Part I

1. Overview of Satellite
Communications
2. Orbital Mechanics

Lakshmanan. M
APS/SENSE
VIT University

Developments in Communication
Two developments in the 20th century
Automobile
Telecommunication.
Telegraph and Telephony using copper wire

High frequency radio (or) Short wave radio.

Intercontinental telephone links

Artificial earth satellite more than 35 years.

Telephone and email
Hundreds of TV channels

Article by Arthur C.
Clarke in British Radio
magazine Wireless
World in 1945 about
the origin of Satellite
Communication

Global Communication

 In 1965
First geostationary satellite Early bird
Provide telephone service across the Atlantic
ocean fulfilling Clarkes vision of 20 years earlier.
Long distance telephone service.

In the late 1960s launch vehicles had

been developed that could place a 500kg
satellite in GEO, With a capacity of 5000
telephone circuits
Marking the start of an era of expansion for
telecommunication satellites.

Geo stationary orbit (GEO)

Preferred for all high capacity
communication satellite systems.
Because a satellite in GEO appears to be
stationery over a fixed point on the ground.
Establish links to one third of the earths
surface using fixed antennas.
DBSTV and the distribution of video
signals for cable television networks.

By 2001 200 GEO communication

satellites.

 GEO satellite grows steadily in lifetime,

weight, size, cost.

Largest satellite
KH & Lacrosse surveillance (USA)
Weight 13,600kg.

By 2000 Commercial telecommunication

satellites

Weight = 10,000kg,
Life time 15 years.
Carry 60 transponders
Generate 12kw power.

 GEO satellites Supplemented by LEO &

MEO.
LEO 138 satellites.
Provide satellite telephone, and data services
over continents (or) over the entire world.
Imaging & surveillance.

GPS uses 24 MEO satellites.

Navigation purposes.
GPS Receiver in cars and cellular telephones.
Car location & phone location.

Band

Frequency Range

1 2 GHz

2 4 GHz

4 8 GHz

8 12 GHz

Ku

12 18 GHz

18 27 GHz

Ka

27 40 GHz

40 75 GHz

75 110 GHz

Introduction to Satellite Communications

1957 Russian satellite -- Sputnik I.
First artificial satellite.
Carried only a beacon transmitter.
Demonstrated that satellites could be placed in orbit
by powerful rockets.

 1958 US satellite -- Explorer I (or)

Score satellite.
Stored data can be transmitted.
Batteries failed after 35 days in orbit.

 1962 Telstar I & 1963 Telstar II

Communication Satellite -- Uses C Band Transponder.
Uplink = 6389 MHZ
Downlink = 4169 MHZ
Bandwidth = 50 MHZ

Launched into MEO.

High energy radiation
Early failure of the electronics on board.

 April 16,1965 First Intelsat satellite

Intelsat I (Early bird)
GEO Satellite

Weight =36kg
Uplink frequency = 6 GHZ
Down link frequency = 4 GHZ
Frequency = 6/4 GHZ.
Bandwidth = 25 MHZ

Commercial operation between Europe & US.

 Work was begun to develop.

Launch vehicles that could deliver a

payload to Geo stationary orbit.
So that it could provide useful
communication capacity.

In mid 1963 99% of all satellites had

been launched into LEO.
Due to small launchers.

 In 1974
US domestic satellite WESTAR I
Canadas domestic satellite Anik I A

 GEO satellites benefited for

Russia (11 time Zones)

Indonesia (3000 Islands)

In 1965
First commercial satellite by Russia

End of 1983
Complete telephone traffic carried by
the US domestic satellite systems.

 In 1985

All telephone traffic moved to terrestrial circuits

C Band was fully occupied
Leading to expansion into Ku band.
Video distribution and VSAT (Very Small Aperture
Terminal)

In 1995
Ku band filled.
Ka band satellite systems would be needed to the
digital traffic.
Especially high speed Internet data

Ka band operated by 2001 in Europe using the

satellite Astra 1H. and operated by 2003 in US.

 Inmarsat
International Maritime Satellite organization
Provide service to ships and aircraft at a high
cost.

Satellite Navigation system

Global positioning system (GPS).
By 2010, aircraft navigation of US depended
mostly on GPS.
Blind landing systems
Navigation of ships in coastal waters and bad
weathers.

