

ruminant metabolism is not essential for improving
herd performance through better feeding.

Contents
l

Action Plan

Page 2-1

However, a broad understanding of rumen

fermentation, nutrient requirements, feed intake
and utilisation, energy balance, milk production
and fertility needs, metabolic disorders and feed
resources is important for anyone wishing to make
the most of the many opportunities available
for nutritional improvement in the vast majority
of herds.

Ruminant Physiology

Page 2-2

Nutrient Requirements

Page 2-5

Feed Intake & Utilisation

Page 2-10

Nutrition & Milk Production

Page 2-13

Nutrition & Fertility

Page 2-14

Metabolic Disorders

Page 2-15

Feeding & Breeding

Page 2-16

Feed Resources

Page 2-17

It establishes the fundamental basis for improvement;

allows dairy feeding to be planned in the most
efficient way to achieve the required economic,
environmental and social objectives; and enables
common nutritional pitfalls to be appreciated
and avoided.

1:7/08

Summary
l It is vital to appreciate the dynamic state of

l The levels and ratios of individual VFAs

the rumen environment and the extent to

which changing feeds or feeding systems can
alter rumen conditions for better or worse.

produced by the digestive system can have

a marked influence on milk fat and protein.

l Nutrition in general and energy nutrition

l Cows require four main groups of nutrients to

in particular has a major effect on fertility.

live, grow, produce and reproduce water,

energy, protein, and minerals and vitamins.

l The challenge of feeding high yielding cows is

l The range of metabolic disorders affecting dairy

underlined by the fact that in a single lactation

they are likely to produce more dry matter in
the form of milk than their body contains.

l Body Condition Scoring is widely accepted as

a practical way of assessing body fat reserves,

providing a good measure of a cows energy
balance to inform feeding and management.

See also

cows can invariably be prevented by ensuring

the best possible dietary balance and particularly
careful management at drying off, during the
dry period and in early lactation.

l While different types of stock may be better suited

to different production systems, regardless of

breed the key to cost-effective feeding is meeting
the animals particular performance requirements
within their specific intake capacities.

Section 3: Planning Your Feeding

Section 4: Assessing Your Feed Options
Section 5: Managing Your Forage Feeds
Section 6: Managing Your Non-Forage Feeds
Section 7: Managing Your Feeding
Section 9: Managing Dry Cow Feeding
Section 11: Fact Sheet 1: Metabolic Disorders
Fact Sheet 2: Common Feed Analysis Terms
Fact Sheet 3: The Dietary Cation Anion
Balance (DCAB) System
Fact Sheet 4: Body Condition Scoring
Fact Sheet 5: Common Ration Ingredients

1:7/08

Action Plan
To understand the essentials of ruminant digestion and
feed utilisation.
1

Understand Ruminant Digestion

Understand the way the rumen works and the key factors
determining the efficiency of ruminant digestion.

Page 2-2

Understand Key Nutrient Needs

Understand the critical water, energy, protein, mineral and vitamin needs
that have to be met each day through your feeding.

Understand Feed Intake and Utilisation

Appreciate the interactions affecting feed intake and nutrient utilisation
and the vital importance of ensuring the right energy balance.

The pd+
programme provides practical
advice on improving
herd fertility.
For detailed guidance on optimising
feeding for fertility see Section 7.

1:7/08

Page 2-13

Understand Feed Ingredients

Understand the vast range of ingredients available for dairy feeding
and the need to select them carefully.

Page 2-10

Understand Feeding Consequences

Understand the way in which feeding affects milk production, fertility
and digestive health and efficiency.

Page 2-5

The grass+
programme provides practical
advice on making the most
of grass.
l

For detailed guidance on grazing

supplementation see Section 6.

Page 2-17

The breeding+
programme provides practical
advice on improving
through breeding.
l

For detailed guidance on herd

improvement priorities see Section 1.

2-1

Ruminant Physiology
Ruminants are distinguished from other animals by having a
four-compartment stomach, comprising rumen, reticulum,
omasum and abomasum (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: The Ruminant Stomach

Re
tic
ul
um

Rumen

Omasum

Ab

sum
a
om

l While rumen fermentation allows good use

to be made of fibrous feeds that could not

otherwise be digested, it does mean only
around 70-85% of the energy in the feed is
available to the animal 6-15% commonly
being lost as gases (mainly methane) and
6-7% as heat.

Small in comparison to it, the reticulum is a continuation of the

rumen with a honeycomb structure.
Microbial fermentation continues as the feed moves through
the reticulum and into the omasum a globe-shaped structure
containing page-like folds of tissue from which water and some
nutrients are absorbed.
Moving through the omasum, the mixture of feed and rumen
micro-organisms becomes progressively drier.
Excessive intake of minerals or low quality fibre (such as
sunflower hulls) can cause compaction of the omasum.

Located on the left side of the body, the rumen makes up over
65% of an adult cows total stomach volume.
It is, in effect, a huge fermentation vat containing a soup of
around 130 litres of chewed-up feed with large amounts of
saliva and micro-organisms primarily bacteria and protozoa.
Floating on top of this soup is a fibrous mat of coarser solid
material which acts as a filter.
Feed particles are regurgitated and re-chewed until they are small
enough to fall through the fibre mat into the rumen liquor below.
The rumen liquor commonly contains between 109 and 1011
bacterial per ml, together with 105 -106 protozoa.
These break down degradable feed materials to produce Volatile
Fatty Acids (VFAs), ammonia and a variety of long chain fatty acids.
Ammonia is used as a nitrogen source for microbial growth and VFAs
absorbed from the rumen are a key energy source for the cow.
The inside of the rumen wall is lined with small finger-like
papillae which increase its absorptive area, allowing VFAs,
ammonia and water to move directly into the bloodstream.
The papillae shorten, decreasing the rumens inner surface
area, when a low energy diet is fed (during the early dry period,
for example).
Increasing the rumen-available energy content of the diet in the
form of sugar and starch stimulates papillae growth, improving
VFA absorption.

