Special Type of Diode

Schottky Barrier Diode: Tutorial
- the Schottky Barrier Diode is used for its low turn-on voltage; fast recover
time; and low junction capacitance in applications from power rectification
to RF signal applications, and logic.
IN THIS SECTION
Schottky diode tutorial
Schottky diode technology & structure
Schottky diode characteristics & specs
Schottky diode power rectifier
Other diodes
The Schottky diode or Schottky Barrier diode is an electronics component that is widely used for
radio frequency, RF applications as a mixer or detector diode.
The diode is also used in power applications as a rectifier, again because of its low forward
voltage drop leading to lower levels of power loss compared to ordinary PN junction diodes.
Although normally called the Schottky diode these days, named after Schottky, it is also
sometimes referred to as the surface barrier diode, hot carrier diode or even hot electron diode.
Discover & introduction

Despite the fact that Schottky barrier diodes have many applications in today's high tech
electronics scene, it is actually one of the oldest semiconductor devices in existence. As a metalsemiconductor devices, its applications can be traced back to before 1900 where crystal
detectors, cat's whisker detectors and the like were all effectively Schottky barrier diodes.
Circuit symbol
The Schottky circuit symbol used in many circuit schematic diagrams may be that of an ordinary
diode symbol. However it is often necessary to use a specific Schottky diode symbol to signify
that a Schottky diode rather than another one must be used because it is essential to the
operation of the circuit. Accordingly a specific Schottky diode symbol has been accepted for use.
The circuit symbol is shown below:
Schottky diode symbol

It can be seen from the circuit symbol that it is based on the normal diode one, but with additional
elements to the bar across the triangle shape.
Advantages
Schottky diodes are used in many applications where other types of diode will not perform as
well. They offer a number of advantages:
Low turn on voltage: The turn on voltage for the diode is between 0.2 and 0.3 volts for
a silicon diode against 0.6 to 0.7 volts for a standard silicon diode. This makes it have
very much the same turn on voltage as a germanium diode.
Fast recovery time: The fast recovery time because of the small amount of stored
charge means that it can be used for high speed switching applications.
Low junction capacitance: In view of the very small active area, often as a result of
using a wire point contact onto the silicon, the capacitance levels are very small.
The advantages of the Schottky diode, mean that its performance can far exceed that of other
diodes in many areas.
Applications
The Schottky barrier diodes are widely used in the electronics industry finding many uses as
diode rectifier. Its unique properties enable it to be used in a number of applications where other
diodes would not be able to provide the same level of performance. In particular it is used in
areas including:
RF mixer and detector diode: The Schottky diode has come into its own for radio
frequency applications because of its high switching speed and high frequency capability.
In view of this Schottky barrier diodes are used in many high performance diode ring
mixers. In addition to this their low turn on voltage and high frequency capability and low
capacitance make them ideal as RF detectors.
Power rectifier: Schottky barrier diodes are also used in high power applications, as
rectifiers. Their high current density and low forward voltage drop mean that less power is
wasted than if ordinary PN junction diodes were used. This increase in efficiency means
that less heat has to be dissipated, and smaller heat sinks may be able to be
incorporated in the design.
Power OR circuits: Schottky diodes can be used in applications where a load is driven
by two separate power supplies. One example may be a mains power supply and a
battery supply. In these instances it is necessary that the power from one supply does not
enter the other. This can be achieved using diodes. However it is important that any
voltage drop across the diodes is minimised to ensure maximum efficiency. As in many
other applications, this diode is ideal for this in view of its low forward voltage drop.
Schottky diodes tend to have a high reverse leakage current. This can lead to problems
with any sensing circuits that may be in use. Leakage paths into high impedance circuits
can give rise to false readings. This must therefore be accommodated in the circuit
design.
Solar cell applications: Solar cells are typically connected to rechargeable batteries,
often lead acid batteries because power may be required 24 hours a day and the Sun is
not always available. Solar cells do not like the reverse charge applied and therefore a
diode is required in series with the solar cells. Any voltage drop will result in a reduction
in efficiency and therefore a low voltage drop diode is needed. As in other applications,
the low voltage drop of the Schottky diode is particularly useful, and as a result they are
the favoured form of diode in this application.
Clamp diode - especially with its use in LS TTL: Schottky barrier diodes may also be
used as a clamp diode in a transistor circuit to speed the operation when used as a
switch. They were used in this role in the 74LS (low power Schottky) and 74S (Schottky)
families of logic circuits. In these chips the diodes are inserted between the collector and
base of the driver transistor to act as a clamp. To produce a low or logic "0" output the
transistor is driven hard on, and in this situation the base collector junction in the diode is
forward biased. When the Schottky diode is present this takes most of the current and
allows the turn off time of the transistor to be greatly reduced, thereby improving the
speed
of
the
circuit.
An NPN transistor with Schottky diode clamp

In view of its properties, the Schottky diode finds uses in applications right through from power
rectification to uses in clamp diodes in high speed logic devices and then on to high frequency
RF applications as signal rectifiers and in mixers.
Their properties span many different types of circuit making them almost unique in the variety of
areas and circuits in which they can be used.
- a summary or tutorial of the Schottky Barrier Diode giving its structure and
how it can be used RF circuits as well as rectifier and other electronic
circuits.
IN THIS SECTION

Other diodes
Although it may appear a rather straightforward form of component when compared to others,
Schottky diode technology has much to offer.
The Schottky diode structure while appearing straightforward in its most simple version is still
able to offer performance that no other form of diode can provide.
As a result, Schottky diode technology has developed to enable it to be used in areas that would
otherwise not have been possible. Many diodes incorporating elements including guard rings
enhance the performance in some areas by considerable degrees.
Basic Schottky diode structure

The Schottky barrier diode can be manufactured in a variety of forms. The most simple is the
point contact diode where a metal wire is pressed against a clean semiconductor surface. This
was how the early Cat's Whisker detectors were made, and they were found to be very
unreliable, requiring frequent repositioning of the wire to ensure satisfactory operation. In fact the
diode that is formed may either be a Schottky barrier diode or a standard PN junction dependent
upon the way in which the wire and semiconductor meet and the resulting forming process.
Point contact Schottky diode structure

Although some diodes still use this very simple format, any diode requiring a long term reliability
needs to be fabricated in a more reliable way.
Vacuum deposited Schottky diode structure

Although point contact diodes were manufactured many years later, these diodes were also
unreliable and they were subsequently replaced by a fabrication technique in which metal was
vacuum deposited.
Deposited metal Schottky barrier diode structure

This format for a Schottky diode is very basic and is more diagrammatic than actually practical.
However it does show the basic metal-on-semiconductor format that is key to its operation.
Schottky diode structure with guard ring

One of the problems with the simple deposited metal diode is that breakdown effects are noticed
around the edge of the metallised area. This arises from the high electric fields that are present
around the edge of the plate. Leakage effects are also noticed.
To overcome these problems a guard ring of P+ semiconductor fabricated using a diffusion
process is used along with an oxide layer around the edge. In some instances metallic silicides
may be used in place of the metal.
The guard ring in this form of Schottky diode structure operates by driving this region into
avalanche breakdown before the Schottky junction is damaged by large levels of reverse current
flow during transient events.
Schottky diode rectifier structure showing with guard ring

This form of Schottky diode structure is used particularly in rectifier diodes where the voltages
may be high and breakdown is more of a problem.
Schottky diode structure notes

There are a number of points of interest from the fabrication process.
The most critical element in the manufacturing process is to ensure a clean surface for
an intimate contact of the metal with the semiconductor surface, and this is achieved
chemically. The metal is normally deposited in a vacuum either by the use of evaporation
or sputtering techniques. However in some instances chemical deposition is gaining

some favour, and actual plating has been used although it is not generally controllable to
the degree required.
When silicides are to be used instead of a pure metal contact, this is normally achieved
by depositing the metal and then heat treating to give the silicide. This process has the
advantage that the reaction uses the surface silicon, and the actual junction propagates
below the surface, where the silicon will not have been exposed to any contaminants. A
further advantage of the whole Schottky structure is that it can be fabricated using
relatively low temperature techniques, and does not generally need the high temperature
steps needed in impurity diffusion.
The Schottky diode is used in a variety of forms for many different applications. Obviously those
used for signal applications are in much smaller packages, often in SMT ones these days. Those
devices used for power applications are in much larger packages, often ones which can be
bolted to a heat-sink.
Schottky Diode Characteristics &

Specifications
- a overview of the characteristics and specifications for parameters
describing Schottky Barrier Diode performance.
IN THIS SECTION
Other diodes
The Schottky diode is a very useful form of diode. It is widely used within electronics circuits
because it has some particularly useful characteristics.
Its characteristics mean that it can be used where other forms of diode do not perform so
successfully.
Schottky diode characteristics

The Schottky diode is what is called a majority carrier device. This gives it tremendous
advantages in terms of speed because it does not rely on holes or electrons recombining when
they enter the opposite type of region as in the case of a conventional diode. By making the
devices small the normal RC type time constants can be reduced, making these diodes an order
of magnitude faster than the conventional PN diodes. This factor is the prime reason why they
are so popular in radio frequency applications.
The diode also has a much higher current density than an ordinary PN junction. This means that
forward voltage drops are lower making the diode ideal for use in power rectification applications.
Its main drawback is found in the level of its reverse current which is relatively high. For many
uses this may not be a problem, but it is a factor which is worth watching when using it in more
exacting applications.
The overall I-V characteristic is shown below. It can be seen that the Schottky diode has the
typical forward semiconductor diode characteristic, but with a much lower turn on voltage. At high
current levels it levels off and is limited by the series resistance or the maximum level of current
injection. In the reverse direction breakdown occurs above a certain level. The mechanism is
similar to the impact ionisation breakdown in a PN junction.
Schottky diode IV characteristic

The IV characteristic is generally that shown below. In the forward direction the current rises
exponentially, having a knee or turn on voltage of around 0.2 V. In the reverse direction, there is
a greater level of reverse current than that experienced using a more conventional PN junction
diode.
Schottky diode IV characteristic

The use of a guard ring in the fabrication of the diode has an effect on its performance in both
forward and reverse directions. [see page on structure and fabrication]. Both forward and reverse
characteristics show a better level of performance.
However the main advantage of incorporating a guard ring into the structure is to improve the
reverse breakdown characteristic. There is around a 4 : 1 difference in breakdown voltage
between the two - the guard ring providing a distinct improvement in reverse breakdown. Some
small signal diodes without a guard ring may have a reverse breakdown of only 5 to 10 V.
Key specification parameters

In view of the particular properties of the Schottky diode there are several parameters that are of
key importance when determining the operation of one of these diodes against the more normal
PN junction diodes.
Forward voltage drop: In view of the low forward voltage drop across the diode, this is
a parameter that is of particular concern. As can be seen from the Schottky diode IV
characteristic, the voltage across the diode varies according to the current being carried.
Accordingly any specification given provides the forward voltage drop for a given current.
Typically the turn-on voltage is assumed to be around 0.2 V.
Reverse breakdown: Schottky diodes do not have a high breakdown voltage. Figures
relating to this include the maximum Peak Reverse Voltage, maximum Blocking DC
Voltage and other similar parameter names. If these figures are exceeded then there is a
possibility the diode will enter reverse breakdown. It should be noted that the RMS value
for any voltage will be 1/2 times the constant value. The upper limit for reverse
breakdown is not high when compared to normal PN junction diodes. Maximum figures,
even for rectifier diodes only reach around 100 V. Schottky diode rectifiers seldom
exceed this value because devices that would operate above this value even by
moderate amounts would exhibit forward voltages equal to or greater than equivalent PN
junction rectifiers.
Capacitance: The capacitance parameter is one of great importance for small signal
RF applications. Normally the junctions areas of Schottky diodes are small and therefore
the capacitance is small. Typical values of a few picofarads are normal. As the
capacitance is dependent upon any depletion areas, etc, the capacitance must be
specified at a given voltage.
Reverse recovery time: This parameter is important when a diode is used in a

switching application. It is the time taken to switch the diode from its forward conducting
or 'ON' state to the reverse 'OFF' state. The charge that flows within this time is referred
to as the 'reverse recovery charge'. The time for this parameter for a Schottky diode is
normally measured in nanoseconds, ns. Some exhibit times of 100 ps. In fact what little
recovery time is required mainly arises from the capacitance rather than the majority
carrier recombination. As a result there is very little reverse current overshoot when
switching from the forward conducting state to the reverse blocking state.
Working temperature: The maximum working temperature of the junction, Tj is

normally limited to between 125 to 175C. This is less than that which can be sued with
ordinary silicon diodes. Care should be taken to ensure heatsinking of power diodes does
not allow this figure to be exceeded.
Reverse leakage current: The reverse leakage parameter can be an issue with
Schottky diodes. It is found that increasing temperature significantly increases the
reverse leakage current parameter. Typically for every 25C increase in the diode
junction temperature there is an increase in reverse current of an order of magnitude for
the same level of reverse bias.
Schottky diode characteristics summary

The Schottky diode is used in many applications as a result of its characteristics that differ
appreciable from several aspects of the more widely used standard PN junction diode.
COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOTTKY DIODE AND PN DIODE
CHARACTERISTIC
SCHOTTKY DIODE
PN JUNCTION DIODE
Forward current
mechanism
Majority carrier transport.
Due to diffusion currents, i.e. minority

carrier transport.
Reverse current
Results from majority carriers that

overcome the barrier. This is less
temperature dependent than for standard
PN junction.
Results from the minority carriers

diffusing through the depletion layer. It
has a strong temperature dependence.
Turn on voltage
Small - around 0.2 V.
Comparatively large - around 0.7 V.
COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOTTKY DIODE AND PN DIODE