 Till 2000
Approximately 200 GEO satellites in operation.

Larger GEO satellites

Serving one third of the earths surface
Carry 4 Gbps of data.
Can transmit up to 16 DBS TV signals.

Apstar V
Satellite serving Asia.

Mass = 4845kg
Initial power = 10.6KW
38 C band transponders. With 60W output power.
16 Ku band transponders at 141W each.

 By 2000 end
14 million DBSTV customers in US
High capacity of GEO satellites results from
the use of high power terrestrial transmitters
and relatively high gain earth station
antennas.

Earth station antenna gain proportional to

communication capacity
Fixed directional antennas delivers the
data at a lower cost than low gain
antennas.

Overview of Satellite Communications

Radio waves
Travel in straight lines at the microwave frequencies
used for wide band communications.
A repeater is required to convey signals over long
distances.

Satellite communication systems exist because

earth is a sphere

Satellite
Can link places on the earth that are thousands of km
apart.
Good place to locate a repeater.

 Repeater
Receiver linked to the transmitter using
different radio frequencies
Receive a signal from one earth station,
amplifies it, and retransmit it to another earth
station.

 Communication satellites in GEO

At an altitude of 35,786 km.
Typical path length from an earth station to a Geo
satellite is 38,500km.
Signals reaching the satellite and signals received on
earth from a satellite are weak.

 Because of the limits on the weights of GEO

satellites and the electrical power generated using
solar cells
Severe restrictions in the weight and size of the
antenna.
Very large receiving antennas in the earth station,
with the diameters of up to 30m, were needed to
collect sufficient signal power to drive video signals
(or) multiplexed telephone channels.

 Now, the satellites have become larger, heavier

and more powerful.
Smaller earth station antennas have become
feasible.
DBS-TV receiving systems uses dish antennas of
size 0.5m in dia.

 Satellite system operate in millimeter and

microwave frequency bands,
Between 1 and 50 GHZ.

Above 10GHZ , rain causes significant

attenuation on the signal.
Probability that the rain satellite and in the path
between the satellite and the earth station.
Must be considered in the system design.

Above 20GHZ, attenuation in heavy rain with

thunderstorms can cause sufficient
attenuation that the link will fail.

 For the first 20 years of satellite communications

Analog signals were widely used.
Most commonly used FM
Wide band FM

Wide band FM
Operate at low carrier to noise ratio (C/N) in the
5dB to 15dB range.
For video and telephone signals should be
delivered with S/N of 50dB.
Adds (S/N) improvement to the original (C/N).
Penalty for the improvement
Occupies much larger bandwidth than the base band
signal.

 Moves to the digital signals.

C Band Major analog satellite transmission
system.
Ku-Band Digital satellite transmission system

Not only digital TV, now HDTV, Telephony, data,

DBS-TV, radio broad casting and navigation with
GPS uses digital signaling techniques.
LEO & MEO Mobile communication systems
Digital signaling techniques taking the advantage of
voice compression at 4.8 kbps and audio and video
compression at the rates less than 6.2 mbps.

Orbital Mechanics
How earth orbit is achieved
Laws that describe the motion of an
object orbiting another body.
How satellites maneuver in space
Determination of the look angle to a
satellite from the earth.

Developing the equations of the orbit

Fundamental Newtons equations that describe the
motion of a body.
Newtons law of motion can be encapsulated into four
equations,
Note that the acceleration can be
1. s = ut + (1/2)at2
positive or negative, depending on
2. v2 = u2 + 2at
3. v = u + at
the direction it is acting with
4. F = ma
respect to the velocity vector.

Where S is the distance travelled from t=0,

u is the initial velocity of the object at time t=0,
v is the final velocity of the object at time t,
a is the acceleration of the object,
F is the force acting on the object,
m is the mass of the object.

 F = ma understands the motion of a satellite in a

stable orbit.
A = F/m ratio of the force acting on the body to the
mass of the body.
For a given force,
Lighter the mass of the body, higher the acceleration
will be in a stable orbit,
Two main forces acting on a satellite,
Centrifugal force
Centripetal force
If the two forces are equal, the satellite will remain in a
stable orbit.

 Centrifugal force
due to the kinetic energy of the satellite.
attempts to fling the satellite into a
higher orbit.

Centripetal force
due to the gravitational attraction of the
planet about which the satellite is
orbiting.
attempts to pull the satellite down
towards the planet.

