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Gold
Jeffrey
Professorof Philosophy
at EastTennesseeState
University
PhilosophyEast& West
Volume 46, Number1
January1996
17-32
? 1996
by Universityof
Hawai'iPress
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PhilosophyEast& West
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earth.(Phaedo109d-e)
This image in the Phaedoof livingbeneaththe surfaceof the earthin
a darkerand less pure region is precisely the image we find in the Allegory of the Cave. In the Phaedo, the inhabitantsof the lower world are
"feeble and sluggish."Inthe Allegoryof the Cave, they are chained and
bound. In the Phaedo, we have a very clear image of freedom when
Socratesdescribesthe personwho reachesthe summitas the personwho
is able to "put on wings and fly aloft." In the Allegoryof the Cave, we
have the imageof a prisonerwho is releasedfromthe chains and climbing
out of the cave onto the surfaceof the earth.
Socratesmakes it very clear that the prisonersin the Allegoryof the
Cave are similarto us. When Glaucon points out (515a) that Socratesis
painting a strange picture with strange prisoners, Socrates responds,
"They are like us." Justas the prisonersare surroundedby darkness,we
are "in the dark,"that is, in a state of ignorance.Movingout of the cave
into the sunlight representsthe ascent of the soul from a state of ignorance to a state of illumination.It also representsthe transitionfrom
bondage to liberation.Therefore,in Plato'sthought,there is a connection
between liberationand illuminationon the one hand and ignoranceand
bondage on the other.At both the beginningof the allegory(514a) and at
the conclusion of the allegory (518b), Socrates makes it clear that the
centralfocus of the allegory is paideia (learningor education).At 515c,
Socrates makes clear the connection between the prisoners'situation
and ignorance when he says: "Considerthen what deliverance from
their bonds (lusin desmon) and the curingof their ignorance (iasin aphrosuneis)would be if somethinglike this naturallyhappenedto them."
Platothen describesthe liberationof one of the prisoners.This is the
flip side of the passage I quoted earlier from the Phaedo (82e) where
Socrates describes the soul as "a helpless prisoner,chained hand and
foot in the body, compelled to view realitynot directlybut only through
its prison bars, and wallowing in utter ignorance (amathia)."In the
Phaedo passage, Plato connects imprisonmentwith ignorance; in the
Republicpassage, he connects deliverancefrom bondage with the cessation of ignorance. It seems clear, therefore,that, for Plato,we are imprisonedby our ignorance,and with wisdom comes liberation.
That ignorance is the main source of our bondage is also a central JeffreyGold
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theme in Yoga. Eliade repeatedly states that, in SamkhyaYoga, ignorance is the cause of our bondage and knowledge is the cause of our
liberation.15Forexample, he states:
Thewretchedness
of humanlifeis notowingto a divinepunishment
orto an
to
kind
but
Not
and
of
but
originalsin,
ignorance. any
every
ignorance, only
ignoranceof the truenatureof Spirit,the ignorancethatmakesus confuse
Spiritwith our psychomentalexperience.... ForSamkhyaand Yoga the
has itsoriginin ignoranceof 'Spiproblemis clearlydefined.Sincesuffering
withpsychomental
rit'-thatis, inconfusing'Spirit'
can
states-emancipation
be obtainedonlyif the confusionis abolished.16
Eliade later quotes the Samkhya-Sutra(111.22,23), which states:
"Throughknowledge, liberation;throughignorance,bondage."17
Patanjalihimself makes it clear (Yoga-Satra11.2-4)that ignorance
(avidya) is not only one of the obstacles (klesas)to samadhi, it is the
source or breedinggroundof all the other obstacles. Laterin the YogaSutra (11.23-26) Pataiijalipoints out that the (false) identificationof
purusa (self) with prakrti(phenomenal world) is caused by ignorance
(avidya).Finally(11.25-26),he statesthatthe dispersionof ignoranceand
the practiceof discrimination(viveka)lead to liberation(kaivalya).Thus,
for both Plato and Patanjali,ignoranceis the cause of our bondage and
knowledge is the source of our liberation.