CHARACTERISTIC
SCHOTTKY DIODE
Switching speed
PN JUNCTION DIODE
Fast - as a result of the use of majority

carriers because no recombination is
required.
Limited by the recombination time of the

injected minority carriers.
Example Schottky diode characteristics

To give some idea of the characteristics to be expected from Schottky diodes a couple of real
examples are provided below. These summarise the main specifications and give an idea of their
performance
1N5711 Schottky barrier switching diode This diode is described as an ultra-fast

switching diode with high reverse breakdown, low forward drop voltage and a guard ring
for junction protection.
TYPICAL 1N5711 CHARACTERISTICS / SPECIFICATIONS
CHARACTERISTIC
TYPICAL
VALUE
UNIT
Max DC Blocking Voltage, Vr
70
Max forward continuous current, Ifm
15
mA
Reverse breakdown voltage, V(BR)R
70
@ reverse current of 10A
Reverse leakage current, IR
200
At VR=50V
Forward voltage drop, VF
0.41
at IF = 1.0 mA
1.00
Junction capacitance, Cj
Reverse recovery time, trr
DETAILS
IF=15mA
2.0
pF
nS
VR = 0V, f=1MHz
1N5828 Schottky barrier power rectifier diode This diode is described as a Schottky
diode, stud type, i.e. for power rectification.
TYPICAL 1N5258 SHOTTKY DIODE CHARACTERISTICS / SPECIFICATIONS
CHARACTERISTIC
TYPICAL
VALUE
UNIT
Maximum recurrent peak reverse voltage
40
Maxim DC blocking voltage
40
Average forward current, IF (AV)
15
Peak forward surge current, IFSM
500
Maximum instantaneous forward voltage,

VF
0.5
Maximum instantaneous reverse current

at rated blocking voltage, IR
10
mA
250
DETAILS
T = 100C
At IFM = 15A and Tj = 25C
Tj= 25C
Tj = 125C
Even though the example here gives a reverse voltage characteristic of 40 V which is fairly
typical, the maximum that can normally be obtained is around 100 V.
It should be noted that even though these figures are given as examples of the figures that may
be expected for typical Schottky diodes, figures even for a given device number will also vary
slightly between different manufacturers.
Schottky Diode Power Rectifier Diode

- an overview of the Schottky diode rectifier used in many power supply
circuits and in power applications.
IN THIS SECTION
Other diodes
The Schottky diode finds many uses as a high voltage or power rectifier. The Schottky diode
rectifier has many advantages over other types of diode and as a such can be utilised to
advantage.
The Schottky diode has been used as a rectifier for many years in the power supply industry
where its use is essential to many designs.
Advantages of using a Schottky diode rectifier

The Schottky diode rectifier offers many advantages in power rectifier and power supply circuits.
There are a number of aspects of the Schottky diode rectifier that makes them ideal components
in many power supply applications:
Low forward voltage drop: The low forward voltage drop offered by Scottky diode
power rectifiers is a significant advantage in many applications. It reduces the power
losses normally incurred in the rectifier and other diodes used within the power supply.
With standard silicon diodes offering the main alternative, their turn on voltage is around
0.6 to 0.7 volts. With Schottky diode rectifiers having a turn on voltage of around 0.2 to
0.3 volts, there is a significant power saving to be gained. However it is necessary to
remember that there will also be losses introduced by the resistance of the material, and
the voltage drop across the diode will increase with current. The losses of the Schottky
diode rectifier will be less than that of the equivalent silicon rectifier.
Fast switching speeds: The very fast switch speeds of the Schottky diode rectifier
mean that this diode lends itself to use in switching regulator circuits.
Schottky diode rectifier design considerations
Schottky diode rectifiers offer many advantages, but when they are used, there are a number of
design considerations to account for. These should be acknowledged in the circuit design being
undertaken.
Some of the points to be taken into account include the following:
High reverse leakage current: Schottky diode rectifiers have a much higher reverse
leakage current than standard PN junction silicon diodes. Although this may not be a
problem in some designs it may have an impact on others.
Limited junction temperature: The maximum junction temperature of a Schottky diode

rectifier is normally limited to the range 125C to 175C but check the manufacturers
ratings for the given component. This compares to temperatures of around 200C for
silicon diode rectifiers.
Limited reverse voltage: As a result of its structure, Schottky diode rectifiers have a
limited reverse voltage capability. The maximum figures are normally around 100 volts. If
devices were manufactured with figures above this, it would be found that the forward
voltages would rise and be equal to or greater than their equivalent silicon diodes for
reasonable levels of current.
Ian, Poole. http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/data/semicond/schottky_diode

(30 Oktober 2016)
OPERATION PRINCIPLE OF
SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE
in: Devices Electronics
Operation principle of Schottky barrier

diode:
Schottky barrier diode is an extension of the oldest semiconductor device that is
the point contact diode.Here,the metal-semiconductor interface is a surface
,Schottky barrier rather than a point contact.The Schottky doide is formed when a
metal ,such as Aluminium ,is brought into contact with a moderately doped N-type
semiconductor as shown on fig..It is a unipolar device because it has electrons as
majority carriers on both sides of the junction.Hence ,there is no depletion layer
formed near the junction.It shares the advantage of point contact diode in that
there is no significant current from the metal to the semiconductor with reverse
bias.Thus ,the delay present in the junction diodes due to hole-electron
recombination time is absent here.hence,because of the large contact
area between the metal and semiconductor than in the point contact diode,the
forward resistance is lower and so is noise.
Construction Schottky barrier diode:

A metalsemiconductor junction is formed between a metal and a
semiconductor, creating a Schottky barrier (instead of a semiconductor
semiconductor junction as in conventional diodes).Typical metals used are
molybdenum, platinum, chromium or tungsten,and certain silicides, e.g. palladium
silicide and platinum silicide; andthe semiconductor would typically be n-type
silicon.The metal side acts as the anode and n-type semiconductor acts as the
cathode of the diode. This Schottky barrier results in both very fast switching and
low forward voltage drop.The choice of the combination of the metal and
semiconductor determines the forward voltage of the diode. Both n- and ptype semiconductors can develop Schottky barriers; the p-type typically has a
much lower forward voltage. As the reverse leakage current increases dramatically
with lowering the forward voltage, it can not be too low; the usually employed
range is about 0.50.7 V and p-type semiconductors are employed only rarely.
Titanium silicide and other refractory silicides, which are able to withstand the
temperatures needed for source/drain annealing in CMOS processes, usually have
too low forward voltage to be useful; processes using these silicides therefore
usually do not offer Schottky diodes.With increased doping level of the
semiconductor the width of the depletion region drops. Below certain width the
charge carriers can tunnel through the depletion region. At very high doping levels
the junction does not behave as a rectifier anymore and becomes an ohmic
contact. This can be used for simultaneous formation of ohmic contacts
and diodes, as diodes form between the silicide and lightly doped n-type region
and ohmic contacts form between the silicide and a heavily doped n- or p-type
region. Lightly doped P regions pose a problem as the resulting contact has too
high resistance for a good ohmic contact and too low forward voltage and too high
reverse leakage to be a good diode.As the edges of the Schottky contact are fairly
sharp, high electric field gradient occurs around them which limits the
reverse breakdown voltage. Various strategies are used, from guard rings to
overlaps of metallization to spread out the field gradient. The guard rings consume
valuable die area and are used primarily for large higher-voltage diodes,while
overlapping metallization is employed primarily with smaller, low-voltage
diodes.Schottky diodes are often used as antisaturation clamps on transistors (a
Schottky transistor). Palladium silicide ones are excellent here due to their lower
forward voltage (which has to be lower than the forward voltage of the basecollector junction); platinum silicide ones have forward voltage closer to that and
require more attention in layout. The Schottky temperature coefficient is lower
than the coefficient of the BC junction, which limits the use of PtSi at higher
temperatures.For power schottky diodes the parasitic resistances of the buried N+
layer and the epitaxial n-type layer become important. The resistance of the
epitaxial layer is more important here than for a transistor as the current has to
cross its entire thickness. It however serves as a distributed ballasting resistor over
the entire area of the junction and prevents localized thermal runaway under
usual conditions.In comparison with the power pn diodes the Schottky diodes are
less rugged. The junction lies in direct contact to the thermally sensitive
metallization, a Schottky diode can therefore dissipate less power than an
equivalent-size pn one with deep-buried junction, before failing - especially
during reverse breakdown. The relative advantage of lower forward voltage of
Schottky diodes is diminished at higher forward currents, where the voltage drop is
dominated by the series resistance.
The forward current is dominated by electron flow
from semiconductor to metal and the reverse is mainly due to electron from metal
to semiconductor.As
there
is
very
little
minority
carrier
injection
from semiconductor into metal,Schottky diodes are also said to be majority carrier
devices.The diode is also reffered to as hot carrier diode because when it is
forward biased,conduction of electrons on the N-side gains sufficient energy to
cross the junction and enter the metal.Since these electrons plunge into the metal
with large energy,they are commonly called as hot carriers.
Above figure shows the V-I characteristics of a Schottky and a PN junction

diode. The current in a PN junction diode is controlled by the diffusion of minority
carriers whereas the current in the schottky diode results from the flow of
majority carriers over the potential barrier at the metal-semiconductor
junction.The reverse saturation current for a Schottky diode is larger than that of
a PN junction diode.The storage time for a Schottky diode is theoretically
zero.The schottky diode has a smaller turn-on voltage and shorter switching time
than the PN junction diode.
Applications Schottky barrier diode:
Schottky diode can be used for rectification of signals of frequencies even

exceeding 300 MHz.
It is commonly used in switching power supplies at frequencies of 20 GHz.
Its low noise figure finds application in sensitive communication receivers

like radars.
It is also used in clipping and clamping circuits and in computer gating.
http://www.electricalengineeringinfo.com/2014/05/Operation-of-Schottky-barrierdiode.html
Varactor / varicap diode tutorial

- tutorial providing the essentials about the varactor or varicap diode
including the varactor diode symbol and other aspects of the varactor
operation.
IN THIS SECTION
Varactor diode tutorial
Abrupt & hyperabrupt junctions
Specifications & parameters
Varactor circuits
Other diodes
Varactor diodes or varicap diodes are semiconductor devices that are widely used in the
electronics industry and are used in many applications where a voltage controlled variable
capacitance is required. Although the terms varactor diode and varicap diode can be used
interchangeably, the more common term these days is the varactor diode.
Although ordinary PN junction diodes exhibit the variable capacitance effect and these diodes
can be used for this applications, special diodes optimised to give the required changes in
capacitance. Varactor diodes or varicap diodes normally enable much higher ranges of
capacitance change to be gained as a result of the way in which they are manufactured. There
are a variety of types of varactor diode ranging from relatively standard varieties to those that are
described as abrupt or hyperabrupt varactor diodes.
Varactor diode applications

Varactor diodes are widely used within the RF design arena. They provide a method of varying
he capacitance within a circuit by the application of a control voltage. This gives them an almost
unique capability and as a result varactor diodes are widely used within the RF industry.
Although varactor diodes can be used within many types of circuit, they find applications within
two main areas:
Voltage controlled oscillators, VCOs: Voltage controlled oscillators are used for a
variety of applications. One major area is for the oscillator within a phase locked loop this are used in almost all radio, cellular and wireless receivers. A varactor diode is a key
component within a VCO.
RF filters: Using varactor diodes it is possible to tune filters. Tracking filters may be
needed in receiver front end circuits where they enable the filters to track the incoming
received signal frequency. Again this can be controlled using a control voltage. Typically
this might be provided under microprocessor control via a digital to analogue converter.
Varactor diode basics

The varactor diode or varicap diode consists of a standard PN junction, although it is obviously
optimised for its function as a variable capacitor. In fact ordinary PN junction diodes can be used
as varactor diodes, even if their performance is not to the same standard as specially
manufactured varactors.
The basis of operation of the varactor diode is quite simple. The diode is operated under reverse
bias conditions and this gives rise to three regions. At either end of the diode are the P and N
regions where current can be conducted. However around the junction is the depletion region
where no current carriers are available. As a result, current can be carried in the P and N
regions, but the depletion region is an insulator.
This is exactly the same construction as a capacitor. It has conductive plates separated by an
insulating dielectric.
The capacitance of a capacitor is dependent on a number of factors including the plate area, the
dielectric constant of the insulator between the plates and the distance between the two plates.
In the case of the varactor diode, it is possible to increase and decrease the width of the
depletion region by changing the level of the reverse bias. This has the effect of changing the
distance between the plates of the capacitor.
Varactor diode symbol

As the primary function of a varactor diode is as a variable capacitor, its circuit symbol represents
this. Sometimes they may be shown as ordinary diodes, whereas more usually the varactor
diode circuit symbol shows the bar as a capacitor, i.e. two lines.
Varactor diode circuit symbol

Varactor diodes are always operated under reverse bias conditions, and in this way there is no
conduction. They are effectively voltage controlled capacitors, and indeed they are sometimes
called varicap diodes, although the term varactor is more widely used these days.
Varactor diodes, or as they are sometimes called, varicap diodes are a particularly useful form of
semiconductor diode. Finding uses in many applications where electronically controlled tuning of
resonant circuits is required, for items such as oscillators and filters, varactor diodes are an
essential component within the portfolio of the electronics design engineer. However to be able
to use varactor diodes to their best advantage it is necessary to understand features of varactor
diodes including the capacitance ratio, Q, gamma, reverse voltage and the like. If used correctly,
varactor diodes provide very reliable service particularly as they are a solid state device and
have no mechanical or moving elements as in their mechanical variable capacitor counterparts.
aractor Abrupt & Hyperabrupt Diodes
- essentials of the varactor abrupt and hyperabrupt diodes, what these

terms mean and the key essentials of these forms of varactor diode.
IN THIS SECTION
Varactor circuits
Other diodes
Some varactor diodes may be referred to as abrupt and hyper-abrupt types. The terms of abrupt
varactor diode, or hyperabrupt varactor diode refers to the properties of the varactor diode
junction/
The abrupt varactor and hyperabrupt varactor diodes differ in the ways that thee junctions are
fabricated. This gives significant differences in the performance of the two types of varactor
diode.
Abrupt and hyperabrupt varactor basics