FOUT=mv2/r

FIN=GMEM/r2

ME

 Two opposite forces on a satellite in a stable orbit

FIN centripetal force (or) gravitational force

Directed towards the center of the gravity of the earth.

Inversely propositional to the square of the distance
between the center of the gravity of the satellite and the
earth, where the satellite is orbiting.

FOUT the centrifugal force or the kinetic energy

Directed diametrically opposite to the gravitational

force.
Proportional to the velocity of the satellite.

When these inward and outward forces are balanced,

the satellite moves around the earth in a free fall
trajectory
i.e.) the satellites orbit.

 The acceleration due to gravity a at a distance r

from the center of the earth is,
a = /r 2 km/s2
Where the constant is the product of the
universal gravitational constant and the mass of
the earth ME

The product GME is called as Keplers constant

and has the value, = 3.986x105 km3/s2
And G = 6.672x10-11 NM2/kg2 (or)
6.672x10-20 km3/kg s2

 Any Force, F = ma
Since centripetal force,
FIN = m x /r2
FIN = m x GME/r2
Centrifugal acceleration is given by,
a=v2/r
FOUT=m x v2/r
If the forces on the satellite are balanced,
FIN = FOUT
M x /r2 = m x v2/r

v=(/r)1/2

Which is the velocity of the satellite in a circular orbit.

 If the orbit is circular, the distance travelled by a

satellite in one orbit around the earth is 2
where r is the radius of the orbit from the
satellite to the center of the earth.

The time to travel that distance, i.e.) period of

the satellites orbit T is given by,
T = distance/velocity
= 2r/v
= 2r3/2/1/2
=2r/(/r)1/2

T = 2r3/2/1/2

Satellite

Orbital
height
(km)

Orbital
velocity
(km/s)

Orbital period
(hr)
(min)
(s)

Intelsat (GEO)

35,786.03

3.0747

23

56

4.1

New-ICO(MEO)

10,255

4.8954

55

48.4

Skybridge (LEO)

1,469

7.1272

55

17.8

Iridium (LEO)

780

7.4624

40

27.0

Mean earth radius is 6378.137 km and GEO radius

from the center of the earth is 42,164.17 km

 Uses the Cartesian coordinate system with the

earth at the center and
the reference planes
coinciding
with
the
equator and the polar
axis

The initial coordinate

system that could be
used to describe the
relationship between the
earth and a satellite.

 A Cartesian coordinate
system
with
the
geographical axes of
the earth as the
principal axis is the
simplest
coordinate
system to set up.
The rotational axis of
the earth is about the
axis cz, where c is the
center of the earth and
cz passes through the
geographic north pole.

 Axes cx, cy, and cz are

mutually
orthogonal
axes, with cx and cy
passing through the
earths
geographic
equator.
The vector r locates the
moving satellite with
respect to the center of
the earth.

 The satellite mass m is located at a vector

distance r, from the center of the earth,
Then the gravitational force F on the satellite is
given by,

=
1
3

Where ME is the mass of the earth

G=6.672 x 10-11 NM2/kg2

But F=ma
Equation 1 can also be written as,
=

2
2

 From Equations 1 & 2 ,

2
=
3

2
+ 3 = 0
2

This is a second order linear differential equation and its

solution involves six undetermined constants called the orbital
elements.
Orbit described by these orbital elements can be shown to lie
in a plane and to have a constant angular momentum.
The solution to the above equation is difficult

Since the second derivative of r involves the second derivative of

the unit vector r .

 To remove this dependence,

a different set of coordinates
can be chosen to describe
the location of the satellite
such that the unit vectors in
the three axes are constant.
The orbital plane coordinate
system.

In this coordinate system,

the orbital plane of the
satellite is used as the
reference plane.

 The
orthogonal
axes, x0 and y0 lie in
the orbital plane.
The third axis, z0, is
perpendicular
to
the orbital plane.

 The geographical z-axis

of the earth (which
passes through the true
North Pole and the
center of the earth, c)
does not lie in the same
direction as the z0 axis
except for satellite orbits
that are exactly in the
plane of the geographical
equator.