2-2

Finally the abomasum or true stomach secretes hydrochloric

acid and digestive enzymes to begin breaking down feeds that
have escaped microbial digestion together with microbes excreted
from the rumen.
Displaced abomasum (or twisted stomach) occurs when this
area of the stomach moves from the lower right side to the
left and top side of the cow.
From the stomach the digesta moves into the small intestine
where most of the digestive enzymes are secreted to break
down both feed and microbial nutrients into simpler nutritional
building blocks.
These are absorbed across the intestinal lining and into the
bloodstream through small finger-like projections (villi) which
increase its surface area in the same was as the papillae in
the rumen.
Few digestive problems occur in this area.
Bacterial fermentation of some undigested feed occurs in the
final section of the digestive tract the large intestine which
also absorbs both VFAs and water.

Fact Sheet 1 provides

practical guidance on
metabolic disorders

1:7/08

Understanding Rumen Dynamics

The contents of the rumen are continually mixed by the rhythmic
contraction of its walls, a healthy rumen contracting around twice
a minute.
As well as bringing feed and bacteria into close contact with each
other, the contractions move smaller, denser feed particles out of
the rumen while bringing larger, lighter particles up to the fibre
mat at the top surface for rumination.
Cows commonly spend 8-10 hours/day ruminating, the extent
of rumination depending on the roughage content of the diet.
The cycle of rumination involves four distinct elements:
Regurgitation coarse material (the scratch effect) at the upper
end of the rumen stimulates a bolus of feed (cud) to be returned
to the mouth.
Chewing each cud of regurgitated food is chewed many times
to grind it down into particles small enough to pass out of
the rumen.
Salivation chewing stimulates the secretion of buffer-containing
saliva (as much as 75 litres/day) which is mixed with the cud to
stabilise rumen pH.
Swallowing once the coarse material has been ground down
sufficiently by chewing it is swallowed and sinks to the bottom
of the rumen to pass into the reticulum.

Rule of Thumb
When cows are resting (not eating or being milked) over 60%
should be ruminating.
If the diet contains adequate long fibre cows should chew at
least 30 times (ideally 60) before re-swallowing.

Understanding VFA Production

l Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs) produced from

microbial fermentation of feed carbohydrates

in the rumen are the primary source of energy
for ruminants.

Three distinct volatile fatty acids are produced by rumen fermentation

acetate, propionate and butyrate the balance primarily
depending on the balance of nutrient sources in the diet (Table 2.1).
Acetate represents 55-70% of total VFA production and is an
important precursor in milk fat synthesis.
Butyrate varies from 5-15% of VFA production and is also a milk
fat precursor.
Propionate comprises 15-30% of the VFA production and is a key
precursor in milk lactose synthesis.

l Under optimal conditions the acetate:propionate

ratio should be greater than 2.2 to 1.

High levels of acetate indicate a high fibre/low starch ration,

producing a generally slower, more stable fermentation.
High levels of propionate indicate a high starch/low fibre ration
producing a faster rate of fermentation which can lead to reduced
rumen pH, depressed fibre
digestion and even acidosis.
Fact Sheet 1 provides
practical guidance on
metabolic disorders

Table 2.1: Diet, Fermentation and VFA Production

Microbe

Substrate

Nitrogen
requirement

Main VFAs
produced

Cellulose
Hemicellulose

Ammonia

Starch and sugardigesting bacteria

Starch
Sugar

Ammonia
Amino acids

Protozoa

Starch
Sugar

Amino acids

Fibre-digesting
bacteria

1:7/08

pH range

Hours to double
microbial population

Acetate
Butyrate

6.0-6.8

8-10

Propionate
Lactate

5.5-6.0

0.5

6.2-7.0

15-24

2-3

Understanding Rumen Efficiency

l With fibre-digesting bacteria thriving best

at pH 6.0-6.8 and starch-digesting bacteria

at 5.5-6.0, the best balance of fibre and starch
digestion occurs at a rumen pH of around 6.0.

Factors affecting rumen pH and fermentation efficiency include:

l

Excessive amounts of concentrates, on the other hand, increase

propionate production, decrease rumen pH, reduce feed intake
and microbial production and depress butterfats.

Rule of Thumb
A forage to concentrate ratio of 60:40 (on a dry matter
basis) should be maintained wherever possible.
Going below 50:50 is not advisable.

Concentrate type

Starch-based concentrates may depress rumen pH to a greater

extent than those based on digestible fibre.
l

Physical form of feeds

Grinding, pelleting, chopping or over-mixing can reduce the

particle size of feeds to a level at which the rumen mat cannot be
maintained, depressing rumination, saliva production and pH.
Finely ground concentrates increase microbial fermentation
(favouring lactic acid-producing bacteria, in particular), reducing
rumen pH and increasing the risk of acidosis.
l

Feed intake levels.

Higher feed intakes mean more material available for bacterial

fermentation and higher levels of VFA production.
The amount of saliva produced per unit of feed dry matter may
also decline, leading rumen pH to drop.
l

Ration moisture content

Wet feeds can reduce rumen pH because less saliva is needed to

lubricate the feed for swallowing.
Rumen pH can also be adversely affected with very dry diets
because of low intake levels.

