281

A critical reappraisal of preconsolidation

pressure interpretations using the oedometer
test
Storer J. Boone

Abstract: Over the past 70 years, a number of methods have been proposed for the interpretation of the characteristic vertical effective yield stress, or preconsolidation pressure, of compressible soils as defined using the standard oedometer
test. The concept of the preconsolidation pressure has been extraordinarily useful in geotechnical engineering for analysing and predicting settlement behaviour and for normalizing other engineering parameters for comparative purposes. Defining this characteristic stress, however, is often problematic and relies heavily on graphical techniques that are subject to
some uncertainty, particularly when using semi-log plots for this purpose. This paper illustrates fundamental difficulties
with the interpretation of oedometer test and presents an alternative technique for defining unambiguous values of the vertical effective yield stress.
Key words: oedometer, preconsolidation pressure, settlement.
Resume : Dans les derniers 70 ans, plusieurs methodes ont ete proposees pour linterpretation de la contrainte decoulement verticale effective caracteristique, ou pression de pre-consolidation , de sols compressibles telle quobtenue a`
partir de lessai odometrique standard. Le concept de pression de pre-consolidation sest avere tre`s utile en geotechnique pour lanalyse et la prediction du comportement en tassement et pour la normalisation dautres parame`tres dingenierie dans un but comparatif. La definition de cette contrainte caracteristique est cependant souvent problematique et se
base beaucoup sur des techniques graphiques qui comportent des incertitudes, surtout lorsque des echelles semi logarithmiques sont utilisees. Cet article illustre des difficultes fondamentales lors de linterpretation dessais odometriques et presente une technique alternative servant a` definir les valeurs ambigues de la contrainte decoulement verticale effective.
Mots-cles : odome`tre, pression de pre-consolidation, tassement.
[Traduit par la Redaction]

Introduction
Over the past 70 years, a number of methods have been
proposed for the interpretation of the vertical effective yield
0
stress, s vy
, of compressible soils in one-dimensional compression as defined using the standard oedometer test (e.g.,
Casagrande 1936; Becker et al. 1987; ASTM 2004). This
yield stress has been termed the preconsolidation pressure, s p0 , or the past maximum stress. During one-dimensional
compression in the oedometer, very soft and compressible
soils commonly exhibit nearly bilinear stressdisplacement
behaviour when the data are plotted on a semi-logarithmic
0
graph. Below s vy
, the displacements are relatively small;
0
, the soil yields and the raand above the characteristic s vy
tio of displacement to the applied stress difference increases during the subsequent phases of loading, then
decreases again as the soil structure becomes more difficult
0
to compress. The characteristic value of s vy
has been described as the preconsolidation pressure, based on the
mechanical concept that the soil specimen undergoes reReceived 29 July 2008. Accepted 5 August 2009. Published on
the NRC Research Press Web site at cgj.nrc.ca on 17 February
2010.
S.J. Boone. Golder Associates, Ltd., 309 Exeter Road, Unit 1,
London, ON N6L 1C1, Canada (e-mail: sboone@golder.com).
Can. Geotech. J. 47: 281296 (2010)

loading behaviour after sampling and unloading, or recompression, up to the point at which it reaches the maximum
stress it has experienced in the past, and then exhibits
0
virgin compression beyond s vy
. An example of such
test data and mechanical stress history is illustrated in
Fig. 1. Because this characteristic yield stress may be the
result of many factors including past depositional and
stress history, weathering, cementation, and other mineralogical and structural factors, the term vertical effective
yield stress is considered more fundamentally correct, yet
the attractively simple concept and term of preconsolidation pressure remains within common usage. Within
0
are considered equivalent terms dethis paper, s p0 and s vy
scribing the same behaviour, and s p0 is used in keeping
with familiar practice. Regardless of the causes underlying
the yielding behaviour of soils, the preconsolidation pressure has been an extraordinarily useful concept in geotechnical engineering for analysing and predicting
settlement behaviour and for normalizing other geotechnical engineering parameters for comparative purposes (e.g.,
Ladd and Foott 1974; Mesri 1975). Defining this characteristic stress, however, is often problematic and relies heavily on graphical techniques that are subject to some
uncertainty, particularly when using semi-log plots for this
purpose (Becker et al. 1987; Grozic et al. 2003, 2005).
Subsequent interpretations of correlated parameters, such

doi:10.1139/T09-093

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Fig. 1. Example one-dimensional stress voids ratio relationship
showing paths of (A) sedimentation and past stress compression,
(B) unloading to in situ stress, (C) unloading and swelling due to
sampling, test preparation, and saturation, (D) recompression to
past maximum stress, (E) virgin compression to maximum stress,
(F) final unloading, and (G) potential influence of disturbance to
compression curve. The Casagrande (1936) construction for interpretation of preconsolidation pressure is illustrated in the inset. e0,
initial voids ratio.