Often circuits using varactor diodes need a specific type of performance. In particular the
capacitance voltage, C-V curve may need to be of a particular shape or have a particular
relationship.
By controlling the doping in the manufacturing process, it is possible to obtain the required profile
for the PN junction and in this way control the C-V characteristic for the varactor diode.
As might be expected, the names of the different varactor diodes refer to the profile of the PN
junction itself and this provides for very different values and properties for some of the
parameters.
Abrupt varactors and hyperabrupt varactors have different properties as detailed below.
Abrupt varactor diodes

Abrupt varactor diodes are the more commonly used for of diode. As the abruptness of the
junction is governed by the doping concentration and also the profile, this is controlled during the
manufacture. For an abrupt varactor diode the doping concentration is held constant, i.e constant
doping level as far as reasonably possible.
The abrupt varactor exhibits an inverse square law C-V function. This provides for an inverse
fourth law frequency dependence. In applications where a linear dependence is required, a
lineariser is needed. This takes additional circuitry that may be an additional burden for some
applications, not only in terms of circuitry, but also the slower response speed caused by the
lineariser.
Hyperabrupt varactor diodes

Hyperabrupt junctions provide a C-V curve that has an inverse square law curve over at least
some of the characteristic. This provides a narrow band linear frequency variation.
In addition to this the hyperabrupt junction gives a much greater capacitance change for the
given voltage change.
The advantages of the hyperabrupt varactor come at a cost as there is a substantial reduction in
Q when compared to abrupt varactor diode. As a result hyperabrupt diodes are generally only
used at lower microwave frequencies - up to a few GHz at most.
Varactor diode specifications

- overview of the key specifications for varactor diodes or varicap diodes,
including Q, reverse voltage, capacitance range, etc.
IN THIS SECTION
Varactor circuits
Other diodes
When choosing a varactor diode, the varactor specifications need to be carefully determined to
assess whether it will meet the circuit requirements.
While there will be many varactor diode specifications that are the same as those applied to
other types of diode, including signal diodes, etc, there are many other varactor specifications
that are crucial to the performance of the varactor in any variable capacitance role.
Many of the different varactor parameters will be detailed in the varactor specification sheets that
may be accessed in the manufacturers literature.
Capacitance range and capacitance ratio

The actual capacitance range which is obtained depends upon a number of factors. One is the
area of the junction. Another is the width of the depletion region for a given voltage.
It is found that the thickness of the depletion region in the varactor diode is proportional to the
square root of the reverse voltage across it. In addition to this, the capacitance of the varactor is
inversely proportional to the depletion region thickness. From this it can be seen that the
capacitance of the varactor diode is inversely proportional to the square root of the voltage
across it.
Diodes typically operate with reverse bias ranging from around a couple of volts up to 20 volts
and higher. Some may even operate up to as much as 60 volts, although at the top end of the
range comparatively little change in capacitance is seen.
One of the key parameters for a varactor diode is the capacitance ratio. This is commonly
expressed in the form Cx / Cy where x and y are two voltages towards the ends of the range over
which the capacitance change can be measured.
For a change between 2 and 20 volts an abrupt diode may exhibit a capacitance change ratio of
2.5 to 3, whereas a hyperabrupt diode may be twice this, e.g. 6.
However it is still necessary to consult the curves for the particular diode to ensure that it will give
the required capacitance change over the voltages that will be applied. It is worth remembering
that there will be a spread in capacitance values that are obtainable, and this must be included in
any calculations for the final circuit.
Reverse breakdown
The reverse breakdown voltage of a varactor diode is of importance. The capacitance decreases
with increasing reverse bias, although as voltages become higher the decrease in capacitance
becomes smaller. However the minimum capacitance level will be determined by the maximum
voltage that the device can withstand. It is also wise to choose a varactor diode that has a margin
between the maximum voltage it is likely to expect, i.e. the rail voltage of the driver circuit, and
the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode. By ensuring there is sufficient margin, the circuit is
less likely to fail.
It is also necessary to ensure that the minimum capacitance required is achieved within the rail
voltage of the driver circuit, again with a good margin as there is always some variation between
devices.
Diodes typically operate with reverse bias ranging from around a couple of volts up to 20 volts or
possibly higher. Some may even operate up to as much as 60 volts, although at the top end of
the range comparatively little change in capacitance is seen. Also as the voltage on the diode
increases, it is likely that specific supplies for the circuits driving the varactor diodes will be
required.
Maximum frequency of operation

There are a number of items that limit the frequency of operation of any varactor diode. The
minimum capacitance of the diode is obviously one limiting factor. If large levels of capacitance
are used in a resonant circuit, this will reduce the Q. A further factor is any parasitic responses,
as well as stray capacitance and inductance that may be exhibited by the device package. This
means that devices with low capacitance levels that may be more suitable for high frequencies
will be placed in microwave type packages. These and other considerations need to be taken
into account when choosing a varactor diode for a new design.
As a particular varactor diode type may be available in a number of packages, it is necessary to
choose the variant with the package that is most suitable for the application in view.
Varactor Q
An important characteristic of any varactor diode is its Q. This is particularly important in a
number of applications. For oscillators used in frequency synthesizers it affects the noise
performance. High Q diodes enable a higher Q tuned circuit to be achieved, and in turn this
reduces the phase noise produced by the circuit. For filters the Q is again very important. A high
Q diode will enable the filter to give a sharper response, whereas a low Q diode will increase the
losses.
Varactor diode equivalent circuit

The Q is dependent upon the series resistance that the varactor diode exhibits. This resistance
arises from a number of causes:
the resistance of the semiconductor in the areas outside the depletion region, i.e. in the
region where the charge is carried to the "capacitor plates".
some resistance arising from the lead and package elements of the component
some contribution from the die substrate
The Q or quality factor for the diode can be determined from the equation below:
1 / 2 pi Cv R
Where:
Cv =
the
R = the series resistance
capacitance
at
the
measured
voltage
From this it can be seen that to maximise the Q it is necessary to minimise the series resistance.
Varactor diode manufacturers typically use an epitaxial structure to minimise this resistance.
When designing the circuit, the Q of the circuit can be maximised by minimising the capacitance.
Varactor Circuits
- essentials of varactor diode circuits, detailing some circuits as well as the
ways of using varactor diodes within electronic circuits.
IN THIS SECTION
Varactor circuits
Other diodes
There are many aspects to using varactor diodes in RF electronic circuits. The configuration to
the varactor circuits can affect their operation.
In view of the fact that RF circuits are not always easy to optimise, it is necessary to ensure the
varactor circuits utilise the best methods of driving varactor diodes as well as the most successful
circuits.
Driving varactor diodes

The varactor diode requires the reverse bias to be applied across the diode in a way that does
not affect the operation of the tuned circuit of which it is part. Care must be taken to isolate the
bias voltage from the tuning circuit so that the RF performance is not impaired.
Typical circuit using a varactor diode for tuning

Typically the cathode is earthed or run at the DC common potential. The other end can then have
the bias potential applied. The bias circuitry needs to be isolated for RF signals from the tuned
circuit to prevent any degradation of the performance. Either a resistor or an inductor can be
used for this as the diodes operate under reverse bias and present a high DC resistance.
Applying varactor tuning voltage via resistor and inductor

Inductors can operate well under some situations as they provide a low resistance path for the
bias. However they can introduce spurious inductance and under some circumstances they may
cause spurious oscillations to occur when used in an oscillator. Resistors may also be used. The
resistance must be high enough to isolate the bias circuitry from the tuned circuit without
lowering the Q. They must also be low enough to control the bias on the diode against the effects
of the RF passing through the diode. A value of 10 kohms is often a good starting point.
The varactor diodes may be driven in either a single or back to back configuration. The single
varactor configuration has the advantage of simplicity. The back-to-back configuration overcomes
the problem of the RF modulating the tuning voltage as the effect is cancelled out - as the RF
voltage rises, the capacitance on one diode will increase and the other decrease. The back-toback configuration also halves the capacitance of the single diode as the capacitances from the
two diodes are placed in series with each other. It should also be remembered that the series
resistance will be doubled and this will affect the Q.
Varactor back-to-back drive

When designing a circuit using varactor diodes, care must be taken to ensure that the diodes do
not become forward biased. Sometimes, especially when using low levels of reverse bias, the
signal in the RF section of the circuit may be sufficient over some sections of the cycle to
overcome the bias and drive the diode into forward conduction. This leads to the generation of
spurious signals and other nasty unwanted effects.
Photodiode Light Detector

Index
This light detector is

a current-to-voltage converter
. The FET input opampprevents the loading of
the photodiode and the
voltage at the output is
proportional to the current in
the photodiode. So long as
the photodiode response to
the light is linear, the output
voltage is proportional to the
light falling on the
photodiode.
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Photodiodes
A photodiode consists of an active p-n junction which is operated
in reverse bias. When light falls on the junction, a reverse current flows
which is proportional to the illuminance. The linear response to light
Index
makes it an element in useful photodetectors for some applications. It is
also used as the active element in light-activated switches.
Electronics
concepts
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Component information
Device characteristics
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Photodiode
The mechanism of the photodiode
is like that of a (miniaturized) solar
cell. Their response time is fast, on
the order of nanoseconds. As light
detectors, they are reverse biased the reverse current is linearly
proportional to
the illuminance striking the diode.
They are not as sensitive as
a phototransistor, but their linearity
can make them useful in
simple light meters.
Photodiode discussion
Index
Electronics
concepts
Optoelectronics
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Characteristic curves
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Index
Electronics
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More detailed characteristic curves
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Photodiode Characteristics
Index
Electronics
concepts
Optoelectronic
s concepts
The reverse current through a photodiode varies linearly

with illuminanceonce you are significantly above the dark current
region.
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Light-emitting diode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"LED" redirects here. For other uses, see LED (disambiguation).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please
help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
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2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Light-emitting diode
Blue, green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused case
Working principle
Electroluminescence
Invented
Oleg Losev (1927)[1]

James R. Biard (1961)[2]
Nick Holonyak (1962)[3]
First production
October 1962
Pin configuration
Anode and cathode
Electronic symbol
Parts of an LED. Although unlabeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the
epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out via mechanical strain or
vibration.
A bulb-shaped modern retrofit LED lamp with aluminium heat sink, a light diffusing dome and E27
screw base, using a built-in power supply working on mains voltage
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn junction diode,

which emits light when activated.[4]When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are
able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy
of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.[5]
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of sevensegment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2016,
LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require more
precise current and heat management, than compact fluorescent lampsources of comparable
output. They are, however, significantly more energy efficient and, arguably, have less
environmental concerns linked to their disposal[citation needed] . The governments of some countries are
promoting the domestic use of LED-based lighting, and in some cases providing LED-based
lighting solutions to the public at subsidized rates.
LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates
are also used in advanced communications technology.
Contents
[hide]
1History
1.1Discoveries and early devices
1.2Initial commercial development
1.3Blue LED
1.4White LEDs and the Illumination breakthrough
2Working principle
3Technology
o
3.1Physics
3.2Refractive index
3.2.1Transition coatings
3.3Efficiency and operational parameters
3.3.1Efficiency droop
3.3.1.1Possible solutions
3.4Lifetime and failure
4Colors and materials

o
4.1Blue and ultraviolet
4.2RGB
4.3White
4.3.1RGB systems
4.3.2Phosphor-based LEDs
4.3.3Other white LEDs
4.4Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
4.5Quantum dot LEDs
5Types
o
5.1Miniature
5.2High-power
5.3AC driven
5.4Application-specific variations
5.4.1Flashing
5.4.2Bi-color
5.4.3Tri-color
5.4.4RGB
5.4.5Decorative-multicolor
5.4.6Alphanumeric
5.4.7Digital-RGB
5.4.8Filament
6Considerations for use

o
6.1Power sources
6.2Electrical polarity
6.3Safety and health
6.4Advantages
6.5Disadvantages
7Applications
o
7.1Indicators and signs
7.2Lighting
7.3Data communication and other signalling
7.4Sustainable lighting
7.4.1Energy consumption
7.5Light sources for machine vision systems
7.6Other applications
8See also
9References
10Further reading
11External links
History[edit]
Discoveries and early devices[edit]
Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of SiCrecreates Round's original experiment
from 1907.
Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J.

Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector.[7][8] Soviet
inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927.[9] His research was distributed in
Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for
several decades.[10][11]Kurt Lehovec, Carl Accardo and Edward Jamgochian, explained these first
light-emitting diodes in 1951 using an apparatus employing SiCcrystals with a current source of
battery or pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953. [12][13]
Rubin Braunstein[14] of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission
from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955.[15] Braunstein observed
infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide(GaSb),
GaAs, indium phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at
77 Kelvin.
In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for nonradio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer [16] Braunstein".. had set up a
simple optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable
electronics to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The emitted light was detected by a
PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an audio amplifier, and played back by a
loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music. We had a great deal of fun playing with
this setup." This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications.
A Texas Instruments SNX-100 GaAs LED contained in a TO-18 transistor metal case.
In September 1961, while working at Texas Instruments in Dallas, Texas, James R. Biard and
Gary Pittman discovered near-infrared (900 nm) light emission from a tunnel diode they had
constructed on a GaAs substrate.[6] By October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light
emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electricallyisolated semiconductor photodetector.[17] On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent
titled "Semiconductor Radiant Diode" based on their findings, which described a zinc diffused p
n junction LED with a spaced cathode contact to allow for efficient emission of infrared
light under forward bias. After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering
notebooks predating submissions from G.E. Labs, RCA Research Labs, IBM Research
Labs, Bell Labs, and Lincoln Lab at MIT, the U.S. patent office issued the two inventors the
patent for the GaAs infrared (IR) light-emitting diode (U.S. Patent US3293513), the first practical
LED.[6] Immediately after filing the patent, Texas Instruments (TI) began a project to manufacture
infrared diodes. In October 1962, TI announced the first commercial LED product (the SNX-100),
which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit a 890 nm light output.[6] In October 1963, TI
announced the first commercial hemispherical LED, the SNX-110. [18]
The first visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak, Jr., while working
at General Electric. Holonyak first reported his LED in the journal Applied Physics Letters on
December 1, 1962.[19][20] M. George Craford,[21] a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented
the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in
1972.[22] In 1976, T. P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high-efficiency LEDs for optical
fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to
optical fiber transmission wavelengths.[23]
Initial commercial development[edit]

The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements
for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays,[24] first in expensive
equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as
TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, as well as watches (see list of signal uses). Until 1968,
visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, in the order of US$200 per unit, and so had little
practical use.[25] The Monsanto Company was the first organization to mass-produce visible
LEDs, using gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for
indicators.[25] Hewlett Packard (HP) introduced LEDs in 1968, initially using GaAsP supplied by
Monsanto. These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was
not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were
built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors became widely available and
appeared in appliances and equipment. In the 1970s commercially successful LED devices at
less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed
compound semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process invented by Dr. Jean Hoerni
at Fairchild Semiconductor.[26][27] The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and
innovative packaging methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer
Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions.[28] These methods continue to be used by
LED producers.[29]
LED display of a TI-30 scientific calculator (ca. 1978), which uses plastic lenses to increase the visible digit
size
Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1 and 3 mm T1 packages, but with rising
power output, it has grown increasingly necessary to shed excess heat to maintain reliability,[30] so
more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for state-ofthe-art high-power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.
Blue LED[edit]
Blue LEDs were first developed by Herbert Paul Maruska at RCA in 1972 using gallium nitride
(GaN) on a sapphire substrate.[31][32] SiC-types were first commercially sold in the United States by
Cree in 1989.[33] However, neither of these initial blue LEDs were very bright.
The first high-brightness blue LED was demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia
Corporation in 1994 and was based on InGaN.[34][35] In parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi
Amano in Nagoya were working on developing the important GaN nucleation on sapphire
substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN. Nakamura, Akasaki and Amano were
awarded the 2014 Nobel prize in physics for their work.[36] In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff
University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and
demonstrated a "transparent contact" LED using indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs).
In 2001[37] and 2002,[38] processes for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon were
successfully demonstrated. In January 2012, Osram demonstrated high-power InGaN LEDs
grown on silicon substrates commercially.[39]
White LEDs and the Illumination breakthrough[edit]

The attainment of high efficiency in blue LEDs was quickly followed by the development of the
first white LED. In this device a Y
3Al
5O
12:Ce (known as "YAG") phosphor coating on the emitter absorbs some of the blue emission and
produces yellow light through fluorescence. The combination of that yellow with remaining blue
light appears white to the eye. However, using different phosphors (fluorescent materials) it also
became possible to instead produce green and red light through fluorescence. The resulting
mixture of red, green and blue is not only perceived by humans as white light but is superior for
illumination in terms of color rendering, whereas one cannot appreciate the color of red or green
objects illuminated only by the yellow (and remaining blue) wavelengths from the YAG phosphor.
Illustration of Haitz's law, showing improvement in light output per LED over time, with a logarithmic scale
on the vertical axis
The first white LEDs were expensive and inefficient. However, the light output of LEDs has
increased exponentially, with a doubling occurring approximately every 36 months since the
1960s (similar to Moore's law). This trend is generally attributed to the parallel development of
other semiconductor technologies and advances in optics [citation needed] and materials science, and has
been called Haitz's law after Dr. Roland Haitz.[40]
The light output and efficiency of blue and near-ultraviolet LEDs rose as the cost of reliable
devices fell: this led to the use of (relatively) high-power white-light LEDs for the purpose of
illumination which are replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting. [41][42]
White LEDs can now produce over 300 lumens per watt of electricity while lasting up to 100,000
hours.[43] Compared to incandescent bulbs, this is not only a huge increase in electrical efficiency,
but over time a similar or lower cost per bulb.[44]
Working principle[edit]
The inner workings of an LED, showing circuit (top) and band diagram (bottom)
A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional electric current. The same
process is reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction emits light when electrical energy is applied to it).
This phenomenon is generally called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the emission
of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field. The charge carriers
recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and
recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of
energy levels, while holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will
be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the energy must be dissipated
in order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and
light.
The electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for silicon and germanium diodes but
in gallium arsenide phosphide(GaAsP) and gallium phosphide (GaP) semiconductors, the
electrons dissipate energy by emitting photons. If the semiconductor is translucent, the junction
becomes the source of light as it is emitted, thus becoming a light-emitting diode, but when the
junction is reverse biased no light will be produced by the LED and, on the contrary, the device
may also be damaged.
Technology[edit]
I-V diagram for a diode. An LED will begin to emit light when more than 2 or 3 volts is applied to it.
Physics[edit]
The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n
junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or
cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the
junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a
lower energy level and releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color, depends on the band gap energy of the
materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes
usually recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because
these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band
gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances
in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light
in a variety of colors.
LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer
deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial
LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much
of the light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light
extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and
development.
Refractive index[edit]
Idealized example of light emission cones in a semiconductor, for a single point-source emission zone. The
left illustration is for a fully translucent wafer, while the right illustration shows the half-cones formed when
the bottom layer is fully opaque. The light is actually emitted equally in all directions from the point-source,
so the areas between the cones shows the large amount of trapped light energy that is wasted as heat. [45]
The light emission cones of a real LED wafer are far more complex than a single point-source light
emission. The light emission zone is typically a two-dimensional plane between the wafers. Every atom
across this plane has an individual set of emission cones. Drawing the billions of overlapping cones is
impossible, so this is a simplified diagram showing the extents of all the emission cones combined. The
larger side cones are clipped to show the interior features and reduce image complexity; they would extend
to the opposite edges of the two-dimensional emission plane.
Bare uncoated semiconductors such as silicon exhibit a very high refractive index relative to
open air, which prevents passage of photons arriving at sharp angles relative to the aircontacting surface of the semiconductor due to total internal reflection. This property affects both
the light-emission efficiency of LEDs as well as the light-absorption efficiency of photovoltaic
cells. The refractive index of silicon is 3.96 (at 590 nm),[46] while air is 1.0002926.[47]
In general, a flat-surface uncoated LED semiconductor chip will emit light only perpendicular to
the semiconductor's surface, and a few degrees to the side, in a cone shape referred to as
the light cone, cone of light,[48] or the escape cone.[45] The maximum angle of incidence is referred
to as the critical angle. When this angle is exceeded, photons no longer escape the
semiconductor but are instead reflected internally inside the semiconductor crystal as if it were
a mirror.[45]
Internal reflections can escape through other crystalline faces, if the incidence angle is low
enough and the crystal is sufficiently transparent to not re-absorb the photon emission. But for a
simple square LED with 90-degree angled surfaces on all sides, the faces all act as equal angle
mirrors. In this case most of the light can not escape and is lost as waste heat in the crystal. [45]
A convoluted chip surface with angled facets similar to a jewel or fresnel lens can increase light
output by allowing light to be emitted perpendicular to the chip surface while far to the sides of
the photon emission point.[49]
The ideal shape of a semiconductor with maximum light output would be a microsphere with the
photon emission occurring at the exact center, with electrodes penetrating to the center to
contact at the emission point. All light rays emanating from the center would be perpendicular to
the entire surface of the sphere, resulting in no internal reflections. A hemispherical
semiconductor would also work, with the flat back-surface serving as a mirror to back-scattered
photons.[50]
Transition coatings[edit]
After the doping of the wafer, it is cut apart into individual dies. Each die is commonly called a
chip.
Many LED semiconductor chips are encapsulated or potted in clear or colored molded plastic
shells. The plastic shell has three purposes:
1. Mounting the semiconductor chip in devices is easier to accomplish.
2. The tiny fragile electrical wiring is physically supported and protected from damage.
3. The plastic acts as a refractive intermediary between the relatively high-index
semiconductor and low-index open air.[51]
The third feature helps to boost the light emission from the semiconductor by acting as a
diffusing lens, allowing light to be emitted at a much higher angle of incidence from the light cone
than the bare chip is able to emit alone.
Efficiency and operational parameters[edit]
Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 3060 milliwatts (mW) of
electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of continuous
use at one watt. These LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large
power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat
removal from the LED die.
One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting sources is high luminous efficacy. White LEDs
quickly matched and overtook the efficacy of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2002,
Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with luminous efficacy of 1822 lumens per watt (lm/W).
For comparison, a conventional incandescent light bulb of 60100 watts emits around 15 lm/W,
and standard fluorescent lights emit up to 100 lm/W.
As of 2012, Philips had achieved the following efficacies for each color.[52] The efficiency values
show the physics light power out per electrical power in. The lumen-per-watt efficacy value
includes characteristics of the human eye, and is derived using the luminosity function.
Color
Wavelength range
(nm)
Typical efficiency
coefficient
Typical efficacy (l
m/W)
Red
620 < < 645
0.39
72
Redorange
610 < < 620
0.29
98
Green
520 < < 550
0.15
93
Cyan
490 < < 520
0.26
75
Blue
460 < < 490
0.35
37
In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by Cree that consumes 24 mW at
20 milliamperes (mA). This produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20
mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at the time, and more than four
times as efficient as standard incandescents. In 2006, they demonstrated a prototype with a
record white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at 20 mA. Nichia Corporation has developed a
white LED with luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA.[53] Cree's XLamp
XM-L LEDs, commercially available in 2011, produce 100 lm/W at their full power of 10 W, and
up to 160 lm/W at around 2 W input power. In 2012, Cree announced a white LED giving
254 lm/W,[54] and 303 lm/W in March 2014.[55] Practical general lighting needs high-power LEDs, of
one watt or more. Typical operating currents for such devices begin at 350 mA.
These efficiencies are for the light-emitting diode only, held at low temperature in a lab. Since
LEDs installed in real fixtures operate at higher temperature and with driver losses, real-world
efficiencies are much lower. United States Department of Energy (DOE) testing of commercial
LED lamps designed to replace incandescent lamps or CFLs showed that average efficacy was
still about 46 lm/W in 2009 (tested performance ranged from 17 lm/W to 79 lm/W).[56]
Efficiency droop[edit]
Efficiency droop is the decrease in luminous efficiency of LEDs as the electric current increases
above tens of milliamperes.
This effect was initially theorized to be related to elevated temperatures. Scientists proved the
opposite to be true that, although the life of an LED would be shortened, the efficiency droop is
less severe at elevated temperatures.[57] The mechanism causing efficiency droop was identified
in 2007 as Auger recombination, which was taken with mixed reaction.[58] In 2013, a study
confirmed Auger recombination as the cause of efficiency droop. [59]
In addition to being less efficient, operating LEDs at higher electric currents creates higher heat
levels which compromise the lifetime of the LED. Because of this increased heating at higher
currents, high-brightness LEDs have an industry standard of operating at only 350 mA, which is a
compromise between light output, efficiency, and longevity.[58][60][61][62]
Possible solutions[edit]
Instead of increasing current levels, luminance is usually increased by combining multiple LEDs
in one bulb. Solving the problem of efficiency droop would mean that household LED light bulbs
would need fewer LEDs, which would significantly reduce costs.
Researchers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory have found a way to lessen the efficiency
droop. They found that the droop arises from non-radiative Auger recombination of the injected
carriers. They created quantum wells with a soft confinement potential to lessen the non-radiative
Auger processes.[63]
Researchers at Taiwan National Central University and Epistar Corp are developing a way to
lessen the efficiency droop by using ceramic aluminium nitride (AlN) substrates, which are
more thermally conductive than the commercially used sapphire. The higher thermal conductivity
reduces self-heating effects.[64]
Lifetime and failure[edit]

Main article: List of LED failure modes
Solid-state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low
currents and at low temperatures. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours, but heat
and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly.[65]
The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light
output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can also occur. Early red LEDs were
notable for their short service life. With the development of high-power LEDs the devices are
subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than traditional devices.
This causes stress on the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To
quantitatively classify useful lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use L70
or L50, which are the runtimes (typically given in thousands of hours) at which a given LED
reaches 70% and 50% of initial light output, respectively.[66]
Whereas in most previous sources of light (incandescent lamps, discharge lamps, and those that
burn combustible fuel, e.g. candles and oil lamps) the light results from heat, LEDs only operate
if they are kept cool enough. The manufacturer commonly specifies a maximum junction
temperature of 125 or 150 C, and lower temperatures are advisable in the interests of long life.
At these temperatures, relatively little heat is lost by radiation, which means that the light beam
generated by an LED is cool.
The waste heat in a high-power LED (which as of 2015 can be less than half the power that it
consumes) is conveyed by conduction through the substrate and package of the LED to a heat
sink, which gives up the heat to the ambient air by convection. Careful thermal design is
therefore essential, taking into account the thermal resistances of the LEDs package, the heat
sink and the interface between the two. Medium-power LEDs are often designed to be soldered
directly to a printed circuit board that contains a thermally conductive metal layer. High-power
LEDs are packaged in large-area ceramic packages designed to be attached to a metal heat
sink, the interface being a material with high thermal conductivity (thermal grease, phase-change
material, thermally conductive pad or thermal adhesive).
If an LED-based lamp is installed in an unventilated luminaire, or a luminaire is located in an
environment that does not have free air circulation, the LED is likely to overheat, resulting in
reduced life or early catastrophic failure. Thermal design is often based on an ambient
temperature of 25 C (77 F). LEDs used in outdoor applications, such as traffic signals or inpavement signal lights, and in climates where the temperature within the light fixture gets very
high, could experience reduced output or even failure.[67]
Since LED efficacy is higher at low temperatures, LED technology is well suited for
supermarket freezer lighting.[68][69][70] Because LEDs produce less waste heat than incandescent
lamps, their use in freezers can save on refrigeration costs as well. However, they may be more
susceptible to frost and snow buildup than incandescent lamps,[67]so some LED lighting systems
have been designed with an added heating circuit. Additionally, research has developed heat
sink technologies that will transfer heat produced within the junction to appropriate areas of the
light fixture.[71]
Colors and materials[edit]