2-4

The optimum DM of the total ration is 45-55%.

l

Degradable fat levels

If they are available in the rumen, fatty acids in vegetable and fish
oils can coat fibre particles, reducing their digestibility. They can
also be toxic to fibre-digesting bacteria.
Grinding or extruding oilseeds tends to make these effects worse
by rupturing cell walls and releasing oil into the rumen, while
feeding whole oilseeds can reduce this risk.

Forage to concentrate ratio

High forage diets stimulate higher rates of saliva production,

better rumen buffering and greater acetate production which
supports butterfat levels.

Rule of Thumb

Rule of Thumb
The amount of degradable fats in the ration should be
limited to less than 4%.
l

Feeding method

Total mixed rations (TMR) can be beneficial in stabilising rumen

pH, providing a balanced supply of nutrients for the most
efficient bacterial fermentation, increasing dry matter intake
and minimising feed selection (Section 3).
When high levels of concentrates are included, however, rumen
pH may still be below optimum and fibre digestion compromised.
If concentrates are fed separately, it is important to limit the amount
to 3 kg/meal and avoid high starch levels and finely processed grains
to prevent large fluctuations in rumen pH (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2: Rumen pH Fluctuations on Different

Feeding Regimes
7

Parlour fed twice per day

High Forage TMR

6.5

Optimum pH

pH 6

High Concentrate TMR

5.5
5

Time

l It is vital to appreciate the dynamic state of

the rumen environment and the extent to

which changing feeds or feeding systems can
alter rumen conditions for better or worse.

1:7/08

Nutrient Requirements
l Cows require four main groups of nutrients to

live, grow, produce and reproduce water,

energy, protein, and minerals and vitamins.

Cryptosporidia, leptospirosis and Johnes disease are a few of the

serious pathogens that can be passed on from contaminated water.

Water Quality Testing

Appreciating Water Requirements

Comprising 50-80% of a cows body, depending on age, and
essential for all cellular functions as well milk production, the
transport of nutrients and excretion of waste products, water is
the single most important dairy nutrient. It is also vital to the
regulation of body temperature.

All non-mains water should be tested annually for pH, total

dissolved solids, total coliform bacteria, faecal coliform bacteria,
total plate count and key minerals (Table 2.3) using clean, sterile
sample containers from a testing laboratory.
Samples for bacteriological testing must be refrigerated, insulated,
and delivered to the laboratory within six hours. Other samples
can be delivered or mailed using a standard overnight service.

Table 2.3 Water Quality Guidelines

The amount of drinking water a cow requires depends on milk

yield, the moisture (or dry matter) content of the feed and the
ambient temperature (Table 2.2).

Chemical

Desirable
level (mg/l)

Possible problem
level (mg/l)

pH

6.5 to 8.0

Under 5.5 or over 8.5

Rule of Thumb

Total coliform bacteria

<20,000*

50,000*

Cows require at least 60 litres of water/head/day and may

need 100 litres or more depending upon yield.

Total dissolved solids

<1000

3000

Sulphate

<250

2000

Fluoride

<1.0

1.5

Calcium

<300

500

Magnesium

<75

125

As cows tend to drink in groups it is vital to provide sufficient

trough space to ensure good access for all (Section 7).
Because cows have a good sense of smell and taste it is important
to ensure water supplies are of sufficient quality as well as
sufficiently available.

Copper

<0.4

0.6

Arsenic

<0.1

0.2

Salmonella and other coliform bacteria can survive for long

periods in the environment and leach into otherwise clean
water supplies from some distance.

Cadmium

<0.02

0.05

Lead

<0.05

0.1

Nitrate-nitrogen

<50

100

Poorly-sited wells or bore holes can lead to contamination from

nearby slurry stores, septic tank outflows, carcase burial pits and
even landfills.

Barium

<5

10

* total per litre

Table 2.2: Daily Drinking Water Requirement (litres)

Average daily
milk yield
Temperature

20 litres
<160C

16-200C

50
54
57
62
64

57
62
66
71
74

40 litres

30 litres
>200C

<160C

16-200C

>200C

<160C

94
100
105
110
115

93
97
101
105
109

16-200C

>200C

Ration DM

30%
40%
50%
60%
70%

1:7/08

65
71
76
82
85

71
76
79
84
87

82
87
91
96
100

107
112
116
121
125

123
129
133
139
144

2-5

Appreciating Energy Requirements

Figure 2.3: Rates of Rumen Fermentation

Rate of Fermentation

Some 50-80% of the energy cows require to power all their bodily
functions comes from Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs) produced by the
fermentation of feed carbohydrates in the rumen, with the
remainder derived from carbohydrates, fats and proteins that
escape rumen degradation.

Soluble sugars
Starches and dextrins
Cell wall carbohydrates

l Ruminant energy requirements and feed energy

supplies are generally expressed in terms of

Metabolisable Energy (ME) the energy
available to the cow after accounting for
losses in digestion, gases and urine.

l Fermentable Metabolisable Energy (FME) is the

proportion of the ME potentially available in

the rumen.

Dairy feeds comprise two main types of carbohydrate

non-structural sugars and starch from the contents of plant
cells and seeds, and structural cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin found in plant fibres and seed coats.

12
Time hours

24

Table 2.4: Digestibility and Speed of Digestion of

Common Feeds
Digestibility (%)

Rate of digestion
(hours)

Molasses

95

0.5

Turnips/fodder beet

85

2-6

Cereals

80

12-14

Good grass

70

18-24

Feed

Good clover

70

12-18

Poor hay

55

30-40

Although not strictly a carbohydrate and virtually indigestible,

lignin is grouped with structural carbohydrates analytically.