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 47, 2010

(Casagrande 1936). He then proposed a method for defining

the preconsolidation pressure based on an empirical graphical approach, now well-known as the Casagrande construction in which the consolidation test data are plotted
with the voids ratio, e, on a vertical linear axis, and the effective vertical stress, s, is plotted on a horizontal logarithmic axis (frequently noted as e-logs curves) as shown in
Fig. 1. The purpose of this interpretation was to create a bilinear approximation of nonlinear compressibility behaviour
of soils that readily lent itself to calculation of primary consolidation settlement, S, using the now-familiar equations
 0

Cc
s Ds 0
1a
S
H log v0 0
1 e0
s v0
for normally consolidated soils with a layer height (thickness) of H and an initial voids ratio of e0, where the increase
in stress, Ds, is greater than the in situ vertical effective
0
(identical with s p0 in this case), and the settlement
stress s v0
is governed by the slope of the virgin compression portion
of the curve (compression index), Cc;
 0

Cr
s v0 Ds 0
1b
S
H log
0
1 e0
s v0
0
Ds 0 > s p0 and the
for overconsolidated soils where s v0
settlement is governed by the slope of the recompression
portion of the curve (recompression index), Cr; and
!
 0
0
sp
Cr
Cc
s v0
Ds 0
1c
S
H log 0
H log
1 e0
s v0
1 e0
s p0

as undrained shear strength using the stress history and

normalized soil engineering properties (SHANSEP) (Ladd
and Foott 1974) or Cam-clay (Mayne 1980) methods, for
example, that use the interpreted preconsolidation pressure
0
0
(where s v0
is
and overconsolidation ratio (OCR), s p0 =s v0
the in situ vertical effective stress), as a basis may be
questionable if there is significant uncertainty in defining
the value of s p0 . This paper presents an alternative approach to defining this characteristic stress, compares this
approach with three other methods as applied to soils ranging from very soft sensitive clays to low-plasticity silty
clay, and compares back-analyses of four settlement case
histories to evaluate the validity of the results.

Background
In 1936, Casagrande (1936) described the relationship between the voids ratio and applied pressure for soils in terms
of virgin compression, rebound, and recompression. For
natural soils, he proposed that . . . it should be possible to
estimate the load p0 (s p0 in this paper), under which the soil
was consolidated in the ground, the so-called preconsolidation load, from a properly conducted consolidation test

0
for overconsolidated soils where s v0
Ds 0 > s p0 .
Since 1936, a number of alternative approaches have been
suggested, most of which are based on similar empirical observations regarding the stress and voids ratio patterns exhibited by different soils in the oedometer test. Some of
these alternative approaches can be highly subjective and
prove problematic for soils that do not exhibit a well-defined
change in the curvature of the e-stress curves (i.e., more
rounded plots). A summary of alternative methods is
provided in Table 1 and Grozic et al. (2003, 2005) and
Clementino (2005) provided a detailed and graphical summary of many of these approaches. A review of bilogarithmic approaches (e.g Butterfield 1979; Oikawa 1987;
Onitsuka et al. 1995) was completed by Onitsuka et al.
(1995), in which he concluded that his approach provided
the most consistent method for rapidly interpreting the preconsolidation pressure and was favourably comparable to
the work method of Becker et al. (1987) that was based
on theoretical mechanics. Grozic et al. (2003) completed
an evaluation of multiple methods of interpretation for a
number of natural soils and concluded that all methods
were subject to uncertainty and some were more cumbersome than others in application. They also completed a
comparison of these methods using low plasticity clay
samples (plasticity index PI = 10) consolidated from slurry
that were subsequently unloaded such that a known mechanical preconsolidation pressure was created. An example of one of these tests is illustrated in Fig. 2 (curve
f). Using these tests on slurry-formed samples, the Casagrande (1936), Janbu (1969), Becker et al. (1987), Burland

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283

Table 1. Summary of methods for interpretation of preconsolidation pressure using oedometer tests.
Author(s)
Casagrande (1936)

Method summary
Select maximum curvature point on plot of e (linear vertical axis)
and s (logarithmic horizontal axis), draw line tangent to curve
at this point, draw second horizontal line from this point, bisect
this angle, and the point at which this bisector intersects a third
line drawn tangent to virgin compression curve represents the
preconsolidation stress, s p0 .