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials. The following
table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:
Color
Wavelength
[nm]
Voltage
drop [V]
Semiconductor material
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Infrared
> 760
V < 1.63
Red
610 < <

760
1.63 < V < Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

2.03
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Orange
590 < <

610

2.03 < V < Aluminium gallium indium
2.10
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Yellow
570 < <

590

2.10 < V < Aluminium gallium indium
2.18
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Traditional green:
Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Pure green:
Indium gallium
nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)
500 < <

570
1.9[72] <
V < 4.0
Blue
450 < <

500
Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
2.48 < V <
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
3.7
Silicon (Si) as substrateunder
development
Violet
400 < <

450
2.76 < V <

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
4.0
Purple
Multiple types
Dual blue/red LEDs,

2.48 < V <
blue with red phosphor,
3.7
or white with purple plastic
Ultraviol
et
< 400
Green
3 < V <
4.1
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) (385400 nm)

Diamond (235 nm)[73]
Boron nitride (215 nm)[74][75]
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[76]
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
down to 210 nm[77]

Blue with one or two phosphor layers,
yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor
added afterwards,
Pink
Multiple types
V ~ 3.3[78]
White
Broad
spectrum
2.8 < V <

4.2
Blue and ultraviolet[edit]
Blue LEDs
External video
The Original Blue

LED, Chemical Heritage
Foundation
white with pink plastic,

or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye over
top.[79]
Cool / Pure White: Blue/UV diode with
yellow phosphor
Warm White: Blue diode with orange
phosphor
The first blue-violet LED using magnesium-doped gallium nitride was made at Stanford
University in 1972 by Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines, doctoral students in materials science
and engineering.[80][81] At the time Maruska was on leave from RCA Laboratories, where he
collaborated with Jacques Pankove on related work. In 1971, the year after Maruska left for
Stanford, his RCA colleagues Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first blue
electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium nitride, though the subsequent device Pankove
and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride light-emitting diode, emitted green light. [82][83] In 1974
the U.S. Patent Office awarded Maruska, Rhines and Stanford professor David Stevenson a
patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent US3819974 A) and today magnesium-doping of gallium
nitride continues to be the basis for all commercial blue LEDs and laser diodes. These devices
built in the early 1970s had too little light output to be of practical use and research into gallium
nitride devices slowed. In August 1989, Cree introduced the first commercially available blue LED
based on the indirect bandgapsemiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC).[84] SiC LEDs had very low
efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light
spectrum.[citation needed]
In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping[85] ushered in the
modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, Theodore
Moustakas at Boston University patented a method for producing high-brightness blue LEDs
using a new two-step process.[86] Two years later, in 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were
demonstrated again by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation using a gallium nitride growth
process similar to Moustakas's.[87] Both Moustakas and Nakamura were issued separate patents,
which confused the issue of who was the original inventor (partly because although Moustakas
invented his first, Nakamura filed first).[citation needed] This new development revolutionized LED
lighting, making high-power blue light sources practical, leading to the development of
technologies like Blu-ray, as well as allowing the bright high resolution screens of modern tablets
and phones.[citation needed]
Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention.
[88]
Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano and Isamu Akasaki were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in
2014 for the invention of the blue LED.[89][90][91] In 2015, a US court ruled that three companies (i.e.
the litigants who had not previously settled out of court) that had licensed Nakamura's patents for
production in the United States had infringed Moustakas's prior patent, and ordered them to pay
licensing fees of not less than 13 million USD.[92]
By the late 1990s, blue LEDs became widely available. They have an active region consisting of
one or more InGaN quantum wellssandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding
layers. By varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can
in theory be varied from violet to amber. Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga
fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs,
but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of
InGaN/GaN blue/green devices. If un-alloyed GaN is used in this case to form the active
quantum well layers, the device will emit near-ultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred
around 365 nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient
and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems, but practical devices
still exhibit efficiency too low for high-brightness applications. [citation needed]
With nitrides containing aluminium, most often AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter wavelengths
are achievable. Ultraviolet LEDs in a range of wavelengths are becoming available on the
market. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 375395 nm are already cheap and often
encountered, for example, as black light lamp replacements for inspection of anticounterfeiting UV watermarks in some documents and paper currencies. Shorter-wavelength
diodes, while substantially more expensive, are commercially available for wavelengths down to
240 nm.[93] As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption

spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250270 nm are to be
expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent research has shown that
commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and sterilization
devices.[94] UV-C wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using aluminium nitride (210 nm),
[76]
boron nitride (215 nm)[74][75] and diamond (235 nm).[73]
RGB[edit]
RGB-SMD-LED
RGB LEDs consist of one red, one green, and one blue LED. By independently adjusting each of
the three, RGB LEDs are capable of producing a wide color gamut. Unlike dedicated-color LEDs,
however, these obviously do not produce pure wavelengths. Moreover, such modules as
commercially available are often not optimized for smooth color mixing.
White[edit]
There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes (WLEDs), LEDs that
generate high-intensity white light. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors[95]
red, green, and blueand then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a
phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum
white light, much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works. It is important to note that the
'whiteness' of the light produced is essentially engineered to suit the human eye, and depending
on the situation it may not always be appropriate to think of it as white light.
There are three main methods of mixing colors to produce white light from an LED:
blue LED + green LED + red LED (color mixing; can be used as backlighting for displays)
near-UV or UV LED + RGB phosphor (an LED producing light with a wavelength shorter
than blue's is used to excite an RGB phosphor)
blue LED + yellow phosphor (two complementary colors combine to form white light;
more efficient than first two methods and more commonly used)[96]
Because of metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white. However,
the appearance of objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies.
RGB systems[edit]
Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high-brightness red solid-state semiconductor
LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 2427 nm for all three colors.
RGB LED
White light can be formed by mixing differently colored lights; the most common method is to use
red, green, and blue (RGB). Hence the method is called multi-color white LEDs (sometimes
referred to as RGB LEDs). Because these need electronic circuits to control the blending
and diffusion of different colors, and because the individual color LEDs typically have slightly
different emission patterns (leading to variation of the color depending on direction) even if they
are made as a single unit, these are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless, this
method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors, [97] and in
principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light. [citation needed]
There are several types of multi-color white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic white LEDs.
Several key factors that play among these different methods, include color stability, color
rendering capability, and luminous efficacy. Often, higher efficiency will mean lower color
rendering, presenting a trade-off between the luminous efficacy and color rendering. For
example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous efficacy (120 lm/W), but the lowest
color rendering capability. However, although tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color
rendering capability, they often have poor luminous efficacy. Trichromatic white LEDs are in
between, having both good luminous efficacy (>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering capability.
One of the challenges is the development of more efficient green LEDs. The theoretical
maximum for green LEDs is 683 lumens per watt but as of 2010 few green LEDs exceed even
100 lumens per watt. The blue and red LEDs get closer to their theoretical limits.
Multi-color LEDs offer not merely another means to form white light but a new means to form
light of different colors. Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of
three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. As more effort is devoted to
investigating this method, multi-color LEDs should have profound influence on the fundamental
method that we use to produce and control light color. However, before this type of LED can play
a role on the market, several technical problems must be solved. These include that this type of
LED's emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,[98] resulting in a substantial
change in color stability. Such problems inhibit and may preclude industrial use. Thus, many new
package designs aimed at solving this problem have been proposed and their results are now
being reproduced by researchers and scientists.
Correlated color temperature (CCT) dimming for LED technology is regarded as a difficult task,
since binning, age and temperature drift effects of LEDs change the actual color value output.
Feedback loop systems are used for example with color sensors, to actively monitor and control
the color output of multiple color mixing LEDs.[99]
Phosphor-based LEDs[edit]
Spectrum of a white LED showing blue light directly emitted by the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465
nm) and the more broadband Stokes-shifted light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor, which emits at roughly
500700 nm
This method involves coating LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of InGaN)
with phosphors of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called phosphorbased or phosphor-converted white LEDs (pcLEDs).[100] A fraction of the blue light undergoes
the Stokes shift being transformed from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the color of
the original LED, phosphors of different colors can be employed. If several phosphor layers of
distinct colors are applied, the emitted spectrum is broadened, effectively raising the color
rendering index (CRI) value of a given LED.[101]
Phosphor-based LED efficiency losses are due to the heat loss from the Stokes shift and also
other phosphor-related degradation issues. Their luminous efficacies compared to normal LEDs
depend on the spectral distribution of the resultant light output and the original wavelength of the
LED itself. For example, the luminous efficacy of a typical YAG yellow phosphor based white LED
ranges from 3 to 5 times the luminous efficacy of the original blue LED because of the human
eye's greater sensitivity to yellow than to blue (as modeled in the luminosity function). Due to the
simplicity of manufacturing the phosphor method is still the most popular method for making
high-intensity white LEDs. The design and production of a light source or light fixture using a
monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a
complex RGB system, and the majority of high-intensity white LEDs presently on the market are
manufactured using phosphor light conversion.
Among the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light sources is
the development of more efficient phosphors. As of 2010, the most efficient yellow phosphor is
still the YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stoke shift loss. Losses attributable to internal optical
losses due to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED packaging itself account typically for
another 10% to 30% of efficiency loss. Currently, in the area of phosphor LED development,
much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation
temperatures. For instance, the efficiency can be raised by adapting better package design or by
using a more suitable type of phosphor. Conformal coating process is frequently used to address
the issue of varying phosphor thickness.
Some phosphor-based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor-coated
epoxy. Alternatively, the LED might be paired with a remote phosphor, a preformed
polycarbonate piece coated with the phosphor material. Remote phosphors provide more diffuse
light, which is desirable for many applications. Remote phosphor designs are also more tolerant
of variations in the LED emissions spectrum. A common yellow phosphor material is ceriumdoped yttrium aluminium garnet (Ce3+:YAG).
White LEDs can also be made by coating near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a mixture of highefficiency europium-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and aluminium-doped
zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al) that emits green. This is a method analogous to the way fluorescent
lamps work. This method is less efficient than blue LEDs with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes
shift is larger, so more energy is converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral
characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet
LEDs than of the blue ones, both methods offer comparable brightness. A concern is that UV
light may leak from a malfunctioning light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.
Other white LEDs[edit]
Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and
was based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate that
simultaneously emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate. [102]
A new style of wafers composed of gallium-nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) is being used to
produce white LEDs using 200-mm silicon wafers. This avoids the typical
costly sapphire substrate in relatively small 100- or 150-mm wafer sizes.[103] The sapphire
apparatus must be coupled with a mirror-like collector to reflect light that would otherwise be
wasted. It is predicted that by 2020, 40% of all GaN LEDs will be made with GaN-on-Si.
Manufacturing large sapphire material is difficult, while large silicon material is cheaper and more
abundant. LED companies shifting from using sapphire to silicon should be a minimal
investment.[104]
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)[edit]
Main article: Organic light-emitting diode
Demonstration of a flexible OLEDdevice
Orange light-emitting diode
In an organic light-emitting diode (OLED), the electroluminescent material comprising the

emissive layer of the diode is an organic compound. The organic material is electrically
conductive due to the delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over all or part of the
molecule, and the material therefore functions as an organic semiconductor.[105] The organic
materials can be small organic molecules in a crystalline phase, or polymers.[106]
The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving voltage,
wide viewing angle, and high contrast and color gamut. [107] Polymer LEDs have the added benefit
of printable and flexible displays.[108][109][110] OLEDs have been used to make visual displays for
portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, and MP3 players while possible
future uses include lighting and televisions.[106][107]
Quantum dot LEDs[edit]