Straw

40

45-55

In analyses acid detergent fibre (ADF) measures the cellulose,

lignin and lignified nitrogen components while neutral detergent
fibre (NDF) comprises these elements plus hemi-cellulose and
represents the total fibre content of the feed.

Table 2.5: Guidelines for Ration Energy Requirements

Energy
Component

Content in Ration Dry Matter

The extent and speed of carbohydrate degradation in the rumen

varies with the maturity of forages, sources of carbohydrate and
degree of feed processing (Figure 2.3 and Table 2.4).

Sugar

5-10%

The balance of different carbohydrates in the feed is important in

determining the efficiency of ruminant digestion and metabolism
(Table 2.5).

Fact Sheet 2 summarises

the common terms used
in feed analyses.

2-6

Starch

15-20%, half in slowly rumen degraded form

Fibre (ADF)
(NDF)

18-25% minimum
30-35% minimum

Fat

6% maximum, with a maximum 4% in rumen

degradable form

Dietary fats triglycerides with three fatty acids attached to a

glycerol molecule are very much a secondary source of energy
for ruminants, being present only at modest levels (2-3%) in diets
commonly fed to dairy cattle.

1:7/08

As highly concentrated sources of energy, animal fats and

vegetable oils can be particularly valuable in increasing the
energy content of rations for high yielding cows, particularly
if they are protected from rumen degradation.
Since fatty acids can interfere with rumen fermentation and fibre
digestion, the fat content of dairy rations should be limited to
a maximum of 6% of the dry matter (Table 2.5).

l Bacteria cannot use either fermentation acids

or fats/oils as an energy source, so the right

balance of dietary sugar, starch and fibre is
essential for efficient rumen function.

Figure 2.5 Protein Metabolism

MP

DUP
D.Mic.P
UDP
Mouth
Feed CP

Gut
Rumen

UDP
Mic.P

RDP

ERDP

Lost Ammonia

Faecal P

Urine N
Imbalances of the main energy sources can cause the following
problems:
l

Sugar and starch Too high Risk of acidosis; fat cows.

Too low Risk of low milk protein;
thin cows.

Fibre

Fat

Too high Intakes drop.

Too low Risk of acidosis; displaced
abomasums.
Too high Poor fibre digestion and
low intakes.
Too low Risk of low milk yield and fat.

Appreciating Protein Requirements

Essential to every aspect of body maintenance, reproduction and
milk production, so called Metabolisable Protein (MP) is supplied
to the cow as a combination of microbial protein from the rumen
and dietary protein that passes through it undegraded (Figure 2.5).

l Ruminant protein requirements and feed

protein supplies are generally expressed in

terms of Crude Protein (CP) which includes
non-protein nitrogen as well as true protein.

UDP Undegradable Dietary Protein

RDP Rumen Degradable Protein
ERDP Effective Rumen Degradable Protein
DUP Digestible Undegradable Protein
Mic.P Microbial Protein
D.Mic.P Digestible Microbial Protein
About 60-70% of dietary protein is degraded by rumen microbes
into peptides, amino acids or ammonia which they use as
nitrogen sources.
Rumen microbes incorporate these building blocks into microbial
protein, the most important factor governing the efficiency with
which rumen degradable protein is converted into microbial
protein being the supply of readily fermentable energy.
Unincorporated ammonia is absorbed across the rumen wall and
into blood, converted to urea in the liver, and recycled in saliva
or excreted in urine and milk.

l Although not considered to be a reliable guide

for fertility purposes, milk urea nitrogen (MUN)

concentrations can provide useful indications
of the efficiency with which protein is being
utilised in the rumen (Section 7).

l Rumen Degradable Protein (RDP) describes

the protein supply available to the rumen

microbes, while Digestible Undegraded Protein
(DUP) is the protein available from the feed
which escapes rumen degradation.

1:7/08

Fact Sheet 2 summarises

the common terms used
in feed analyses.

2-7

Sodium, potassium and sulphur salts are ionic and affect the
acid-base balance in cows critical to the maintenance of many
bodily functions.

Appreciating Mineral & Vitamin

Requirements
Minerals are inorganic compounds needed for a whole host of
regulatory and structural functions in the cow. They are provided in
different quantities and at different availabilities by different feeds
and are supplied in a range of feed supplements (Section 4).

Macro Minerals
So-called macro minerals (required in relatively large amounts
grams/cow/day and expressed as a percent of ration dry matter)
include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium and
sulphur (Table 2.6).

When dry cows are fed rations high in potassium (producing

positively-charged ions), for instance, the availability and
absorption of magnesium can be reduced, leading to milk
fever type symptoms.
There is good evidence that feeding anionic (negatively-charged)
chlorine or sulphur salts using a Dietary Cation-Anion Balance
(DCAB) approach helps
prevent milk fever in
Fact Sheet 3 provides
these circumstances
detailed information on
(Section 9).
the DCAB system.
If dry cow rations contain
potassium at over 2% in the
forage DM, however, it is often better to change the forage rather
than adding anionic salts, since their poor palatability can depress
appetite dramatically at a time when intakes are already under
severe pressure.