Janbu (1969)

Plot constrained modulus, m, versus s using linear scales, and the

pressure at which m exhibits a marked drop reflects s p0 .

Pacheco Silva
(1970)

Plot data as per Casagrande (1936), draw horizontal line at e0,

where a line drawn tangent to the virgin compression curve intersects this horizontal line draw vertical line to the compression
curve and a second line to meet the tangent to the virgin compression curve, the stress at this intersection defines s p0 .
Intersection of linear fit lines of ln(1+e) and lns p0 , plotted on linear
scales.
Define the strain energy density (work per unit volume), DWoed,
for each successive loading increment of the oedometer test, i
0
s i0 / (ei + 1 ei), an arand i+1, etc., using , DWoed = 0:5s i1
ithmetic plot of cumulative DWoed and applied stress, will define
a generally bilinear plot and the intersection of these lines will
0
(equal to s p0 ).
define the vertical effective yield stress, s vy
Intersection of linear fit lines of log(1+e) and plotted on a linear
scale and stress plotted on a logarithmic (base 10) scale.
Determine e100 (e at effective stress of 100 kPa) and Cc, plot voids
index, Iv = (e e100)/Cc on a linear scale and applied stress on a
logarithmic scale, and s p0 is defined by the intersection of a linear fit of the virgin and recompression segments of the resulting
curve.
s p0 2:5s k , where sk is defined as the point of maximum curvature used within the Casagrande construction.

Butterfield (1979)
Becker et al. (1987)

Oikawa (1987)
Burland (1990)

Jacobsen (1992)

Onitsuka et al.
(1995)

Intersection of linear fit lines of ln(1+e) plotted on an linear scale

and stress plotted on a logarithmic (base 10) scale.

Basis
Empirical observations regarding the response of soils in the oedometer test subject to repeated loading and unloading
cycles and represents a point at which the
loading portion of the test would join the
virgin compression line were it not for
sample disturbance.
Empirical observations interpreted to represent the structural breakdown of the soil,
graphical construction.
Empirical observation, graphical construction.

Empirical observation of test plots, graphical

construction.
Fundamentally new approach that relates the
energy used to compress the sample to the
applied stress, graphical construction.

Empirical observation of test plots, graphical

construction.
Empirical comparison of compression behaviour of remoulded soil to natural soil
based on the voids ratio and stress behaviours in each of these two states, graphical construction.
Empirical observations of Danish clay behaviour in oedometer tests, graphical construction.
Empirical observation of test plots, graphical
construction.

Fig. 2. Example stress voids ratio curves for Leda clay (curves a through d; Quigley et al. 1981), Chicago clay (curve e; Finno, R.J. Three
oedometer tests and associated data from site in Evanston, Ill. Personal communication, April 2008.), slurry-formed laboratory sample
sgard (curve g; Grozic et al. 2005).
(curve f; Grozic et al. 2003), and a highly overconsolidated soil from A

(1990), and Onitsuka et al. (1995) methods produced estimates within 1% to 16% of the actual value. In a discussion and reply to Grozic et al. (2003, 2005), Clementino
(2005) illustrated that the Pacheco Silva (1970) method
produced unambiguous interpretations of s p0 for the

laboratory-prepared specimens within 1% to 3% of the

known value. However, Grozic et al. (2005) demonstrated
as well that this method also produced some ambiguity for
more highly overconsolidated natural soils that exhibited
more rounded test plots, with this variability ranging bePublished by NRC Research Press

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tween 3% and 55% with the three authors each interpreting