 This Co-ordinate system uses the plane of the

satellites orbit as the reference plane (Orbital plane
Co-ordinate system).
Expressing in terms of the new co-ordinate axes x0,
y0, and z0 as
2 0
2 0
0 0 + 0 0
0
+ 0
+
=0
2
2
2
2
3/2

0 + 0
3
The above equation is easier to solve if it is
expressed in a polar Co-ordinate system rather than
Cartesian Co-ordinate system.

 Polar coordinate system in the plane of the

satellites orbit.

The plane of the orbit coincides with the

plane of the paper.

 The axis z0 is straight out of the paper from the

center of the earth, and is normal to the plane
of the satellites orbit.

The satellites position is described in terms of

the radius from the center of the earth r0 and
the angle this radius makes with the x0 axis, o.

 Using the transformations,

0 = 0 cos 0
0 = 0 sin 0

0 = 0 cos 0 0 sin 0
0 = 0 cos 0 + 0 sin 0
Equating the vector components
of r0 and 0,equation 3 becomes,
2 0
0
0
2

2 0
0
+2
2

= 2
0

0
=0

ro is the radius of the satellites orbit,

0 =
1 + cos 0 0
Where 0 is a constant and e is the eccentricity of the
ellipse whose semi latus rectum p is

2
=

Where h is the magnitude of the orbital angular

momentum of the satellite.

Thus, Equation of the orbit is an ellipse Keplers

first law of planetary motion.

 Consider

2 0
2

+2

1
0

=0

2 0
0
=0

2 0
0
= a constant

2 0
0

Where h is the angular momentum

Squaring
4 0
0

2
2

= 2
=

2
03

Sub in eqn. (4)

2 0
2

2
03

02

For eliminating t, Use =

Differentiating w.r.t 0
0
0

But

1
0

0 =

1
.
2 0

0 0
.
0

Since

1
2

=
=

.
. 2
0 0

0
0 02

02

{from eqn. (6)}

{from eqn. (9)}

0

= .

10

 2 0
2

Similarly

0 0
=
.
.
0
2 0

=
.
2
2

0 0
0
Since

2 0
0 .

= and

2 0
2

2
20

.
0

2 2

11

 Sub in equation (8)

2
20

Since =

1
0

2
. 3
0

2 2 . 2
0

1 2
. 2
2
0 0
2

1
03

1
03

2
0

02

1
. 2
2
0

2 + = 2
0
0
2
0

+ =

12

 Solution to the above equation is

=
=

+ C cos(0 )

+ C cos(0 0 )

13

Where C and 0 are the constants to be determine from

boundary conditions.

1
0 =

0 =
=
2

+ cos 0 0
2
1+
cos 0 0

0 =

1+ cos 0 0

14

 =
=

2
2

0 =

semi latus rectum

eccentricity of the ellipse.

1+ cos 0 0

is the equation of the orbit which

is an ellipse.

If e=0 then the orbit becomes circular

0 Serves to orient the ellipse with respect to the
orbital plane axes 0 & 0 .
Always choose 0 & 0 so that 0 is zero.
Therefore the equation of the orbit is

0 =
1 + cos 0

Describing the orbit of a satellite

The equation of the orbit is 0 =
From the fig
a Semi major axes of the ellipse

b Semi minor axes of the ellipse

1

1 2

= 1 2
1 2

1
2

()

1+ cos 0

 The point O is the center of the earth and the point C

is the center of the ellipse.
The two centers do
not coincide unless
the eccentricity, e, of
the ellipse is zero (i.e.,
the ellipse becomes a
circle and a = b)

Two terms
Apogee
Perigee

 The point in the orbit where the satellite is closest to

the earth is called as the Perigee.
The point where the satellite is farthest from the
earth is called as the Apogee.
The perigee and
Apogee are always
exactly opposite to each
other.
To make 0 equal to
zero,0 axis is chosen
so that Apogee and
perigee lie along it and
0 axis is the major axis
of the ellipse.

 The differential area swept out by the vector 0

from the origin to the satellite in time dt is given
by,
2 0
= 0.50

= 0.5
(

02

Thus the Radius vector of the satellite swept out

equal areas in equal times.
Kepler's second law of planetary motion.

 The figure shows two shaded portions of the

elliptical plane in which the orbit moves, one is
close to the earth and encloses the perigee while
the other is far from the earth and encloses the
apogee.