Table 2.6: Key Macro Mineral Functions, Deficiency Symptoms and Interactions
Mineral

Use

Deficiency Symptoms

Interactions

Calcium (Ca)

Bone growth, enzymes,

muscular and nervous system

Rickets, milk fever,

low milk yield

Phosphorus,
Magnesium, Vitamin D

Phosphorus (P)

Bone growth,
energy metabolism

Rickets, depraved appetite,

poor fertility

Calcium, Magnesium, Iron,

Aluminium, Vitamin D

Magnesium (Mg) Enzymes, muscular

and nervous systems

Staggers,
convulsions

Calcium, Phosphorus,
Potassium

Sodium (Na)

Muscular and nervous systems,

acid-base balance

Poor appetite, low milk

production, urine licking

Potassium,
Chlorine, Sulphur

Chlorine (Cl)

Acid-base balance,
hydrochloric acid

Poor appetite,
urine licking

Sodium,
Potassium

Potassium (K)

Acid-base balance,
nervous system

Low feed intake,

poor coat condition

Sodium, Chlorine,
Magnesium

Sulphur (S)

Acid-base balance, sulphur

amino acids, B vitamins

Poor appetite,
reduced microbial growth

Copper, Molybdenum,
Nitrogen

Fact Sheet 1 provides

practical guidance on
metabolic disorders

2-8

1:7/08

Trace Elements

Vitamins

Key trace elements (minerals only required in relatively small

amounts and measured in milligrams/day) include cobalt, copper,
iodine, iron, manganese, selenium and zinc (Table 2.7).

Vitamins are organic compounds needed in small amounts for

a variety of chemical reactions in the body (Table 2.8).

They can be supplemented in either inorganic (e.g. zinc oxide) or

organic (e.g. zinc methionine) forms.

Table 2.8: Key Vitamin Functions, Deficiency Symptoms

and Interactions

Inorganic minerals are most commonly used because they are less
expensive and more concentrated than organic minerals.

Vitamin

The many interactions between minerals and the fact that some can
be toxic at relatively low levels makes providing them in excess of
requirements as harmful as failing to correct deficiencies.
Common mineral ratios to avoid imbalances include:
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Zinc : Copper

< 6:1

Zinc : Manganese

1:1 - 1.5:1

Iron : Copper

40:1

Potassium : Magnesium

Deficiency Symptoms

Interactions

Vitamin A Immune
system, vision

Night blindness,
skin problems,
weak calves,
poor fertility

Vitamin D Bone growth,

calcium and
phosphorus
metabolism

Rickets, osteomalacia,
milk fever

Calcium,
Phosphorus

Vitamin E Antioxidant

White muscle
disease, mastitis,
retained cleansings

Selenium

< 6:1

Copper : Molybdenum
Potassium : Sodium

Use

6:1
3:1 - 7:1

Potassium : Calcium + Magnesium

<5:1

Table 2.7: Key Trace Element Functions, Deficiency Symptoms and Interactions
Mineral

Use

Deficiency Symptoms

Cobalt (Co)

Microbes to make vitamin B12

Poor appetite, anaemia,

rough coat
Poor immune system, rough coat Molybdenum, Sulphur, Iron
(red tint), diarrhoea
Goitre, poor fertility
Copper
Anaemia

Copper (Cu)

Enzymes, muscular and

nervous systems, blood
Iodine (I)
Synthesis of thyroxine
Iron (Fe)
Haemoglobin, enzyme systems,
immune system
Manganese (Mn) Growth, bone formation,
enzyme system
Selenium (Se)
Immune function, enzyme
system, cell membranes
Zinc (Zn)

1:7/08

Immune function, enzyme

system, tissue repair

Skeletal abnormalities,
poor growth, poor fertility
Poor immune function,
white muscle disease,
mastitis, retained placenta
Parakeratosis of skin, mastitis,
stiff joints, high cell count,
hoof problems

Interactions

Calcium, Phosphorus, Zinc, Iron

Calcium, Sulphur

Iron, Copper, Manganese

2-9

Fresh forages are good sources of fat soluble vitamins (such as

Vitamin A, D and E) but dried, stored and ensiled forages have
little vitamin content remaining so diets based upon them must
generally be supplemented.

A large number of different animal, food and management

factors affect DM intake.

Water-soluble B vitamins can be synthesised by rumen microbes

to meet the requirements of most dairy cows.

Cobalt is needed for rumen microbial synthesis of Vitamin B12.

There is some evidence to support supplementing biotin (Vitamin

B7) at 20mg/day for improved foot health and milk yield and
niacin (Vitamin B3) at 6g/day before calving and 12g/day after
calving to minimise ketosis especially in over-fat cows.

Fact Sheet 1 provides

practical guidance on
metabolic disorders

Key animal factors affecting DMI include:

l

l
l
l

Big cows eat more than small cows.

Cow breed

Some breeds of cow eat more for their

size than others.

Cow age

Heifers eat less than mature cows.

Milk yield

Higher yielding cows eat more than

lower yielders.

Cow condition

Fat cows eat less than thin cows.

Stage of lactation

Early lactation cows eat less than those

in mid and late-lactation.

Key food factors affecting DMI include:

l

Fibre content

Cows eat less when fibre levels are too

high.

Protein content

Cows eat more when protein levels rise.

Processing

Cows eat more when the feed particle

size is smaller.

Moisture content

Cows eat most at a ration DM of 45-55%.

Diet composition

Cows eat less when rations are poorly

balanced.

Digestibility

Cows eat more when rations are more

digestible.

Feed Intake
& Utilisation

Cow size

l
l
l

While the efficiency with which feeds are fermented and digested
clearly has a major effect on nutrient supply, the most important
factor governing the extent to which cows can meet their energy,
protein and other nutrient needs is the amount of feed they consume.

Key management factors affecting DMI include:

This is especially important in the early stages of lactation when

the energy demand for production is higher than intake can
support, creating an increasingly negative energy balance which
cows have to meet from body reserves, milking off their backs.

Understanding Feed Intake

l Feed consumption is generally expressed in

terms of Dry Matter Intake (DMI) the weight

of feed material consumed excluding the
moisture it contains.

2-10

l
l

l
l

Feed access

Cows eat more when feed is available ad-lib.