three tests independently. Figure 3 illustrates one example
in which Grozic et al. (2005) fit a line through some of
the data within the virgin compression range of a sample of highly overconsolidated natural soil subjected to a
controlled rate of the strain oedometer test. An alternative
line is also shown, following the guidance of the Pacheco
Silva (1970) approach in which this line is drawn tangent
to the virgin compression curve. These two interpretations
demonstrate a subjective variability of about 65% for two
reasonable examinations of this data. Figure 4 illustrates
the variation in OCR, as indicated by the various attempts
made by Grozic et al. (2003) to determine s p0 using the
methods of Casagrande (1936), Janbu (1969), Andresen et
al. (1979), Becker et al. (1987), and Onitsuka et al.
(1995). The potential disparity in estimation of s p0 is
clearly evident in Fig. 4, where the OCR for individual
samples (indicated by the vertical dotted lines) ranges over
an order of magnitude, perhaps due to the quirks in the
plotting of data suggested by Grozic et al. (2003).
Pinto (1992) and Clementino (2005) provided a clear illustration of how scale effects (one of the quirks in plotting) can influence use of the Casagrande (1936) method as
illustrated by Figs. 2 and 5. In addition to judgements related to the preconsolidation pressure, perceived curvature
of the stress voids ratio plot and overall mechanical behaviour of individual test results may also be influenced by
scale effects as shown in the comparison between Leda clay,
sgard soils illustrated in Figs. 2
Chicago silty clay, and the A
and 3. Scale effects are particularly relevant when computerized plotting routines automatically select scales based on
maximum and minimum values of stress and voids ratio.
The strain energy density (work) approach is also
somewhat subjective in the determination of the best-fit
linear interpretations of the cumulative strain energy density
and stress plots. Figure 6 illustrates several possible interpretations of a test completed on a high-quality block sample of
silty clay obtained from the centre of a deep excavation near
Chicago. Determining which of the points to use in the linear interpretations of the early part of the plot as well as
within the virgin compression zone of the test requires
considerable judgement for those tests that exhibit curved
plots. The same data are plotted in Fig. 7 using the conventional e-stress semi-logarithmic scale where the Casagrande
and Pacheco Silva approaches are both applied. The range
of differences among these and the strain energy density approach is about 28% and 32%, when compared with the
average and minimum values, respectively, for this particular sample of Chicago silty clay.
Grozic et al. (2003) presented 187 attempts at estimating
s p0 using seven different methods. A total of 149 of these attempts were comparable to values of s p0 determined using
the Casagrande (1936) method. Given that, for the 33 oedometer tests presented by Grozic et al. (2003), a true value
of s p0 remained unknown, the attempts at defining s p0 are
compared as part of this paper to the Casagrande approach,
where possible, because of its widespread use. In addition,
the estimated values of s p0 were compared with the average
of all the attempts for each individual test, simply as meas-

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 47, 2010

Fig. 3. Example of highly overconsolidated soil showing two possible interpretations using the method of Pacheco Silva (1970) (data
from Fig. 2, curve g; Grozic et al. 2005). Note effects of scale
comparing the plot in this figure with Fig. 2, curve g.

ures of variability. Figure 8 presents the ratio of each attempt and the Casagrade-determined or average value to
illustrate the broad range of possible estimates that may be
made depending on the method used. Figure 8a indicates
that very few attempts (24 of the 149 attempts or 16%)
were within 20% of the Casagrande-determined value. Furthermore, Fig. 8b indicates that only about a third of the attempts (64 of 187) were within 20% of the average of the
attempts for any given test.
These comparisons clearly indicate that graphical linear
approximations of the test result curves, regardless of plotting form and graphical construction, are inconsistent and
many depend strongly upon the initial loading curve (Becker
et al. 1987; Morin 1988). The character of the e-stress plot,
therefore, has a profound role in the interpretation and the
degree of accuracy or ambiguity that any of the methods
may achieve. Such variation and influences of plotting scale
are troubling due to the implications for calculations or correlations based on s p0 or OCR.
In their original paper, Grozic et al. (2003) concluded that
When interpreting the preconsolidation stress of glaciomarine clays, the work method of Becker et al. and the bilogarithmic method proposed by Onitsuka should be used. In
addition, pc0 (s p0 in this paper) should be estimated using the
traditional Casagrande and Janbu methods as a basis of comparison because of the broad experience using these methods. Given the level of uncertainty that exists when using
these methods, particularly when examining tests of natural
soils, and the difficulty with their use that Grozic et al.
(2003, 2005) and Clementino (2005) so clearly identified,
this recommendation may prove frustrating in practice and
lead to no better results. Furthermore, when examining sigPublished by NRC Research Press

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Fig. 4. Comparison of interpreted data from Grozic et al. (2003) showing differences in OCR for individual samples based on use of the
methods of Casagrande (1936), Janbu (1969), Becker et al. (1987), Burland (1990), Jacobsen (1992), and Onitsuka et al. (1995).

Fig. 5. Interpretation of s p0 using (a) Pacheco Silva (1970) and (b) Casagrande (1936) methods, and (c) illustration of the effects of scale
when using these methods (after Clementino 2005).

nificant numbers of tests for large projects, such an exercise

can be impractical.