 While close to perigee, the satellite moves in the

orbit between times t1 and t2 and sweeps out an area
denoted by A12.
While close to apogee, the satellite moves in the
orbit between times t3 and sweeps out an area
denoted by A34.
If t1 t2 = t3 t4,
then A12 = A34.

 Area of the ellipse =

Area of the ellipse = Area swept out in one orbital
revolution,

3
22
1
2

2 =

42 3

Square of the period of revolution is proportional to the

cube of the semi major axis.
Keplers third law of planetary motion.
If the orbit is circular, then

23
4
2 =

 Consider A apogee distance & P perigee distance

Apogee distance, A= a(1+e)
Perigee Distance, P = a(1-e)
Eccentricity,

Semi Major Axis, =

+
2

Semi Minor Axis, =

1. The sum of apogee and perigee distances of a

certain elliptical satellite orbit is 50,000 km. and the
difference of apogee and perigee distance is 20,000
km. Determine the eccentricity.
Answer: 0.4

2. The semi major axis and the semi

minor axis of an elliptical satellite orbit
are 20,000 km and 16,000 km.
Determine the apogee and perigee
distances.
A= 32,000 km, 16,000 km

A= 32,000 km
P=8000 km

since a=20,000 km.

Locating the satellite in the orbit

Equation of the orbit can be written as

0 =
But, =

1 2

1+ cos 0

= 1 2
1 2
0 =
1 + cos 0

The angle 0 is measured from the 0 axis and is

called as the true anomaly.

 Anomaly a measure used by the astronomers to

mean a planets angular distance from its perihelion
(closest approach to the sun) measured as if viewed
from the sun.
Anomaly Positive angle oriented to the velocity
vector of the satellite.
i.e.) Measure the angle from the perigee
instantaneous position of the satellite.

to the

The rectangular Co-ordinates of the satellite are given

by,
0 = 0 cos 0
0 = 0 sin 0

 The orbital period T is the time required for the

satellite to complete one revolution travelling a total
of 2 radians.
The average angular velocity is
2
2
=
=
3

2 2

= 3
2
If the orbit is an ellipse, the instantaneous angular
velocity will wary with the position of the satellite
around the orbit.

 If the elliptical orbit is

enclosed
with
a
circumscribed circle of
radius a

Then an object going

around
the
circumscribed
circle
with a constant angular
velocity

would
complete one revolution
in exactly the same
period T as the satellite
requires to complete one
(elliptical)
orbital
revolution.

 Locate the point (A)

where a vertical line
drawn through the
position of the satellite
intersects the
circumscribed circle.
A line from the center of
the ellipse (C) to this
point (A) makes an angle
E with the 0 axis.

E Eccentric anomaly of the satellite.

E is related to 0 by,
0 = 1 cos 0 = cos

 Relating eccentric anomaly E to the average angular

velocity ,
= 1 cos
1
Let be the time of perigee.
Time of closest approach to the earth
i.e.) The time when the satellite is crossing the 0 axis and
the time when E is zero.

Integrating the equation (1)

= sin
= sin
Where M is the mean anomaly of the satellite.

Mean anomaly arc length that the satellite would

have traversed if it moves on the circumscribed circle
at the average angular velocity ()

3. Calculate the period of the satellite orbit when the altitude is

250 km and the orbit is circular. Also find the linear velocity
and angular velocity of the satellite along its orbit.
Radius of the orbit,

a = 6378 + 250 km
a= 6628 km
2

42 3

=
= 2.88 107 2

Circumference of orbit = 2
=41,644.952 km/s

Linear Velocity of the satellite, =

Angular Velocity of the satellite, =

= 7.75 km/s

2
=

1.1708 103 km/s

Procedure to determine the Co-ordinates

0 , 0 & 0 , 0 of the satellite in the
orbital plane
1. Calculate , =

2. Calculate M, =
3. Solve for E, = sin
4. Find 0 from E, 0 = 1 cos
5. Solve for 0 from 0 =

1 2

1+ cos 0

6. Calculate 0 & 0 from

0 = 0 cos 0
0 = 0 sin 0

References
Timothy Pratt, Charles Bostian and Jeremy
Allnutt, Satellite Communications, John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd.

Ray E. Sheriff and Y. Fun Hu, Mobile Satellite

Communication Networks, John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd.
Louis J. Ippolito, Jr., Satellite Communications
Systems Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.