Water access

Cows eat more when palatable water is

readily available.

Feeding frequency Cows eat more when fresh feeds are

provided more frequently.
Ration palatability Cows eat more the tastier they find
the feed.
Feed spoilage

Cows eat less when feeds are spoiled by

decay or contamination.

Ration changes

Cows eat less when rations are changed

abruptly.

Cow comfort

Cows eat more when they are relaxed

and comfortable.

1:7/08

Substitution Rates
The clear limit to the amount of fibre (NDF) cows can consume in
a day means intakes of low fibre feeds like wheat (12% NDF) are
potentially four times those of higher fibre feeds like good quality
silage (48% NDF).
As well as having important implications for overall intakes, this
means cows will eat less forage when supplements are available, the
extent of this substitution depending on the type of supplement.
Concentrate feeds generally displace relatively small amounts of
forage from the diet, so supplementation will generally allow
daily DM intakes and performance to be increased.
A kilogram of wheat (12% NDF) will, for instance, displace
only 0.25 kg of 48% NDF silage from the daily intake
(12% 48% = 0.25 substitution).
In contrast, higher fibre feeds have higher substitution rates
a kilogram of sugar beet pulp (32% NDF) displacing 0.67 kg
(32% 48%) of the same silage.

l When buffer feeding grazed grass, higher

fibre feeds can lead to substitution rates of

greater than 1.0, reducing daily intakes and
compromising performance (Section 5).

The grass+
programme provides practical
advice on making the most
of grass.
l

For detailed guidance on grazing

supplementation see Section 6.

Prioritising Energy Balance

Nutrients absorbed from the gut are continually being partitioned
within the cow to maintain its body functions and support the
production of milk and body reserves.
Over and above the nutrients required for maintenance, milk
production receives the clear priority in early lactation, with
shortages of nutrients from the diet made-up by the mobilisation
of body reserves.
Thereafter, there is a progressive re-ordering of priorities, with
milk production declining and a greater proportion of nutrients
being directed to rebuilding body reserves primarily fat.

l The challenge of feeding high yielding cows is

underlined by the fact that in a single lactation

they are likely to produce more dry matter in
the form of milk than their body contains.

This challenge is particularly intense in early lactation as milk

yields build rapidly to a peak about 4-8 weeks after calving
whereas maximum voluntary feed intake is only reached after
around 10-12 weeks (Figure 2.6).
Ensuring high DM intakes as soon as possible after calving is a
key priority if high levels of both production and fertility are to
be achieved.
The inevitable rise in energy demand for milk production ahead
of energy intake in the first few weeks of lactation has not been
found to cause problems as long as intake catches-up with
production by around the sixth or eighth week of lactation, at
which time the negative energy balance ceases and cows stop
losing weight.

Figure 2.6: Energy Demand and Supply Over

the Lactation
Negative Energy Balance
Milk Yield (Energy Demand)

Milk
Yield
and
Intake

Feed Intake (Energy Supply)

10

16

20

24

28

32

36

40

44

Stage of Lactation (weeks)

1:7/08

2-11

l The fact that early lactation intakes have not

risen in line with milk yields in recent years has

meant increasingly deeper and longer periods of
negative energy balance in excess of 20 weeks
in studies with very high yielding herds.

At peak milk yields of up to 40 litres/day most cows have

relatively little difficulty consuming sufficient feed to support
their production without drawing too heavily on their body fat
reserves, providing their diets are sufficiently concentrated,
palatable and available.
Once daily DM intakes of 24 kg or more are required by yields
much in excess of 40 litres/day, however, increasing problems
arise, even with particularly high energy density diets and
relatively high daily weight losses (Table 2.9).

l Considerable research into nutrition and

fertility performance has pinpointed more

pronounced and protracted early lactation
energy deficits as a major factor in the
lower fertility experienced by many high
yielding cows.

Research and experience

indicates a daily DM intake
of 3.5% of body weight
should be achieved by
five weeks after calving
for optimum performance
in high yielding herds
(Table 2.10).

The pd+
programme provides practical
advice on improving
herd fertility.
l

For detailed guidance on optimising

feeding for fertility see Section 7.

Table 2.9: The Impact of Yield on Energy and DM Intake Requirements

Annual Milk
Yield (litres)

5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000

Typical Peak
Yield (litres/day)

Intake Requirement
to Support Peak Yield (kg DM/day)

23
27
32
36
41
45
50
55
59

Total Ration Energy Concentration (ME/kg DM)

11 MJ
12 MJ
13 MJ
Weight Loss (kg/day)
Weight Loss (kg/day)
Weight Loss (kg/day)
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
15
13
13
11
12
10
17
15
15
13
14
12
19
17
17
15
16
14
21
19
19
17
18
16
24
21
22
19
20
18
26
24
24
21
22
20
28
26
26
24
24
22
23
25
26
28
28
30
33
30
30
28
27
25
Table 2.10: Dry Matter Intake Targets for
High Concentrate Systems (kg/day)
Weeks After Calving

2-12

Heifers (2 years)

Cows

9.5

15.5

15.5

19.0

16.5

20.5

18.0

21.5

19.0

24.0

1:7/08

Indeed, the primary challenge in later lactation nutrition tends

to be to prevent cows putting on too much condition.

Assessing Cow Condition

l Body condition scoring is widely accepted as

a practical way of assessing body fat reserves,

providing a good measure of a cows energy
balance to inform feeding and management.