Proposed interpretation principles and

method
Because of the aforementioned difficulties with graphical
approaches to oedometer data interpretation, a new method
is proposed that relies on a few logical steps, has some direct physical meaning and can be readily incorporated into
spreadsheet calculations or manually calculated, thus producing an unambiguous single value result. This approach
is based on the following fundamental principles:
 Deformation behaviour in the oedometer test between the

0
is of little importance unless unminimum stress and s v0
loading and swelling behaviour is critical to the engineering problem being evaluated.
 The initial part of the test curve represents only recompression of the swelling and disturbance associated with
sampling, specimen preparation, saturation, and test setup.
 The use of e0 derived from the start of the oedometer
test, at which point the soil sample is entirely unloaded,
within the settlement calculations or interpretation of the
test is dubious unless e0 in eqs. [1a] to [1c] is interpreted
based on in situ water content for saturated soils rather
than e0 derived from the oedometer test.
 Once the applied effective stress is equal to the in situ

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Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 47, 2010

Fig. 6. Application of strain energy density method to the interpretation of s p0 from a block sample of Chicago clay (curve e in Fig. 2). An
alternative interpretation of the early part of the curve completed for this paper is illustrated by dotted lines.

Fig. 7. Application of the Casagrande (1936) and Pacheco Silva

(1970) methods to the interpretation of s p0 from the block sample of
Chicago clay for this paper (curve e in Fig. 2, and same data as
used for Fig. 6). wn, natural water content; LL, liquid limit; PL,
plastic limit; Su (field vane), undrained shear strength from field vane;
Su (cpt), undrained shear strength from cone penetration test.

vertical effective stress, the voids ratio should be representative of the in situ voids ratio, ev0, excluding the potential for significant sample disturbance.
 The curvature evident within the plot of the e-stress data
0
at stresses above s v0
is the combined result of natural re0
compression between s v0
and s p0 and sample disturbance.
 The maximum value of Cc should be the most representa-

Fig. 8. Comparison of interpreted values of s p0 using (a) the com0

mon Casagrande method, s pCasagrande
, and (b) the average of all
0
methods identified in Fig. 4, s paverage
.

tive value of Cc, accounting for prior recompression of

sampling disturbance note that for highly sensitive
soils (e.g., Leda clay), the value of Cc will decrease
within the higher stress ranges (concave upward curve),
reflecting a greater degree of particle interaction and
greater resistance to structure compression.
Based on these principles, the value of s p0 can be estimated by the following steps, also illustrated in Fig. 9:
(1) If the oedometer test does not include a load increment
0
, to allow direct determination of the value
equal to s v0
of the voids ratio at this stress, ev0, determine the slope
of the line between load increments that passes through
0
, noted as Ccv0, so that the value of ev0 can be mathes v0
matically interpolated (see insets, Fig. 9).
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Fig. 9. Example application to determine s p0 using proposed method on (a) Leda clay from Ottawa, Ont. and (b) Chicago clay also shown in
curve e, Fig. 2, with expanded e scale for illustration purposes.

(2) Determine the load increment at which Cc is a maximum, Ccmax, where the ordinates of the corresponding
0
ending stress and voids ratio are thus noted s vmax
and
emin, respectively.
(3) Determine the recompression index, Cr, defined as the
average slope of an unloadreload cycle (e.g., Leonards
1976; Vipulanandan et al. 2008), preferably conducted
0
at stresses above and below s v0
and less than s p0
(Fig. 9a).
(4) Calculate the intercept values along the voids ratio axis
for the compression and recompression index lines (ec
and er, respectively) using
2

0
emin
ec Ccmax logs vmax

3

0
er Cr logs v0
ev0

(5) Calculate the intersection of these two lines, the first defined by the Ccmax line and the second defined by a line
parallel to the Cr line passing through the in situ vertical
effective stress, solving for the voids ratio at the preconsolidation pressure, ep, by
4

ep ec =Ccmax  er =Cr =1=Ccmax  1=Cr

(6) The preconsolidation pressure may then be found by

5

s p0 10ec ep =Ccmax 

This approach will tend to result in lower values of s p0 if

the sample is disturbed, as with other methods of s p0 interpretation, as a result of the effect of disturbance on the overall test data (e.g., Soderman and Kim 1970; Brumund et al.
1976). Use of a recompression index derived from unload
reload cycles at high stresses will tend to produce larger values of s p0 as a result of larger Cr values arising from greater
potential changes to soil structure (particularly for sensitive
clays) at stresses greater than s p0 (e.g., Leonards 1976; Vipu-