Furthermore,although I wouldn't want to say that the knowledge
that Plato seeks is identical to the knowledge Patanjaliseeks, there are
some strikingsimilarities.Pataijali defines ignorance(avidya)as follows
(Yoga-Sutra11.5):"Avidyaconsists in regardinga transientobject as everlasting,an impureobject as pure, miseryas happinessand the not-self
(anatman)as the self (atman)."18The Yogi with discriminativeknowledge (viveka)would, therefore,not confuse the transientwith the eternal,
the pure with the impure,miserywith happiness, and the not-self with
the self. Similarly,Plato's philosopherwould not confuse the transient,
impureworld of the senses with the eternal, pure world of the Forms.19
Nor would Plato'sphilosopherconfuse miserywith happiness(although
the ignorant,unjust person is characterizedby Plato as someone who
makes preciselythatconfusion).20Lastly,Patanjali'spoint that ignorance
confuses the self and the not-selfcan also be found in the Allegoryof the
Cave.21Therefore,it appearsthat Plato and Patanjalinot merely agree
that knowledge is essential for liberation,but also hold similarviews
concerningthe type and content of the knowledge required.
To summarize,both Platoand Patafjaliplace liberationin a central
place in theirphilosophy.Second, both associate liberationwith wisdom
and bondage with ignorance.Third,both speak of the wise personas the
one who can distinguishthe eternalfromthe transient,the self fromthe
PhilosophyEast& West not-self,and miseryfromhappiness.
20
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Plato's point that the soul can reason, think, and reflect most clearly
when not distractedby the senses is very similarto Patainjali's
emphasis
on pratyaharaor sense-withdrawal.In the Yoga-Sutra(11.54),Patanijali
characterizespratyaharaas the mind and the sense organswithdrawing
themselves from their respective objects. This is similar (though not
identical)to Plato'spoint that the soul reasons best when it withdraws
itselffromthe senses and theirobjects.
The precedingpassagesfromthe Phaedo make it clear thatthe philosophical pursuitof truthis accomplished only when the soul reasons,
reflects,and thinks.Two pointsseem to follow fromthis. The firstpoint is
that reasoning,thinking,and reflectionrequirepracticeand training.The
second point is that,for Plato,the soul reasonsbest when it is isolatedor
East
&
West
withdrawnfromthe body.
Philosophy
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To summarize briefly, it seems to be the case that, for Plato, liberationrequiresknowledge. Knowledgedepends on one's abilityto think
and reason clearly. Thinkingand reasoningclearly requirethat the soul
be isolated from the body. This isolation of soul from body is similarto
Patanjali'spoint that liberationrequiresthe destructionof the union or
alliance between purusa(self) and prakrti(phenomenalworld). Patanjali
says (Yoga-Sotra11.25):"The dissociationof Purusaand Prakrtibrought
about by the dispersionof Avidya [ignorance]is the real remedyand that
is the Liberationof the Seer."30Vyasa has an interestingcommentary:
When Adarsana[ignorance,lack of discernment]
ceases, the allianceof
Buddhi[intelligence,
whichis partof prakrti]and Purusaceasesandthereis
completecessationof bondageforall time,whichis isolationof the Seer,i.e.
stateof aloofnessof Purusaand non-recurrence
of futurecontactwith the
Gunas.31
It appears, therefore,that liberationrequiresthe total isolation and
aloofness of Purusafor Patanjali,and it requiresthe total isolation and
aloofness of soul for Plato. Furthermore,this isolationdemands training
and practice.ForPatanjali,we must,among otherthings,practicebreath
control and meditation. Are there any parallels to these practices in
Plato?At firstglance, it does not appearthat Platoadvocatespranayama
(breathcontrol)or meditation.However, if I may conclude this essay in a
daring manner, I would like to suggest a symbolic interpretationof the
eschatological myth that occurs at the end of the Phaedo. Such a symbolic interpretationpoints in the directionof a Platowho both alludedto
and advocated practicesakin to meditationand pranyama.