A semi-subjective assessment to an 11-point scale of half units,

condition scoring is best carried out by the same person on each
occasion to eliminate operator differences (Section 7).
As the change in condition score is more important than the
absolute value, scoring should be undertaken regularly.
A good routine involves scoring:
l
l
l
l

At calving;
Prior to first service;
In mid-lactation; and,

Fact Sheet 4 provides

practical advice on Body
Condition Scoring

At drying-off.

l Considerable research and practical experience

has established the following ideal Body Condition

Score targets for key stages in the lactation cycle:
l At calving:
2.75-3.0
l Prior to first service:
2.25-2.5
l In mid-lactation:
2.5-2.75
l At drying-off:
2.75-3.0

Most of the major constituents of milk lactose, fat and protein

are synthesised in the mammary gland from precursors selectively
absorbed from the blood and transported either from the
digestive system or from body reserves.
Lactose is mainly synthesised from glucose which, in turn, is
produced in the liver from the VFA, propionate, together with
glycerol and fatty acids from the breakdown of dietary or
body fat.
Since the amount of water secreted by the mammary gland is
directly related to lactose levels, lactose synthesis is the principal
driver of milk volume.
The primary building blocks of milk fat are the VFAs, acetate and
butyrate, with glucose supplying the glycerol required.
Milk protein primarily casein is produced from amino acids.
Milk production always follows the same general pattern over
the lactation, progressively declining from its peak 4-8 weeks
after calving.
However, the shape of the lactation curve will vary with the
breeding and age of cow, month of calving and, most importantly,
the feeding regime.
Some lactation curves show marked peaks with a more rapid
initial rise and subsequent decline in production, while others
are notably flatter, rising to less of a peak but maintaining
production far better as the lactation progresses (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7 Typical Lactation Curves.

45.0
40.0
35.0

Daily yield

Since DM intake rises and milk production declines in mid-late

lactation, achieving the correct balance between energy supply
and demand becomes progressively easier; especially so as cows
will be safely back in calf by this time.

Nutrition &
Milk Production

30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0

Rule of Thumb
Cows should: Maintain condition during the dry period;
Lose no more than 0.25 Condition Score to
4 weeks post calving; and,
Lose no more than 0.25 Condition Score from
4 to 8 weeks post calving.

1:7/08

0.0
1

10

Month of lactation

Providing the same amount of milk is produced over the

lactation, flatter curves stimulated by flat-rate concentrate
feeding can be advantageous because they mean lower peaks
of energy demand and potentially lower early lactation energy
deficits (Section 6).

2-13

Influencing Milk Components

l The levels and ratios of individual VFAs

produced by the digestive system can have

a marked influence on milk fat and protein
percentages.

There are a number of ways of manipulating milk solids levels

through feeding, although the cost-effectiveness of ration
adjustments always needs to be assessed against the specific
milk contract.

Protected Fats
Fats are protected from rumen degradation either by conversion
into a rumen insoluble soap or naturally by virtue of a high
melting point which makes them relatively inert in the rumen.
The form of protection must, of course, ensure they are available
for breakdown and absorption lower down the digestive tract.
The fatty acids making up protected fats can be a relatively pure
source of 16 carbon chain molecules palmitic acid (known as
C16s) or a mixture of C14, C16 and C18 molecules (usually
referred to generically as protected fats).
C16 fatty acids can be directly converted into milk fat to boost
butterfat percentages.

Milk protein percentages can best be increased by:

l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Increasing the energy density of the ration;

Feeding high ME silages with good intake potential;
Increasing the protein content of the ration;
Feeding mixed forages;
Increasing the degradable starch content of the ration with
ingredients like rolled wheat;
Increasing the by-pass starch content of the ration with
ingredients like crimped maize;
Increasing the by-pass protein of the ration with ingredients
like protected soybean meal;
Using both protected starch and protein;
Feeding protected methionine;
Avoiding added fat (even protected fat); and/or,
Calving cows in optimum condition.

Milk fat percentages can best be increased by:

l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Increasing the forage to concentrate ratio;

Feeding high fibre forages;
Ensuring sufficient long fibre;

Nutrition & Fertility

l Nutrition in general and energy nutrition in

particular has a major effect on fertility.

Cows in too much of a negative energy balance in early lactation

tend to be difficult to get back in calf.
This results both from a delay in the resumption of normal
oestrus cycling and a lower conception rate.
Cows that are too fat at calving encounter particular problems
since their early lactation appetites tend to be poor, resulting in
excessive body fat mobilisation which can result in ketosis or fatty
liver syndrome.
For optimum fertility, cows should calve down at Body Condition
Score 2.75-3.0 and lose no more than half a Condition Score
by service.

Feeding high digestible fibre concentrates;

Feeding concentrates little and often to stabilise rumen pH;
Avoiding high oil by-products like distillers and brewers
grains;

Fact Sheet 4 provides

practical advice on Body
Condition Scoring

Avoiding whole oil seeds like full fat soya and whole
rape seed;
Avoiding fish oil products; and/or,
Feeding small amounts of a protected fat.

2-14

1:7/08

Feeding for Fertility

Metabolic Disorders

Recent Nottingham University research suggests that different

types of diets can be fed to influence ovarian activity and
egg quality.

A number of disorders linked to incorrect diet or feeding can

have adverse effects on dairy cow health and welfare as well
as productivity.

Increasing starch and reducing fat supply, for example, has

been shown to increase bulling activity and insulin levels.

The most common of these are:

Because higher insulin levels have a detrimental effect on

embryo quality, however, cows subsequently need diets higher
in saturated fat to stimulate progesterone production and lower
in starch to minimise insulin production.
This implies that feeding for fertility in this way is likely to
require more complex grouping of stock than may be practicable
for many.

l Excess protein is not, itself, a major cause of

poor fertility.