lanandan et al. 2008). Even with small assumed values of

Cr, on the order of 0.05Cc to 0.1Cc (e.g., Leonards 1976;
Holtz and Kovacs 1981), this method provides reasonable
and unambiguous results.
As a check on the mathematical determination of s p0 , the
fundamental principals of this method may also be applied
graphically. In this case, a line is drawn coincident with
Ccmax, another is drawn parallel to Cr, passing through the
0
, ev0), and the intersection of these lines defines
point (s v0
0
s p . One of the advantages of the mathematical approach is
that graphical interpolation of s p0 on a logarithmic scale is
avoided.

Examination of proposed method

Data from more than 160 oedometer tests were used to
examine the suitability of this approach for general application. Many of these tests were completed on low-plasticity
silty clay from the Great Lakes area of Ontario, Canada.
However, test results from quick Leda clay, sensitive clays
from the New Liskeard and Sault Ste. Marie areas of Ontario, glacial clays from the Chicago and Detroit areas, and
the results reported in Becker et al. (1987) and Grozic et al.
(2003) were also used as a comparison. The range of preconsolidation pressures examined fell between 30 and over
600 kPa, and the calculated OCR varied between about 1
and more than 10 (using the proposed method). The plasticity index, PI, for the samples ranged between about 4 and
60. Where recompression index values were not available,
approximations were made using Cr = 0.1Cc and Cr =
0.05Cc for the low-plasticity and sensitive clays, respectively
(e.g., Leonards 1976; Holtz and Kovacs 1981).
Examples of this evaluation applied to published oedometer test curves are illustrated in Figs. 10 and 11 and are summarized in Table 2, where the s p0 values interpreted using
0
0
), Becker et al. (1987) (s pB
),
the Casagrande (1936) (s pC
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Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 47, 2010

Fig. 10. Comparison of interpreted values of s p0 for (a and b) Wallaceburg clay and (c) Beaufort Sea silty clay from Becker et al. (1987)
using proposed method and showing range of s p0 estimated using Casagrande (1936) method and using strain energy method as reported by
Becker et al. (1987), with additional Casagrande (1936) and Pacheco Silva (1970) method estimates completed for this paper also shown.
0
0
s pC
this paper , single estimate of s pC completed for this paper.

Fig. 11. Comparison of interpreted values of s p0 for (a) Port Allen clay from Kaufman and Sherman (1964) and (b) New Liskeard clay from
Quigley and Ogunbadejo (1980) using proposed method and showing reported s p0 using Casagrande (1936) method, with additional Pacheco
Silva (1970) and strain energy method estimates completed for this paper also shown.

Table 2. Summary of estimated preconsolidation pressure

values, Figs. 10 and 11.

Test
Wallaceburg (a)
Wallaceburg (b)
Beaufort Sea
Port Allen
New Liskeard

0
s pC
(kPa)
115
150
200
250
299

0
s pPS
(kPa)
94
173
298
300
336

0
s pB
(kPa)
120
145
220
300
338

0
s pP
(kPa)
104
156
272
283
322

Table 3. Summary of undrained shear strength and preconsolidation pressure ratio comparisons for 107 samples with available su
data.

Mean
Standard deviation

0
su =s pC

0
su =s pPS

0
su =s pB

0
su =s pP

0.29
0.13

0.32
0.17

0.23
0.09

0.26
0.09

Note: Undrained shear strength determined using either Nilcon push-in

field vane shear, borehole vane shear or adjacent cone penetration test calibrated to nearby on-site field vane shear testing.

0
0
Note: Interpretation methods s pC
, Casagrande (1936); s pPS
,
0
0
Pacheco Silva (1970); s pB , Becker et al. (1987); s pP , proposed.

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Fig. 12. Comparison of s p0 interpreted using proposed method and methods of (a) Casagrande (1936), (b) Becker et al. (1987), and
(c) Pacheco Silva (1970). r2, square of correlation coefficient.

0
0
0
0
0
0
Fig. 13. Relationship between s pmax
 s pmin
=s pavg
and natural water content of 169 samples. s pmax
, s pmin
, and s pavg
are the maximum,
minimum, and average values of s p0 , respectively.