Quantum dots (QD) are semiconductor nanocrystals that possess unique optical properties.[111]
[112]
Their emission color can be tuned from the visible throughout the infrared spectrum. This
allows quantum dot LEDs to create almost any color on the CIE diagram. This provides more
color options and better color rendering than white LEDs since the emission spectrum is much
narrower, characteristic of quantum confined states. There are two types of schemes for QD
excitation. One uses photo excitation with a primary light source LED (typically blue or UV LEDs
are used). The other is direct electrical excitation first demonstrated by Alivisatos et al. [113]
One example of the photo-excitation scheme is a method developed by Michael Bowers,
at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, involving coating a blue LED with quantum dots that glow
white in response to the blue light from the LED. This method emits a warm, yellowish-white light
similar to that made by incandescent light bulbs.[114] Quantum dots are also being considered for
use in white light-emitting diodes in liquid crystal display (LCD) televisions. [115]
In February 2011 scientists at PlasmaChem GmbH were able to synthesize quantum dots for
LED applications and build a light converter on their basis, which was able to efficiently convert
light from blue to any other color for many hundred hours.[116] Such QDs can be used to emit
visible or near infrared light of any wavelength being excited by light with a shorter wavelength.
The structure of QD-LEDs used for the electrical-excitation scheme is similar to basic design
of OLEDs. A layer of quantum dots is sandwiched between layers of electron-transporting and
hole-transporting materials. An applied electric field causes electrons and holes to move into the
quantum dot layer and recombine forming an exciton that excites a QD. This scheme is
commonly studied for quantum dot display. The tunability of emission wavelengths and narrow
bandwidth is also beneficial as excitation sources for fluorescence imaging. Fluorescence nearfield scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) utilizing an integrated QD-LED has been
demonstrated.[117]
In February 2008, a luminous efficacy of 300 lumens of visible light per watt of radiation (not per
electrical watt) and warm-light emission was achieved by using nanocrystals.[118]
Types[edit]
LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and
most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high-power LEDs such as those used for lighting and
backlighting are generally found in surface-mount technology (SMT) packages (not shown).
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high-power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.[119]
Miniature[edit]
Photo of miniature surface mountLEDs in most common sizes. They can be much smaller than a traditional
5 mm lamp type LED which is shown on the upper left corner.
Very small (1.6x1.6x0.35 mm) red, green, and blue surface mountminiature LED package with gold wire
bonding details.
These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 2 mm
to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They usually do not use a separate heat
sink.[120] Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small size sets a
natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density
and need for a heat sink. Often daisy chained as used in LED tapes.
Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat top (as
used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top. The encapsulation may also
be clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle.
Researchers at the University of Washington have invented the thinnest LED. It is made of twodimensional (2-D) flexible materials. It is three atoms thick, which is 10 to 20 times thinner
than three-dimensional (3-D) LEDs and is also 10,000 times smaller than the thickness of a
human hair. These 2-D LEDs are going to make it possible to create smaller, more energyefficient lighting, optical communicationand nano lasers.[121]
There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs:
Low-current
Typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4 mW consumption)
Standard
20 mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40 mW to 90 mW) at around:
1.9 to 2.1 V for red, orange, yellow, and traditional green
3.0 to 3.4 V for pure green and blue
2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white

Ultra-high-output
20 mA at approximately 2 or 45 V, designed for viewing in direct sunlight
5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a
suitable series resistor for direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply.
High-power[edit]
High-power light-emitting diodes attached to an LED star base (Luxeon, Lumileds)
See also: Solid-state lighting, LED lamp, and Thermal management of high-power
LEDs
High-power LEDs (HP-LEDs) or high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at
currents from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of
mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens.[122][123] LED power
densities up to 300 W/cm2have been achieved.[124] Since overheating is destructive,
the HP-LEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the
heat from a HP-LED is not removed, the device will fail in seconds. One HP-LED
can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a
powerful LED lamp.
Some well-known HP-LEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds
Rebel Led, Osram Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp. As of
September 2009, some HP-LEDs manufactured by Cree now exceed 105 lm/W.[125]
Examples for Haitz's law, which predicts an exponential rise in light output and
efficacy of LEDs over time, are the CREE XP-G series LED which achieved 105
lm/W in 2009[125] and the Nichia 19 series with a typical efficacy of 140 lm/W, released
in 2010.[126]
AC driven[edit]
LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power
without the need for a DC converter. For each half-cycle, part of the LED emits light
and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half-cycle. The efficacy of this
type of HP-LED is typically 40 lm/W.[127] A large number of LED elements in series
may be able to operate directly from line voltage. In 2009, Seoul Semiconductor
released a high DC voltage LED, named as 'Acrich MJT', capable of being driven
from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The low-power dissipation of these
LEDs affords them more flexibility than the original AC LED design. [128]
Application-specific variations[edit]
Flashing[edit]
Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external
electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an
integrated multivibratorcircuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of
one second. In diffused lens LEDs, this circuit is visible as a small black dot. Most
flashing LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash
between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color
mixing.
Bi-color[edit]
Bi-color LEDs contain two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of
these. One type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads antiparallel to
each other. Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite
direction emits the other color. The other type consists of two dies with separate
leads for both dies and another lead for common anode or cathode, so that they can
be controlled independently.
Tri-color[edit]
Tri-color LEDs contain three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is
connected to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead
arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional
lead for each color.
RGB[edit]
RGB LEDs are tri-color LEDs with red, green, and blue emitters, in general using a
four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). These LEDs can
have either common positive or common negative leads. Others however, have only
two leads (positive and negative) and have a built-in tiny electronic control unit.
Decorative-multicolor[edit]
Decorative-multicolor LEDs incorporate several emitters of different colors supplied
by only two lead-out wires. Colors are switched internally by varying the supply
voltage.
Alphanumeric[edit]
Alphanumeric LEDs are available in seven-segment, starburst and dot-matrix format.
Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst
displays can display all letters. Dot-matrix displays typically use 5x7 pixels per
character. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and
1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and
greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric
LED displays.
Digital-RGB[edit]
Digital-RGB LEDs are RGB LEDs that contain their own "smart" control electronics.
In addition to power and ground, these provide connections for data-in, data-out, and
sometimes a clock or strobe signal. These are connected in a daisy chain, with the
data in of the first LED sourced by a microprocessor, which can control the
brightness and color of each LED independently of the others. They are used where
a combination of maximum control and minimum visible electronics are needed such
as strings for Christmas and LED matrices. Some even have refresh rates in the kHz
range, allowing for basic video applications.
Filament[edit]
An LED filament consists of multiple LED chips connected in series on a common
longitudinal substrate that form a thin rod reminiscent of a traditional incandescent
filament.[129]These are being used as a low cost decorative alternative for traditional
light bulbs that are being phased out in many countries. The filaments require a
rather high voltage to light to nominal brightness, allowing them to work efficiently
and simply with mains voltages. Often a simple rectifier and capacitive current
limiting are employed to create a low-cost replacement for a traditional light bulb
without the complexity of creating a low voltage, high current converter which is
required by single die LEDs.[130] Usually they are packaged in a sealed enclosure with
a shape similar to lamps they were designed to replace (e.g. a bulb), and filled with
inert nitrogen or carbon dioxide gas to remove heat efficiently.
Considerations for use[edit]

Power sources[edit]
Main article: LED power sources
Simple LED circuit with resistor for current limiting
The currentvoltage characteristic of an LED is similar to other diodes, in that the

current is dependent exponentially on the voltage (see Shockley diode equation).
This means that a small change in voltage can cause a large change in current. [131] If
the applied voltage exceeds the LED's forward voltage drop by a small amount, the
current rating may be exceeded by a large amount, potentially damaging or
destroying the LED. The typical solution is to use constant-current power supplies to
keep the current below the LED's maximum current rating. Since most common
power sources (batteries, mains) are constant-voltage sources, most LED fixtures
must include a power converter, at least a current-limiting resistor. However, the high
resistance of three-volt coin cells combined with the high differential resistance of
nitride-based LEDs makes it possible to power such an LED from such a coin cell
without an external resistor.
Electrical polarity[edit]
Main article: Electrical polarity of LEDs
As with all diodes, current flows easily from p-type to n-type material.[132] However, no
current flows and no light is emitted if a small voltage is applied in the reverse
direction. If the reverse voltage grows large enough to exceed the breakdown
voltage, a large current flows and the LED may be damaged. If the reverse current is
sufficiently limited to avoid damage, the reverse-conducting LED is a useful noise
diode.
Safety and health[edit]

The vast majority of devices containing LEDs are "safe under all conditions of
normal use", and so are classified as "Class 1 LED product"/"LED Klasse 1". At
present, only a few LEDsextremely bright LEDs that also have a tightly focused
viewing angle of 8 or lesscould, in theory, cause temporary blindness, and so are
classified as "Class 2".[133] The opinion of the French Agency for Food, Environmental
and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) of 2010, on the health issues
concerning LEDs, suggested banning public use of lamps which were in the
moderate Risk Group 2, especially those with a high blue component in places
frequented by children.[134] In general, laser safety regulationsand the "Class 1",
"Class 2", etc. systemalso apply to LEDs.[135]
While LEDs have the advantage over fluorescent lamps that they do not
contain mercury, they may contain other hazardous metals such
as lead and arsenic. Regarding the toxicity of LEDs when treated as waste, a study
published in 2011 stated: "According to federal standards, LEDs are not hazardous
except for low-intensity red LEDs, which leached Pb [lead] at levels exceeding
regulatory limits (186 mg/L; regulatory limit: 5). However, according to California
regulations, excessive levels of copper (up to 3892 mg/kg; limit: 2500), lead (up to
8103 mg/kg; limit: 1000), nickel (up to 4797 mg/kg; limit: 2000), or silver (up to 721
mg/kg; limit: 500) render all except low-intensity yellow LEDs hazardous." [136]
Advantages[edit]
Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs.
[137]
The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size unlike
fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as
traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial
costs.
Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[138]) and are easily attached to
printed circuit boards.
Warmup time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will
achieve full brightness in under a microsecond.[139] LEDs used in communications
devices can have even faster response times.
Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike
incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or highintensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) that require a long time before restarting.
Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or

lowering the forward current.[140] This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights,
particularly headlights on cars, when viewed on camera or by some people,
appear to be flashing or flickering. This is a type of stroboscopic effect.
Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the
form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy
is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt
failure of incandescent bulbs.[65]
Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates
35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be
longer.[141]Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours,
depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000
to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have shown that reduced
maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the
primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.[142]
Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage

with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are
fragile.
Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light.
Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to
collect light and direct it in a usable manner. For larger LED packages total
internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect. However, when
large quantities of light are needed many light sources are usually deployed,
which are difficult to focus or collimate towards the same target.
Disadvantages[edit]
Initial price: LEDs are currently slightly more expensive (price per lumen) on an
initial capital cost basis, than other lighting technologies. As of March 2014, at
least one manufacturer claims to have reached $1 per kilolumen.[143] The
additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the
drive circuitry and power supplies needed.
Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient

temperature of the operating environment or thermal management properties.
Overdriving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the
LED package, eventually leading to device failure. An adequate heat sink is
needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical,

and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of
temperatures, which require low failure rates. Toshiba has produced LEDs with
an operating temperature range of 40 to 100 C, which suits the LEDs for both
indoor and outdoor use in applications such as lamps, ceiling lighting, street
lights, and floodlights.[103]
Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with a voltage above their threshold
voltage and a current below their rating. Current and lifetime change greatly with
a small change in applied voltage. They thus require a current-regulated supply
(usually just a series resistor for indicator LEDs).[144]
Color rendition: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from
a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm
and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived
differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent
sources, due to metamerism,[145] red surfaces being rendered particularly poorly
by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs.
Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light
giving a spherical light distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs
are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field; however, different
fields of light can be manipulated by the application of different optics or
"lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees. In contrast,
lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.[146]
Electrical polarity: Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless

of the electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. To
automatically match source polarity to LED devices, rectifiers can be used.
Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now
capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in
eye safety specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.105: Recommended
Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.[147][148]
Light pollution: Because white LEDs, especially those with high color
temperature, emit much more short wavelength light than conventional outdoor
light sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the increased blue and
green sensitivity of scotopic vision means that white LEDs used in outdoor
lighting cause substantially more sky glow.[128][149][150][151][152] The American Medical
Association warned on the use of high blue content white LEDs in street lighting,
due to their higher impact on human health and environment, compared to low
blue content light sources (e.g. High Pressure Sodium, PC amber LEDs, and
low CCT LEDs).[153]
Efficiency droop: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the electric

current increases. Heating also increases with higher currents which
compromises the lifetime of the LED. These effects put practical limits on the
current through an LED in high power applications.[58][60][61][154]
Impact on insects: LEDs are much more attractive to insects than sodiumvapor lights, so much so that there has been speculative concern about the
possibility of disruption to food webs.[155][156]
Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in comparison
to incandescent lights, LED lights used for traffic control can have snow
obscuring them, leading to accidents.[157][158]
Applications[edit]
LED uses fall into four major categories:
Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning
Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these
objects
Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision [159]
Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and
respond to incident light, instead of emitting light[160][161][162][163]
Indicators and signs[edit]

