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e2iw 1
e2iw + 1
e2iw =
iz + 1
iz
=
.
1 iz
i+z
Taking the complex logarithm of both sides of the equation, we can solve for w,
1
iz
w = ln
.
2i
i+z
The solution to z = tan w is w = arctan z. Hence,
1
arctan z = ln
2i
iz
i+z
Since the complex logarithm is a multi-valued function, it follows that the arctangent
function is also a multi-valued function. We can define the principal value of the
arctangent function (denoted with a capital A) by employing the principal value of
the logarithm,
iz
1
Arctan z = Ln
2i
i+z
We now examine the principal value of the arctangent for real-valued arguments.
Setting z = x, where x is real,
i x
i
x
1
ix
1
+ iArg
=
Ln
.
Arctan x = Ln
2i
i+x
2i
i + x
i+x
1
Noting that
it follows that
i x 2
i x
1 + x2
= ix
=
= 1,
i + x
i+x
i + x
1 + x2
1
Arctan x = Arg
2
ix
i+x
Since < Arg z , the principal interval of the real-valued arctangent function
is:
< Arctan x .
2
2
Indeed, if we write
ix
ix
2i
,
where < 2 ,
=e
= 2 = Arg
i+x
i+x
and solve for x, then one obtains x = tan , or equivalently = Arctan x.
Starting from
2iw
iw
cos w
e +1
e + eiw
z = cot w =
,
= i 2iw
= i iw
sin w
e eiw
e 1
an analogous computation yields,
1
arccotz = ln
2i
z+i
zi
z+i
zi
(1)
(2)
Note that eqs. (1) and (2) can be used as definitions of the inverse cotangent function
and its principal value.
We now examine the principal value of the arccotangent for real-valued arguments.
Setting z = x, where x is real,
x+i
1
.
Arccot x = Arg
2
xi
2
< Arccot x .
2
2
(3)
(4)
iz
,
i+z
1
z+i
=
.
v
zi
(5)
It follows that:
1
1
1
v
1
ln v + ln
= ln
= ln(1) .
arctan z + arccot z =
2i
v
2i
v
2i
Since ln(1) = i( + 2n) for n = 0, 1, 2 . . ., we conclude that
arctan z + arccot z = 21 + n ,
for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(6)
(7)
Hence,
Im v Im
We conclude that
Im v 0
iz
i+z
(Re
Re z 0 ,
z)2
2 Re z
.
+ (Im z + 1)2
Im v < 0
Re z < 0 .
Arctan z + Arccot z =
1 ,
2
for Re z 0 ,
(8)
for Re z < 0 .
CAUTION!!
Many books do not employ the definition for the principal value of the inverse
cotangent function given above. Instead, they choose to define:
Arccot z =
Arctan z .
2
(9)
Note that with this definition, the principal interval of the arccotangent function for
real values x is
0 Arccot x < ,
instead of the interval quoted in eq. (3). One advantage of this latter definition is
that the real-valued inverse cotangent function, Arccot x is continuous at x = 0, in
contrast to eq. (8) which exhibits a discontinuity at x = 0. On the other hand, one
drawback of the definition of eq. (9) is that eq. (2) is no longer respected. Additional
disadvantages are discussed in refs. 2 and 3, where you can find a detailed set of
arguments (from the computer science community) in support of the conventions
adopted by Abramowitz and Stegun (ref. 1) and employed in these notes.
eiw eiw
.
2i
In our conventions, the real inverse tangent function, Arctan x, is a continuous single-valued
function that varies smoothly from 21 to + 21 as x varies from to +. In contrast, Arccot x
varies from 0 to 21 as x varies from to zero. At x = 0, Arccot x jumps discontinuously
up to 12 . Finally, Arccot x varies from 21 to 0 as x varies from zero to +. Following eq. (8),
Arccot 0 = +/2, although Arccot x 12 as x 0 (which means as x approaches zero from
the negative side of the origin).
1
= 2iz .
v
(10)
v = iz + (1 z 2 )1/2 .
(11)
2 |+i arg(1z 2 )
= iz + |1 z 2 |1/2 e 2 arg(1z ) .
By definition, v eiw , from which it follows that
1
1
2 1/2 2i arg(1z 2 )
.
w = ln v = ln iz + |1 z | e
i
i
i
1
2
ln iz + |1 z 2 |1/2 e 2 arg(1z )
i
The principal value of the arcsine function is obtained by employing the principal
value of the logarithm and the principle value of the square-root function (which
corresponds to employing the principal value of the argument). Thus, we define
i
1
2
Arcsin z = Ln iz + |1 z 2 |1/2 e 2 Arg(1z )
i
We now examine the principal value of the arcsine for real-valued arguments. Setting
z = x, where x is real,
i
1
2
Arcsin x = Ln ix + |1 x2 |1/2 e 2 Arg(1x ) .
i
For |x| < 1, Arg(1 x2 ) = 0 and |1 x2 | = 1 x2 defines the positive square root.
Thus,
1h
i
1
Ln ix + 1 x2 + iArg ix + 1 x2
Arcsin x = Ln ix + 1 x2 =
i
i
(12)
= Arg ix + 1 x2 ,
5
since ix + 1 x2 is a complex number with magnitude equal to 1. Moreover,
x2 lives either in the first or fourth quadrant of the complex plane, since
ix + 1
Re(ix + 1 x2 ) 0. It follows that:
Arcsin x ,
2
2
for |x| 1 .
eiw + eiw
.