0
0
Pacheco Silva (1970) (s pPS
), and proposed method (s pP
)
are identified. In each case where the authors provided values for s p0 based on any of the interpretation methods, these
values were used. Because none of the natural samples had a
known preconsolidation pressure to which all interpretation methods could be compared, the data were compared
with measurements of undrained shear strength, su, using
the principles outlined by Mesri (1975, 1989). The measurements of undrained shear strength were obtained using a variety of methods including the Nilcon push-in field vane
device, field vane shear tests conducted within boreholes,
and cone penetration tests calibrated to field vane shear
tests. The results of this comparison are summarized in Table 3. This table illustrates that the Casagrande and Pacheco
Silva approaches produce average and standard deviation
su =s p0 values significantly greater than when using either the
strain energy density or proposed methods, indicating a
greater degree of variability should the principles suggested

by Mesri (1975, 1989) be considered applicable and relatively constant for these soil types.
Figure 12 compares the proposed interpretation method
with those of Casagrande (1936), Pacheco Silva (1970), and
Becker et al. (1987) for 169 tests. This figure illustrates that,
among those methods examined, the s p0 values determined
using the proposed approach are more closely correlated
with those determined via the strain energy density method,
which is a more rigorous theoretical approach than either of
the two other graphical methods.
Figure 13 illustrates a comparison of the range between
the maximum and minimum values of s p0 derived for each
test using the four methods of interpretation identified in Table 1, normalized by the average s p0 , and the natural water
content of the samples. A frequency diagram illustrating the
number of samples and their respective water contents is
also provided in Fig. 13. This figure generally suggests that
the interpreted s p0 values from all methods tend to converge
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for the higher water content (or voids ratio) samples because, certainly for the test results used as part of this study,
these soils also exhibited clearly defined breaks between
the recompression and virgin compression portions of the
test curves. This trend, as well as consideration of scale effects (as in Figs. 2, 3, and 5), and the observed reverse curvature exhibited by tests of sensitive soils (see curves a to d
in Fig. 2) at high stress levels after collapse of an open
fabric suggest that the shape of oedometer test curves for
soils of lower initial voids ratio (generally less than 1) and
potentially higher OCR may be the result of the mechanical
characteristics of particle-to-particle contact within the soil
fabric rather than disturbance. As this study utilized a
greater number of tests for soils at natural water contents
ranging between about 20% and 35%, a separate comparison
was also made between the various methods of interpretation only for those tests at higher natural water contents that
exhibited clear breaks in the plotted test curves. This
comparison of 43 test results is illustrated in Fig. 14. Least
squares regressions for each of the methods in comparison
with the proposed method all indicate very close correlation,
thus supporting the conclusion that s p0 interpreted from all
methods converge for such soils.
As another measure of the validity of this approach, the
preconsolidation pressures defined by this method have
been used in back-analysis comparison with four cases of
embankment settlement. One case is located in the area of
Sault St. Marie, Ontario, and the other three are located in
southwestern Ontario. Case 4, of the Tilbury Creek Bridge
in Tilbury, Ontario, was reported in some detail by Soderman and Kim (1970). In all back-analysis comparisons, applied stresses were computed based on two primary
assumptions, common in such work in practice. First, stress
distributions from embankment and foundation loads were
estimated using conventional Boussinesq (1885) methods.
Second, primary consolidation settlements were calculated
using conventional one-dimensional consolidation eqs. [1a]
to [1c]. For each of the sites, correlations between natural
water content and the compression indices for similar soils
were used to supplement oedometer test data to provide a
more detailed interpreted profile of compressibility.
Case 1 consisted of a 6.5 m high embankment (including
surcharge loads) with 228 side slopes built in Sault Ste.
Marie, Ontario, placed over approximately 8 m of silt and
sand, and 25 m of soft and sensitive silty clay in which prefabricated vertical drains were installed to accelerate consolidation. In this case, settlement magnitudes were initially
estimated during design using a s p0 profile based on oedometer test results, su =s p0 0:22 based on correlating cone penetration test (CPT) results with push-in field vane shear tests
and oedometer results interpreted using the Casagrande
(1936) and Becker et al. (1987) methods, and Cc and Cr values based on oedometer tests and site-specific correlations
between Cc, Cr, and natural water content (as shown in
Fig. 15). In this case, the maximum centreline settlement at
about 800 days after completion of staged embankment construction (end of primary consolidation) estimated using
conventional settlement calculation methods was about
460 mm. Measured settlement at this time was about
425 mm. The oedometer tests completed for case 1 exhibited clear breaks in the data plots shown in Fig. 16, and