The low energy consumption, low maintenance and small size of LEDs has led to
uses as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations.
Large-area LED displays are used as stadium displays, dynamic decorative
displays, and dynamic message signs on freeways. Thin, lightweight message
displays are used at airports and railway stations, and as destination displays for
trains, buses, trams, and ferries.
Red and green LED traffic signals
One-color light is well suited for traffic lights and signals, exit signs, emergency
vehicle lighting, ships' navigation lights or lanterns (chromacity and luminance
standards being set under the Convention on the International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972, Annex I and the CIE) and LED-based Christmas
lights. In cold climates, LED traffic lights may remain snow-covered. [164] Red or yellow
LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric displays in environments where night
vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits, submarine and ship bridges, astronomy
observatories, and in the field, e.g. night time animal watching and military field use.
Automotive applications for LEDs continue to grow.
Because of their long life, fast switching times, and their ability to be seen in broad
daylight due to their high output and focus, LEDs have been used in brake lights for
cars' high-mounted brake lights, trucks, and buses, and in turn signals for some
time, but many vehicles now use LEDs for their rear light clusters. The use in brakes
improves safety, due to a great reduction in the time needed to light fully, or faster
rise time, up to 0.5 second faster[citation needed] than an incandescent bulb. This gives
drivers behind more time to react. In a dual intensity circuit (rear markers and
brakes) if the LEDs are not pulsed at a fast enough frequency, they can create
a phantom array, where ghost images of the LED will appear if the eyes quickly scan
across the array. White LED headlamps are starting to be used. Using LEDs has
styling advantages because LEDs can form much thinner lights than incandescent
lamps with parabolic reflectors.
Due to the relative cheapness of low output LEDs, they are also used in many
temporary uses such as glowsticks, throwies, and the photonic textile Lumalive.
Artists have also used LEDs for LED art.
Weather and all-hazards radio receivers with Specific Area Message
Encoding (SAME) have three LEDs: red for warnings, orange for watches, and
yellow for advisories and statements whenever issued.
Lighting[edit]
With the development of high-efficiency and high-power LEDs, it has become
possible to use LEDs in lighting and illumination. To encourage the shift to LED
lamps and other high-efficiency lighting, the US Department of Energy has created
the L Prize competition. The Philips Lighting North America LED bulb won the first
competition on August 3, 2011 after successfully completing 18 months of intensive
field, lab, and product testing.[165]
LEDs are used as street lights and in other architectural lighting. The mechanical
robustness and long lifetime is used in automotive lighting on cars, motorcycles,
and bicycle lights. LED light emission may be efficiently controlled by
using nonimaging optics principles.
LED street lights are employed on poles and in parking garages. In 2007, the Italian
village of Torraca was the first place to convert its entire illumination system to LEDs.
[166]
LEDs are used in aviation lighting. Airbus has used LED lighting in its Airbus A320
Enhanced since 2007, and Boeing uses LED lighting in the 787. LEDs are also
being used now in airport and heliport lighting. LED airport fixtures currently include
medium-intensity runway lights, runway centerline lights, taxiway centerline and
edge lights, guidance signs, and obstruction lighting.
LEDs are also used as a light source for DLP projectors, and
to backlight LCD televisions (referred to as LED TVs) and laptop displays. RGB
LEDs raise the color gamut by as much as 45%. Screens for TV and computer
displays can be made thinner using LEDs for backlighting. [167]
The lack of IR or heat radiation makes LEDs ideal for stage lights using banks of
RGB LEDs that can easily change color and decrease heating from traditional stage
lighting, as well as medical lighting where IR-radiation can be harmful. In energy
conservation, the lower heat output of LEDs also means air conditioning (cooling)
systems have less heat in need of disposal.
LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in handheld devices
such as flashlights. LED strobe lights or camera flashes operate at a safe, low
voltage, instead of the 250+ volts commonly found in xenon flashlamp-based
lighting. This is especially useful in cameras on mobile phones, where space is at a
premium and bulky voltage-raising circuitry is undesirable.
LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision uses including security
cameras. A ring of LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into
a retroreflective background, allows chroma keying in video productions.
LED to be used for miners, to increase visibility inside mines
LEDs are used in mining operations, as cap lamps to provide light for miners.
Research has been done to improve LEDs for mining, to reduce glare and to
increase illumination, reducing risk of injury to the miners.[168]
LEDs are now used commonly in all market areas from commercial to home use:
standard lighting, AV, stage, theatrical, architectural, and public installations, and
wherever artificial light is used.
LEDs are increasingly finding uses in medical and educational applications, for
example as mood enhancement,[citation needed] and new technologies such as AmBX,
exploiting LED versatility. NASA has even sponsored research for the use of LEDs
to promote health for astronauts.[169]
Data communication and other signalling[edit]

See also: Li-Fi
Light can be used to transmit data and analog signals. For example, lighting white
LEDs can be used in systems assisting people to navigate in closed spaces while
searching necessary rooms or objects.[170]
Assistive listening devices in many theaters and similar spaces use arrays of
infrared LEDs to send sound to listeners' receivers. Light-emitting diodes (as well as
semiconductor lasers) are used to send data over many types of fiber optic cable,
from digital audio over TOSLINK cables to the very high bandwidth fiber links that
form the Internet backbone. For some time, computers were commonly equipped
with IrDA interfaces, which allowed them to send and receive data to nearby
machines via infrared.
Because LEDs can cycle on and off millions of times per second, very high data
bandwidth can be achieved.[171]
Sustainable lighting[edit]
Efficient lighting is needed for sustainable architecture. In 2009, US Department of
Energy testing results on LED lamps showed an average efficacy of 35 lm/W, below
that of typical CFLs, and as low as 9 lm/W, worse than standard incandescent bulbs.
A typical 13-watt LED lamp emitted 450 to 650 lumens, [172] which is equivalent to a
standard 40-watt incandescent bulb.
However, as of 2011, there are LED bulbs[173] available as efficient as 150 lm/W and
even inexpensive low-end models typically exceed 50 lm/W, so that a 6-watt LED
could achieve the same results as a standard 40-watt incandescent bulb. The latter
has an expected lifespan of 1,000 hours, whereas an LED can continue to operate
with reduced efficiency for more than 50,000 hours.
See the chart below for a comparison of common light types:[174]
LED
CFL
Incandesce
nt
Lightbulb Projected Lifespan
50,000 hours
10,000
hours
1,200 hours
Watts Per Bulb (equiv. 60 watts)
10
14
60
Cost Per Bulb
Approx.
$19.00
$7.00
$1.25
KWh of Electricity Used Over 50,000

Hours
500
700
3000
Cost of Electricity (@ 0.10 per KWh)
$50
$70
$300
Bulbs Needed for 50,000 Hours of Use
42
Equivalent 50,000 Hours Bulb Expense $19.00
$35.00
$52.50
TOTAL Cost for 50,000 Hours
$105.00
$352.50
$69.00
Energy consumption[edit]
In the US, one kilowatt-hour (3.6 MJ) of electricity currently causes an average 1.34
pounds (610 g) of CO
2 emission.[175] Assuming the average light bulb is on for 10 hours a day, a 40-watt
bulb will cause 196 pounds (89 kg) of CO
2 emission per year. The 6-watt LED equivalent will only cause 30 pounds (14 kg)
of CO
2 over the same time span. A buildings carbon footprint from lighting can therefore
be reduced by 85% by exchanging all incandescent bulbs for new LEDs if a building
previously used only incandescent bulbs.
In practice, most buildings that use a lot of lighting use fluorescent lighting, which
has 22% luminous efficiency compared with 5% for filaments, so changing to LED
lighting would still give a 34% reduction in electrical power use and carbon
emissions.
The reduction in carbon emissions depends on the source of electricity. Nuclear
power in the United States produced 19.2% of electricity in 2011, so reducing
electricity consumption in the U.S. reduces carbon emissions more than in France
(75% nuclear electricity) or Norway (almost entirely hydroelectric).
Replacing lights that spend the most time lit results in the most savings, so LED
lights in infrequently used locations bring a smaller return on investment.
Light sources for machine vision systems[edit]

Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so
features of interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used for this purpose, and
this is likely to remain one of their major uses until the price drops low enough to
make signaling and illumination uses more widespread. Barcode scanners are the
most common example of machine vision, and many low cost products use red
LEDs instead of lasers.[176] Optical computer mice are an example of LEDs in
machine vision, as it is used to provide an even light source on the surface for the
miniature camera within the mouse. LEDs constitute a nearly ideal light source
for machine vision systems for several reasons:
The size of the illuminated field is usually comparatively small and machine
vision systems are often quite expensive, so the cost of the light source is
usually a minor concern. However, it might not be easy to replace a broken light
source placed within complex machinery, and here the long service life of LEDs
is a benefit.
LED elements tend to be small and can be placed with high density over flat or
even-shaped substrates (PCBs etc.) so that bright and homogeneous sources
that direct light from tightly controlled directions on inspected parts can be
designed. This can often be obtained with small, low-cost lenses and diffusers,
helping to achieve high light densities with control over lighting levels and
homogeneity. LED sources can be shaped in several configurations (spot lights
for reflective illumination; ring lights for coaxial illumination; back lights for
contour illumination; linear assemblies; flat, large format panels; dome sources
for diffused, omnidirectional illumination).
LEDs can be easily strobed (in the microsecond range and below) and
synchronized with imaging. High-power LEDs are available allowing well-lit
images even with very short light pulses. This is often used to obtain crisp and
sharp "still" images of quickly moving parts.
LEDs come in several different colors and wavelengths, allowing easy use of the
best color for each need, where different color may provide better visibility of
features of interest. Having a precisely known spectrum allows tightly matched
filters to be used to separate informative bandwidth or to reduce disturbing
effects of ambient light. LEDs usually operate at comparatively low working
temperatures, simplifying heat management and dissipation. This allows using
plastic lenses, filters, and diffusers. Waterproof units can also easily be
designed, allowing use in harsh or wet environments (food, beverage, oil
industries).[176]
A large LED display behind

a disc jockey
LED digital display that can

display four digits and
points
Traffic light using LED
Other applications[edit]
LED costume for stage performers
The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively
in optical fiber and free space optics communications. This includes remote controls,
such as for TVs, VCRs, and LED Computers, where infrared LEDs are often
used. Opto-isolators use an LED combined with a photodiode or phototransistor to
provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two circuits. This is especially
useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low-voltage sensor circuit
(usually battery-powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically
isolated from any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device
operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An optoisolator also allows information
to be transferred between circuits not sharing a common ground potential.
Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a
light source due to the requirements of the sensors. LEDs are used as motion
sensors, for example in optical computer mice. The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses
infrared LEDs. Pulse oximeters use them for measuring oxygen saturation. Some
flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-cathode
fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control of three illuminated
colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and
there is no need for warm-up. Further, its sensors only need be monochromatic,
since at any one time the page being scanned is only lit by one color of light. Since
LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo emission
and detection. This could be used, for example, in a touchscreen that registers
reflected light from a finger or stylus.[177] Many materials and biological systems are
sensitive to, or dependent on, light. Grow lights use LEDs to
increase photosynthesis in plants,[178] and bacteria and viruses can be removed from
water and other substances using UV LEDs for sterilization.[94]
LEDs have also been used as a medium-quality voltage reference in electronic
circuits. The forward voltage drop (e.g. about 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be
used instead of a Zener diode in low-voltage regulators. Red LEDs have the flattest
I/V curve above the knee. Nitride-based LEDs have a fairly steep I/V curve and are
useless for this purpose. Although LED forward voltage is far more currentdependent than a Zener diode, Zener diodes with breakdown voltages below 3 V are
not widely available.
LED wallpaper by Meystyle
The progressive miniaturization of low-voltage lighting technology, such

as LEDs and OLEDs, suitable to be incorporated into low-thickness materials has
fostered in recent years the experimentation on combining light sources and wall
covering surfaces to be applied onto interior walls.[179] The new possibilities offered by
these developments have prompted some designers and companies, such
as Meystyle,[180] Ingo Maurer,[181] Lomox[182] and Philips,[183] to research and develop
proprietary LED wallpaper technologies, some of which are currently available for
commercial purchase. Other solutions mainly exist as prototypes or are in the
process of being further refined.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

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The Basics
LEDs are all around us: In our phones, our cars and even our homes. Any time something
electronic lights up, theres a good chance that an LED is behind it. They come in a huge variety
of sizes, shapes, and colors, but no matter what they look like they have one thing in common:
theyre the bacon of electronics. Theyre widely purported to make any project better and theyre
often added to unlikely things (to everyones delight).
Unlike bacon, however, theyre no good once youve cooked them. This guide will help you avoid
any accidental LED barbecues! First things first, though. What exactly is this LED thing
everyones talking about?
LEDs (thats ell-ee-dees) are a particular type of diode that convert electrical energy into light.
In fact, LED stands for Light Emitting Diode. (It does what it says on the tin!) And this is
reflected in the similarity between the diode and LED schematic symbols:
In short, LEDs are like tiny lightbulbs. However, LEDs require a lot less power to light up by
comparison. Theyre also more energy efficient, so they dont tend to get hot like conventional
lightbulbs do (unless youre really pumping power into them). This makes them ideal for mobile
devices and other low-power applications. Dont count them out of the high-power game, though.
High-intensity LEDs have found their way into accent lighting, spotlights and even automotive
headlights!
Are you getting the craving yet? The craving to put LEDs on everything? Good, stick with us and
well show you how!
Suggested Reading
Here are some other topics that will be discussed in this tutorial. If you are unfamiliar with any of
them, please have a look at the respective tutorial before you go any further.
What is Electricty?
What is a Circuit?
Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Ohms Law
Metric Prefixes and SI Uints
Electric Power
Polarity
Diodes
How to Use Them
So youve come to the sensible conclusion that you need to put LEDs on everything. We thought
youd come around. Lets go over the rule book:
1) Polarity Matters
In electronics, polarity indicates whether a circuit component is symmetric or not. LEDs, being
diodes, will only allow current to flow in one direction. And when theres no current-flow, theres
no light. Luckily, this also means that you cant break an LED by plugging it in backwards. Rather,
it just wont work.
The positive side of the LED is called the anode and is marked by having a longer lead, or
leg. The other, negative side of the LED is called the cathode. Current flows from the anode to
the cathode and never the opposite direction. A reversed LED can keep an entire circuit from
operating properly by blocking current flow. So dont freak out if adding an LED breaks your
circuit. Try flipping it around.
2) Moar Current Equals Moar Light

The brightness of an LED is directly dependent on how much current it draws. That means two
things. The first being that super bright LEDs drain batteries more quickly, because the extra
brightness comes from the extra power being used. The second is that you can control the
brightness of an LED by controlling the amount of current through it. But, setting the mood isnt
the only reason to cut back your current.
3) There is Such a Thing as Too Much Power