2
1
= 2z .
v
(13)
1
1
ln v = ln z + (z 2 1)1/2 ,
i
i
(14)
(15)
It is sometimes more convenient to rewrite eq. (15) in a slightly different form. Recall
that
arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z + arg z2 ,
(16)
as a set equality. We now substitute z1 = z and z2 = 1 into eq. (16) and note that
arg(1) = + 2n (for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .) and arg z = arg z + 2n as a set equality.
It follows that
arg(z) = + arg z ,
as a set equality. Thus,
i
e 2 arg(z
2 1)
1
ln z + i 1 z 2 ,
i
6
(17)
i
1
2
ln z + i|1 z 2 |1/2 e 2 arg(1z )
i
(18)
We now examine the principal value of the arccosine for real-valued arguments.
Setting z = x, where x is real,
1
2 1/2 2i Arg(1x2 )
.
Arccos x = Ln x + i|1 x | e
i
1
2
2
Ln x + i 1 x + iArg x + i 1 x2
Arccos x = Ln x + i 1 x =
i
i
= Arg x + i 1 x2 ,
(19)
for |x| 1 .
The arcsine and arccosine functions are related in a very simple way. Using
eq. (11),
i
i
i(iz + 1 z 2 )
=
=
= z + i 1 z2 ,
v
iz + 1 z 2
(iz + 1 z 2 )(iz + 1 z 2 )
which we recognize as the argument of the logarithm in the definition of the arccosine
[cf. eq. (17)]. Using eq. (4), it follows that
i
1
1
iv
1
ln v + ln
= ln
= ln i .
arcsin z + arccos z =
i
v
i
v
i
Since ln i = i( 12 + 2n) for n = 0, 1, 2 . . ., we conclude that
arcsin z + arccos z = 21 + 2n ,
7
for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(20)
Here v and i/v are defined using the principal value of the square root:
i
i
i
2
= z + i|1 z 2 |1/2 e 2 Arg(1z ) .
v
v = iz + |1 z 2 |1/2 e 2 Arg(1z ) ,
(21)
(22)
Re v 0 ,
(23)
z=
e2w =
1+z
.
1z
Taking the complex logarithm of both sides of the equation, we can solve for w,
1
1+z
w = ln
.
2
1z
The solution to z = tanh w is w = arctanhz. Hence,
1
arctanh z = ln
2
1+z
1z
We can define the principal value of the inverse hyperbolic tangent function by employing the principal value of the logarithm,
1
Arctanh z = Ln
2
1+z
1z
z+1
z1
We can define the principal value of the inverse hyperbolic cotangent function by
employing the principal value of the logarithm,
1
Arccoth z = Ln
2
z+1
z1
1
Arccoth(z) = Arctanh
.
z
Finally, we note the relation between the inverse trigonometric and the inverse
hyperbolic functions:
arctanh z = i arctan(iz) ,
Arctanh z = iArctan(iz) ,
arccoth z = i arccot(iz) ,
Arccoth z = i Arccot(iz) .
ew ew
.
2
1
= 2z .
v
(24)
v = z + (1 + z 2 )1/2 .
(25)
2 |+i arg(1+z 2 )
= z + |1 + z 2 |1/2 e 2 arg(1+z ) .
By definition, v ew , from which it follows that
2 1/2 2i arg(1+z 2 )
.
w = ln v = ln z + |1 + z | e
i
2
arcsinhz = ln z + |1 + z 2 |1/2 e 2 arg(1+z )
The principal value of the inverse hyperbolic sine function is obtained by employing
the principal value of the logarithm and the principle value of the square-root function
(which corresponds to employing the principal value of the argument). Thus, we
define
i
2)
10
ew + ew
.
2
1
= 2z .
v
Multiplying by v, one obtains a quadratic equation for v,
v+
v 2 2zv + 1 = 0 .
(26)
v = z + (z 2 1)1/2 .
Following the same steps as in the analysis of inverse hyperbolic sine function, we
write
w = arccosh z = ln v = ln z + (z 2 1)1/2 ,
where (z 2 1)1/2 is the multi-valued square root function. More explicitly,
2
1/2 2i arg(z 2 1)
arccosh z = ln z + |z 1| e
(27)
Finally, we note the relation between the inverse trigonometric and the inverse
hyperbolic functions:
arcsinh z = i arcsin(iz) ,
arccosh z = i arccos z ,
Arcsinh z = iArcsin(iz) .
Unfortunately, a comparison of eqs. (18) and (27) reveals that
Arccosh z = i Arccosz ,
where the sign depends on the location of z in the complex plane. I leave the determination of this condition as an exercise for the reader.
References
1. A comprehensive treatment of the properties of the inverse trigonometric and
inverse hyperbolic functions can be found in Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun,
Handbook of Mathematical Functions (Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1972).
2. W. Kahan, Branch Cuts for Complex Elementary Functions, in The State of
Art in Numerical Analysis, edited by A. Iserles and M.J.D. Powell (Clarendon Press,
Oxford, UK, 1987) pp. 165211.
3. R.M. Corless, D.J. Jeffrey, S.M. Watt and J.H. Davenport, According to
Abramowitz and Stegun or arccoth neednt be uncouth, ACM SIGSAM Bulletin 34,
5865 (2000).
11