However, excess protein almost always exacerbates energy deficits

as additional energy is required to get rid of it.
There is some evidence that high blood ammonia reduces early
embryonic growth which could lead to pregnancies being lost
within the first 10 days.
If fertility problems persist despite cows being in the correct body
condition and rations being correctly balanced for energy and
protein, it is advisable to check the mineral and vitamin status
of both animals and rations.

l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l

Acidosis;
Displaced abomasums (DA);
Hypocalcaemia (milk fever);
Hypomagnesaemia (grass staggers);
Ketosis (acetonaemia);
Fatty liver;
Laminitis; and,
Retained foetal membranes (retained cleansings).

All the common metabolic disorders have a knock-on effect on

fertility, since sick cows typically dont cycle.
It can take many months for the reproductive system to recover
from metabolic disorders.

l Metabolic disorders can invariably be

prevented by ensuring the best possible dietary

balance and particularly careful management
of cows at drying off, during the dry period
and in early lactation (Section 9).

In view of the many interactions between different minerals it is

vital to analyse the mineral status of forages and seek specialist
advice before undertaking additional supplementation.

Fact Sheet 1 provides

practical guidance on
metabolic disorders

l Minerals excesses can be as much of a problem

as insufficiencies, so particular care is always

essential in supplementation.

The pd+
programme provides practical
advice on improving
herd fertility.
l

1:7/08

For detailed guidance on optimising

feeding for fertility see Section 7.

2-15

Feeding & Breeding

Compared to their average genetic merit contemporaries, the
Langhill studies show cows consistently bred from bulls with
the highest weight of fat + protein proofs over 20 years:

Opinion remains firmly divided over the relative merits of

different dairy breeds and their suitability for different
production regimes.
There are clear differences between the breeds in their ability to
produce milk and milk components which need to be accounted
for in their feeding (Table 2.11).

Weight Yield
Fat Protein
(kg) (kg/year) (kg/year) (kg/year)

l
l
l

Table 2.11: Typical Dairy Breed Liveweights and

Genetic Production Abilities
Breed

Fat
(%)

Protein
(%)

Ayrshire

600

6029

244

201

4.04

3.33

Friesian

575

5752

235

193

4.08

3.35

Guernsey

400

5221

239

202

4.58

3.87

Holstein

630

7538

286

243

3.79

3.22

Jersey

430

4807

252

184

5.24

3.83

Shorthorn

550

5760

220

190

3.81

3.29

Source: Current Genetic Base Production Values for Cows Born in 2000, MDC breeding+

Equally, differences in bodyweights mean differences in daily dry

matter intake capacities, although some breeds are recognised as
having rather higher intake capacities for their size than others
(Section 7).
Some breeds are considered to be better at looking after
themselves and replacing condition more easily than others,
making them better suited to systems involving out-wintering
or extended grazing.

Produce markedly higher yields under both high and low

input systems;
Need not necessarily produce lower fat or protein percentages;
Have higher intake capacities;
Are more efficient at converting feed energy into milk energy;
and,
Generate substantially higher feeding margins.

Overall, the animals bred for combined weight of fat and protein
produced similar yields from 1 tonne of concentrates as their
unselected contemporaries did from 2.4 tonnes, resulting in
substantially higher margins.
Cross breeding studies in New Zealand and North America have
further highlighted the potential for improving overall dairy
productivity particularly in terms of fertility, health and
survivability by harnessing the power of hybrid vigour.

l While different types of stock may be better

suited to different production systems, regardless

of breed the key to cost-effective feeding is
meeting the animals particular performance
requirements within their specific intake
capacities.

The breeding+
programme provides practical
advice on improving
through breeding.

Lighter animals may be valuable for causing less poaching and

deeper-bodied cows with larger rumen capacities better adapted
to high forage grazing systems.
Specific selection pressures (historically in New Zealand, for
example, and now in certain UK studs) are likely to produce
bloodlines with better inherent grazing abilities than those
selected under predominantly housed production regimes.

For detailed guidance on herd

improvement priorities see Section 1.

Furthermore, long-term University of Edinburgh/SAC investigations

at Langhill demonstrate clear differences in the performance ability
of different lines of cattle within the Holstein Friesian breed.

2-16

1:7/08

Feed Resources
A wide range of forages, concentrates, moist feeds and
supplements are available to meet dairy cow energy, protein,
mineral and vitamin requirements (Section 4).
These need to be selected and utilised on the basis of specific
analyses and careful rationing to ensure the best balanced diets
(Table: 2.12).

Table 2.12: Typical Dairy Feeding Sources

Nutrient Type

Typical Examples

Energy Sources
Sugar

Grass, grass silages, molasses, lactose, whey.

Starch

Maize silage, wholecrop silage, cereals, peas,

beans, maize meal, maize germ extract,
biscuit meal, bread.

Fibre

Straw, hay, silage, sugarbeet pulp, citrus pulp,

soya hulls.

Protein Sources
Rumen
Degradable
Protein
(RDP)

Red clover, lucerne, legume silages, peas,

beans, lupins, soyabeans, cottonseed meal,
rapeseed meal, distillers grains, maize gluten
feed, sunflower meal, urea.

Digestible
Undegradable
Protein (DUP)

Soyabean and protected soyabean meal,

maize gluten (prairie) meal.

Mineral & Vitamin Sources

Calcium

Limestone, dicalcium phosphate.

Phosphorus

Mono- and dicalcium phosphate.

Magnesium

Magnesium oxide, calcined magnesite.

Sodium

Ground rock salt.

Vitamins

Proprietary mixes.

Fact Sheet 5 sets out the

key attributes of common
ration ingredients.

1:7/08

2-17