If you connect an LED directly to a current source it will try to dissipate as much power as its
allowed to draw, and, like the tragic heroes of olde, it will destroy itself. Thats why its important
to limit the amount of current flowing across the LED.
For this, we employ resistors. Resistors limit the flow of electrons in the circuit and protect the
LED from trying to draw too much current. Dont worry, it only takes a little basic math to
determine the best resistor value to use. You can find out all about it in our resistor tutorial!
Dont let all of this math scare you, its actually pretty hard to mess things up too badly. In the next
section, well go over how to make an LED circuit without getting your calculator.
LEDs Without Math
Before we talk about how to read a datasheet, lets hook up some LEDs. After all, this is an LED
tutorial, not a readingtutorial.
Its also not a math tutorial, so well give you a few rules of thumb for getting LEDs up and
running. As youve probably put together from the info in the last section, youll need a battery, a
resistor and an LED. Were using a battery as our power source, because theyre easy to find and
they cant supply a dangerous amount of current.
The basic template for an LED circuit is pretty simple, just connect your battery, resistor and LED
in series. Like this:
A good resistor value for most LEDs is 330 Ohms. You can use the information from the last
section to help you determine the exact value you need, but this is LEDs without math So, start
by popping a 330 Ohm resistor into the above circuit and see what happens.
The interesting thing about resistors is that theyll dissipate extra power as heat, so if you have a
resistor thats getting warm, you probably need to go with a smaller resistance. If your resistor is
too small, however, you run the risk of burning out the LED! Given that you have a handful of
LEDs and resistors to play with, heres a flow chart to help you design your LED circuit by trial
and error:
Another way to light up an LED is to just connect it to a coin cell battery! Since the coin cell cant
source enough current to damage the LED, you can connect them directly together! Just push
a CR2032 coin cell between the leads of the LED. The long leg of the LED should be touching
the side of the battery marked with a +. Now you can wrap some tape around the whole thing,
add a magnet, and stick it to stuff! Yay for throwies!
Of course, if youre not getting great results with the trial and error approach, you can always get
out your calculator and math it up. Dont worry, its not hard to calculate the best resistor value for
your circuit. But before you can figure out the optimal resistor value, youll need to find the optimal
current for your LED. For that well need to report to the datasheet
Get the Details

Dont go plugging any strange LEDs into your circuits, thats just not healthy. Get to know them
first. And how better than to read the datasheet.
As an example well peruse the datasheet for our Basic Red 5mm LED.
LED Current
Starting at the top and making our way down, the first thing we encounter is this charming table:
Ah, yes, but what does it all mean?
The first row in the table indicates how much current your LED will be able to handle
continuously. In this case, you can give it 20mA or less, and it will shine its brightest at 20mA.
The second row tells us what the maximum peak current should be for short bursts. This LED
can handle short bumps to 30mA, but you dont want to sustain that current for too long. This
datasheet is even helpful enough to suggest a stable current range (in the third row from the top)
of 16-18mA. Thats a good target number to help you make the resistor calculations we talked
about.
The following few rows are of less importance for the purposes of this tutorial. The reverse
voltage is a diode property that you shouldnt have to worry about in most cases. The power
dissipation is the amount of power in milliWatts that the LED can use before taking damage. This
should work itself out as long as you keep the LED within its suggested voltage and current
ratings.
LED Voltage
Lets see what other kinds of tables theyve put in here Ah!
This is a useful little table! The first row tells us what the forward voltage drop across the LED
will be. Forward voltage is a term that will come up a lot when working with LEDs. This number
will help you decide how much voltage your circuit will need to supply to the LED. If you have
more than one LED connected to a single power source, these numbers are really important
because the forward voltage of all of the LEDs added together cant exceed the supply voltage.
Well talk about this more in-depth later in the delving deeper section of this tutorial.
LED Wavelength
The second row on this table tells us the wavelength of the light. Wavelength is basically a very
precise way of explaining what color the light is. There may be some variation in this number so
the table gives us a minimum and a maximum. In this case its 620 to 625nm, which is just at the
lower red end of the spectrum (620 to 750nm). Again, well go over wavelength in more detail in
the delving deeper section.
LED Brightness
The last row (labeled Luminous Intensity) is a measure of how bright the LED can get. The unit
mcd, or millicandela, is a standard unit for measuring the intensity of a light source. This LED
has an maximum intensity of 200 mcd, which means its just bright enough to get your attention
but not quite flashlight bright. At 200 mcd, this LED would make a good indicator.
Viewing Angle
Next, weve got this fan-shaped graph that represents the viewing angle of the LED. Different
styles of LEDs will incorporate lenses and reflectors to either concentrate most of the light in one
place or spread it as widely as possible. Some LEDs are like floodlights that pump out photons in
every direction; Others are so directional that you cant tell theyre on unless youre looking
straight at them. To read the graph, imagine the LED is standing upright underneath it. The
spokes on the graph represent the viewing angle. The circular lines represent the intensity by
percent of maximum intensity. This LED has a pretty tight viewing angle. You can see that
looking straight down at the LED is when its at its brightest, because at 0 degrees the blue lines
intersect with the outermost circle. To get the 50% viewing angle, the angle at which the light is
half as intense, follow the 50% circle around the graph until it intersects the blue line, then follow
the nearest spoke out to read the angle. For this LED, the 50% viewing angle is about 20
degrees.
Dimensions
Finally, the mechanical drawing. This picture contains all of the measurements youll need to
actually mount the LED in an enclosure! Notice that, like most LEDs, this one has a small flange
at the bottom. That comes in handy when you want to mount it in a panel. Simply drill a hole the
perfect size for the body of the LED, and the flange will keep it from falling through!
Now that you know how to decipher the datasheet, lets see what kind of fancy LEDs you might
encounter in the wild
Types of LEDs
Congratulations, you know the basics! Maybe youve even gotten your hands on a few LEDs and
started lighting stuff up, thats awesome! How would you like to step up your blinky game? Lets
talk about makin' it fancy.
Heres the cast of characters:
RGB (Red-Green-Blue) LEDs are actually three LEDs in one! But that doesnt mean it can only
make three colors. Because red, green, and blue are the additive primary colors, you can control
the intensity of each to create every color of the rainbow. Most RGB LEDs have four pins: one for
each color and a common pin. On some, the common pin is the anode, and on others, its the
cathode.
Some LEDs are smarter than others. Take the flashing LED, for example. Inside these LEDs,
theres actually an integrated circuit that allows the LED to blink without any outside controller.
Simply power it up and watch it go! These are great for projects where you want a little bit more
action but dont have room for control circuitry. There are even RGB flashing LEDs that cycle
through thousands of colors!
SMD LEDs arent so much a specific kind of LED but a package type. As electronics get smaller
and smaller, manufacturers have figured out how to cram more components in a smaller space.
SMD (Surface Mount Device) parts are tiny versions of their standard counterparts. SMD LEDs
come in several sizes, from fairly large to smaller than a grain of rice! Because theyre so small,
and have pads instead of legs, theyre not as easy to work with, but if youre tight on space they
might be just what the doctor ordered.
High-Power LEDs, from manufacturers like Luxeon and CREE, are crazy bright. Generally, an
LED is considered High-Power if it can dissipate 1 Watt or more of power. These are the fancy
LEDs that you find in really nice flashlights. Arrays of them can even be built for spotlights and
automobile headlights. Because theres so much power being pumped through the LED, these
often require heatsinks. A heatsink is basically a chunk of heat conducting metal with lots of
surface area whose job is to transfer as much waste heat into the surrounding air as possible.
High-Power LEDs can generate so much waste heat that theyll damage themselves without
proper cooling. Dont let the term waste heat fool you, though, these devices are still incredibly
efficient compared to conventional bulbs.
There are even LEDs that emit light outside of the normal visible spectrum. You probably
use Infrared LEDs every day, for instance. Theyre used in things like TV remotes to send small
pieces of information in the form of invisible light! On the opposite end of the spectrum you can
also get Ultraviolet LEDs. Ultraviolet LEDs will make certain materials fluoresce, just like a
blacklight! Theyre also used for disinfecting surfaces, because many bacteria are sensitive to UV
radiation.
With fancy LEDs like these at your disposal, theres no excuse for leaving anything unilluminated. However, if your thirst for LED knowledge hasnt been slaked, then read on, and well
get into the nitty-gritty on LEDs, color, and luminous intensity!
Delving Deeper
So youve graduated from LEDs 101 and you want more? Oh, dont worry, weve got more. Lets
start with the science behind what makes LEDs tick err blink. Weve already mentioned that
LEDs are a special kind of diode, but lets delve a little deeper into exactly what that means:
What we call an LED is really the LED and the packaging together, but the LED itself is actually
tiny! Its a chip of semiconductor material thats doped with impurities which creates
a boundary for charge carriers. When current flows into the semi-conductor, it jumps from one
side of this boundary to the other, releasing energy in the process. In most diodes that energy
leaves as heat, but in LEDs that energy is dissipated as light!
The wavelength of light, and therefore the color, depends on the type of semiconductor material
used to make the diode. Thats because the energy band structure of semiconductors differs
between materials, so photons are emitted with differing frequencies. Heres a table of common
LED semiconductors by frequency:
Truncated table of semiconductor materials by color. The full table is available on the Wikipedia
entry for LED
While the wavelength of the light depends on the band gap of the semiconductor, the intensity
depends on the amount of power being pushed through the diode. We talked about luminous
intensity a little bit in a previous section, but theres more to it than just putting a number on how
bright something looks.
The unit for measuring luminous intensity is called the candela, although when youre talking
about the intensity of a single LED youre usually in the millicandela range. The interesting thing
about this unit is that it isnt really a measure of the amount of light energy, but an actual measure
of brightness. This is achieved by taking the power emitted in a particular direction and
weighting that number by the luminosity function of the light. The human eye is more sensitive to
some wavelengths of light than others, and the luminosity function is a standardized model that
accounts for that sensitivity.
The luminous intesity of LEDs can range from the tens to the tens-of-thousands of millicandela.
The power light on your TV is probably about 100 mcd, whereas a good flashlight might be
20,000 mcd. Looking straight into anything brighter than a few thousand millicandela can be
painful; dont try it.
Forward Voltage Drop

Oh, I also promised that wed talk about the concept of Forward Voltage Drop. Remember when
we were looking at the datasheet and I mentioned that the Forward Voltage of all of your LEDs
added together cant exceed your system voltage? This is because every component in your
circuit has to share the voltage, and the amount of voltage that every part uses together will
always equal the amount thats available. This is called Kirchhoffs Voltage Law. So if you have a
5V power supply and each of your LEDs have a forward voltage drop of 2.4V then you cant
power more than two at a time.
Kirchhoffs Laws also come in handy when you want to approximate the voltage across a given
part based on the Forward Voltage of other parts. For instance, in the example I just gave theres
a 5V supply and 2 LEDs with a 2.4V Forward Voltage Drop each. Of course we would want to
include a current limiting resistor, right? How would you find out the voltage across that resistor?
Its easy:
5 (System Voltage) = 2.4 (LED 1) + 2.4 (LED 2) + Resistor

5 = 4.8 + Resistor
Resistor = 5 - 4.8
Resistor = 0.2
So there is .2V across the resistor! This is a simplified example and it isnt always this easy, but
hopefully this gives you an idea of why Forward Voltage Drop is important. Using the voltage
number you derive from Kirchhoffs Laws you can also do things like determine the current across
a component using Ohms Law. In short, you want your system voltage equal to the expected
forward voltage of your combined circuit components.

Special Type of Diode

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Schottky Barrier Diode: Tutorial

Discover & introduction

Schottky diode symbol

An NPN transistor with Schottky diode clamp

Schottky diode technology & structure

Basic Schottky diode structure

Point contact Schottky diode structure

Vacuum deposited Schottky diode structure

Deposited metal Schottky barrier diode structure

Schottky diode structure with guard ring

Schottky diode rectifier structure showing with guard ring

Schottky diode structure notes

or sputtering techniques. However in some instances chemical deposition is gaining

Schottky Diode Characteristics &

Schottky diode characteristics

Schottky diode IV characteristic

Schottky diode IV characteristic

Key specification parameters

Reverse recovery time: This parameter is important when a diode is used in a

Working temperature: The maximum working temperature of the junction, Tj is

Schottky diode characteristics summary

Majority carrier transport.

Due to diffusion currents, i.e. minority

Results from majority carriers that

Results from the minority carriers

Small - around 0.2 V.

Comparatively large - around 0.7 V.

COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOTTKY DIODE AND PN DIODE

Fast - as a result of the use of majority

Limited by the recombination time of the

Example Schottky diode characteristics

1N5711 Schottky barrier switching diode This diode is described as an ultra-fast

Max DC Blocking Voltage, Vr

Max forward continuous current, Ifm

Reverse breakdown voltage, V(BR)R

@ reverse current of 10A

Reverse leakage current, IR

Forward voltage drop, VF

Maximum recurrent peak reverse voltage

Maxim DC blocking voltage

Average forward current, IF (AV)

Peak forward surge current, IFSM

Maximum instantaneous forward voltage,

Maximum instantaneous reverse current

Schottky Diode Power Rectifier Diode

Advantages of using a Schottky diode rectifier

Schottky diode rectifier design considerations

Limited junction temperature: The maximum junction temperature of a Schottky diode

Ian, Poole. http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/data/semicond/schottky_diode

Operation principle of Schottky barrier

Construction Schottky barrier diode:

Above figure shows the V-I characteristics of a Schottky and a PN junction

Applications Schottky barrier diode:

Schottky diode can be used for rectification of signals of frequencies even

It is commonly used in switching power supplies at frequencies of 20 GHz.

Its low noise figure finds application in sensitive communication receivers

It is also used in clipping and clamping circuits and in computer gating.

Varactor / varicap diode tutorial

Varactor diode applications

Varactor diode basics

Varactor diode symbol

Varactor diode circuit symbol

aractor Abrupt & Hyperabrupt Diodes

- essentials of the varactor abrupt and hyperabrupt diodes, what these