Likethe other three eschatological myths in Plato,32the myth at the
end of the Phaedo (107d-114d) begins with a discussion of the wanderingsof the soul afterdeath. Whereasall four myths in Plato include a
discussion of the "judgment"of the soul, only the myth in the Phaedo
has an extended geographicaldescriptionof the earth.Socratesdescribes
the earthas filledwith hollows, undergroundrivers,and subterraneanpassages. My hypothesisis that Plato'svery detailed descriptionof the earth
is not an attemptat giving an accurategeographicalaccount of the earth;
it is rathera symbolic discussion of what Eliadecalls "mysticalphysiology."33I am suggestingthat when Plato is talkingabout the earth, he is
really discussing esoteric physiological states of human beings. In discussing the mysticalphysiologyof Yoga, Eliadestates:
Thebody-both the physicalandthe 'subtle'-is madeup of a certainnumberof nadTs(lit.,'conduits,''vessels,''veins,'or 'arteries,'
butalso 'nerves')
andof cakras(lit.,'circles,''disks,'butusuallytranslated
'centers').Simplifycircuingslightly,we couldsaythatthe vitalenergy,in the formof 'breaths,'
that
the
and
the
nadTs
cosmic
in
a
latent
state,in
latingthrough
energyexists,
the cakras.34
JeffreyGold
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cautiously. Virtuallyevery standard interpretationof the Phaedo acknowledgesthatthe Phaedowas heavily influencedby Pythagoreanand
Orphic doctrine.39And, althoughour knowledge of Orphismis limited,
we do know that the Orphic cult practicedsecret ritesof initiationand
purification.40Secret initiationritesof a Mysteryreligionare specifically
mentioned by Socratesat Phaedo 69c-d. In view of this, I am putting
forth the bold hypotheses that (1) these secret Orphic rites may have
included something analogous to meditation and pranayama; and
(2) Plato, throughoutthe geographicalsection of the myth in the Phaedo, was speaking symbolically and guardedly about these Orphic
techniques.
Why offer such bold hypotheses?The reason I advance these hypotheses is the explanatorypower they offer.My hypothesescan explain
a section of the Phaedo that has not yet adequately been explained.
Standardinterpretationsof the Phaedo admit that the geographicalsection at the end of the dialogue is mythological.41Hackforthand Bluck
both insistthat it is symbolic.42Forexample, Hackforthstates:"Platohas
given his mytha metaphysicalsymbolismas well as an eschatological."43
However, Hackforthdoes not back up his general claim with any specific interpretationsof the symbols. He makes no attemptto explain the
numerous detailed descriptionsinvolving hot and cold runningwater,
hollows, Tartarus,and so forth. Nor does any other interpretationthat I
have read. In short,the standardinterpretationsclaim thatthe end of the
Phaedo is mythologicaland symbolic, but provideno explanation,interpretation,or translationof the symbols. My interpretation,however, can
give quite specific and detailed explanationsof the hollows, the hot and
cold currents,the riversof fire, and Tartarus.All of these symbols represent very specific internalstates or processes akin to the mysticalphysiology describedin Eliade.The hollows representcakras;the hot and cold
and Tartarus,the
currents,pranaand apana;the riversof fire, kundalinT;
muladharacakra.
Furthermore,my hypothesis can explain why that very peculiar
geographical discussion belongs in the Phaedo. Other commentators
provide no explanationof the relevance of that section to themes in the
Phaedo. But,on the Yogic interpretationof Plato,the main theme of the
Phaedo is liberation.The esoteric physiology at the end of the Phaedo
providesa specific technique of meditationand pranayamathat one can
use as a means of acquiringliberation.Accordingto Eliade,Yogateaches
techniques of meditationthat are indispensabletools used in the acquisition of liberation.44ParamahansaYoganandaalso describes meditation as a technique for liberation.45I am suggestingthat Plato makes
the same connection.
Another hermeneuticalbenefit of this interpretationconcerns the
Gold
Socraticdoctrineof the unityof virtue.Manycommentatorshave offered Jeffrey
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NOTES
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8-
9-
10 -
11 -
12 PhilosophyEast&West
the Yoga-SQtra,
states:"Thatis the ultimategoal of Yoga, which is
perpetualpeace of mind or KaivalyaMoksa, i.e. liberation"(Yoga
Philosophyof Patanfjali
[Albany:StateUniversityof New YorkPress,
1983], p. xxiii).
Georg Feuerstein,in an introductionto a translationof the Yogais "morethanwhat
Sutra,explainsthatphilosophy(inthe Yoga-Sotra)
is commonly understoodby that term."Feuersteingoes on to state
that,for Patanjali,philosophycontains "strongethical prescriptions
and above all, includes a methodfor the systematictransformation
of consciousness with the ultimate purpose of achieving 'liberaA New Translationand Comtion"' (The YogaSutraof Patanfjali:
Vermont:
Traditions
Inner
International,1989],
mentary[Rochester,
p. 6).
For translationswith commentaries,see: David Gallop, Phaedo:
Translatedwith Notes (Oxford:ClarendonPress, 1975); R. Hackforth, Plato's Phaedo: Translatedwith an Introductionand Commentary(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1972); and R. S.
Bluck,Plato'sPhaedo: Translated,with an Introduction,Notes, and
Appendices(Indianapolis:Bobbs-Merrill,1955). In these texts, neitherthe introductoryessays nor the specific commentson the relevant sections of the Phaedo reveal sensitivityto the importanceof
the concept of liberation.See Hackforth,Plato'sPhaedo, pp. 3-24,
41-43, 48-51, 56-57; Bluck, Plato's Phaedo, pp. 1-36, 46-47;
and Gallop, Phaedo, pp. 79-98. Forbooks about the Phaedo, see:
RonnaBurger,ThePhaedo:A PlatonicLabyrinth(New Haven:Yale
UniversityPress, 1984); David Bostock, Plato's Phaedo (Oxford:
ClarendonPress,1986); Paul Stern,SocraticRationalismand Politof Plato'sPhaedo (Albany:State
ical Philosophy:An Interpretation
York
of
New
Press, 1993); and KennethDorter,Plato's
University
Phaedo: An Interpretation(Toronto:Universityof Toronto Press,
1982). Withthe exception of Dorter(pp. 10, 19-22), the concept of
liberationis downplayedor ignoredin these texts.
Plato,Phaedo67d. Unless otherwisenoted, all translationsfromthe
Phaedoare takenfromthe HughTredennicktranslation.Thattranslation may be found in EdithHamiltonand HuntingtonCairns,The
CollectedDialogues of Plato(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,
1963).
See also Cratylus400c, where Socratesattributesthe view that "the
body is an enclosureor prisonin which the soul is incarcerated"to
the Orphicpoets.
For an expanded treatmentof this allegory as an allegory of liberation, see JeffreyGold, "BringingStudentsout of the Cave: The
FirstDay," TeachingPhilosophy11 (1) (March1988): 25-31.
28
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Plato's view, ignorant and unjust people may think they are happy
when, in fact, they are not. This theme is found in both the Republic and the Gorgias (especially in the discussion between Socrates
and Polus, at 461 b-481 b).
21 - At the beginning of the allegory, when Socrates is describing the
darkness and the fetters, he points out (Republic VII.515a) that the
prisoners (who are "in the dark") cannot see themselves or each
other. Since the allegory is symbolic, and vision and sight are symbols that represent illumination and knowledge, the fact that the
prisoners can't see themselves seems to imply that they lack selfknowledge or self-awareness. That the prisoners who are ignorant
lack self-knowledge seems similar to Patanjali's idea that victims of
avidya confuse self with not-self.
22 - Translation by Dr. I. K. Taimni, p. 20.
23 - In chapter 6 of the Bhagavad GTta, when Arjuna points out to
Krishna (VI.34) that the mind is restless and impetuous, as difficult
to control as the wind, Krishnaresponds (VI.35) that it is difficult to
curb the restless mind, but it is possible through constant practice
and detachment.
24 - In chapter 2 of the GTta,Arjuna asks Krishnafor a description of the
man of stabilized mentality. The concept of stabilized mentality is
something like the notion of a calm, serene, peaceful, unwavering
mind. Krishna's description of the sage with these qualities is as
follows:
55. When he abandonsdesires,
All that are in the mind, son of Prtha,
Findingcontentmentby himselfin the self alone,
Then he is called of stabilizedmentality.
56. When his mind is not perturbedin sorrows,
And he has lost desirefor joys,
His longing,fear,and wrathdeparted,
He is called a stable-mindedholy man.
57. Who has no desiretowardsany thing,
And gettingthis or that good or evil
Neitherdelightsin it nor loathes it,
His mentalityis stabilized.
PhilosophyEast& West
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31
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48 - Hackforth,Plato'sPhaedo, p. 4.
49 - Ibid., p. 5.
East&West
Philosophy
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