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 47, 2010

Fig. 14. Comparison of s p0 interpreted using proposed method and
methods of Casagrande (1936), Pacheco Silva (1970), and Becker
et al. (1987) (shown as strain energy density) for samples with wn >
45%.

the values of s p0 estimated using the three different approaches

(Casagrande (1936), strain energy density (Becker et al.
1987), and proposed method) differed by less than about 12%
(see Fig. 16 and Table 4), indicating that using any of these
methods for interpretation of s p0 could have produced similar
settlement estimates. Settlements estimated using the different
methods of estimating s p0 are summarized in Table 5.
A study was recently carried out in southwestern Ontario
to calibrate foundation settlement estimates, field and laboratory data, and measured long-term settlements for bridges
and embankments constructed over soft to stiff cohesive
soils (MTO 2006). Historically, settlement estimates have
not compared well with field results (e.g., Soderman and
Kim 1970) for projects in the region and, with the expansion
of highways, calibration of settlement estimates with field
performance was seen to potentially improve decisions related to foundation choices and the magnitudes of differential settlement between new and older structures that could
be expected and tolerated. Case 2 consists of a multi-span
highway bridge over a railway corridor for which the embankments (26.58 side slopes) and abutment foundations,
each measuring about 27 m by 3 m, were built over lowplasticity cohesive soils, commonly considered to be finegrained glacial till-like mud deposited in a lacustrine environment (e.g., Soderman and Kim 1970). Initially, a 3 m
high embankment was constructed leading to the edge of
the bridge foundations, with the subsequent height of the
9.8 m embankment constructed after the integrated bridge
abutment and retaining wall construction was finished. Case
3 consists of a single rigid-frame highway bridge over a local road, supported by shallow spread abutment foundations,
measuring about 36 m by 1.8 m, with 7.3 and 7.8 m high
approach embankments (26.58 side slopes). As with case 2,
a 3 m high embankment was built to the edge of the existing
roadway before building the bridge and remaining embankment. This bridge was constructed at the same general site
as case 2. A profile of the subsurface conditions for these
two cases, along with site-specific correlations of consolidaPublished by NRC Research Press

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Fig. 15. Profile of subsurface conditions, settlement estimation parameters, and stress conditions for case 1.

Fig. 16. Four example oedometer test curves for case 1 with unloading curves shown by dashed lines.

Table 4. Summary of estimated preconsolidation pressure values, case 1.

Test
BH03-02-10
BH03-02-18
E-2-10
E-2-15

tion parameters, is illustrated in Fig. 17 and example oedometer tests are illustrated in Fig. 18. Estimated long-term
settlements of the embankments and overpass structures
based on interpretation of oedometer tests using the Casa-

0
s pC
(kPa)
182
224
153
227

0
s pPS
(kPa)
174
230
113
221

0
s pB
(kPa)
188
225
149
223

0
s pP
(kPa)
167
224
127
216

grande (1936) method and measured settlements are summarized in Table 5. As part of a follow-up study, a CPT was
completed in a green field area adjacent to the embankment areas, but outside of the area that may have been influenced by the original construction in the mid-1960s. Based
on a calibration of cone penetration testing with field vane
shear testing in other nearby areas, an estimated profile of su
and subsequently, by assuming su =s p0 0:22, a profile of s p0
was developed for this location. The subsequent settlement
estimates using this profile are also summarized in Table 5
and s p0 values derived from the oedometer tests using different methods for these cases are summarized in Table 6.
Case 4, originally reported by the Department of Highways Ontario (1959, 1960) and later re-examined by Soderman and Kim (1970), consists of two 15 m long simply
supported single-span highway bridges spanning over a
creek. The abutments are supported on shallow spread foundations, each measuring about 11 m by 4.9 m, with a 4 m
approach fill behind each abutment. A profile of the subsurPublished by NRC Research Press

292

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 47, 2010

Table 5. Summary of back-analysis comparisons of settlement estimates.
Settlement (mm)
Case
1
2 (east)
2 (west)
3 (east)
3 (west)
4

Structure type
Embankment
Rigid frame
Rigid frame
Simple span
Simple span
Simple span

Embankment
height (m)
6.5
10.0
10.2
7.3
8.5
4.0

Casagrande
(1936)
453
202
228
282
283
356*

Proposed
465
90
99
120
120
63 total{

Measured
425
88
125
121
136
12 (abutment)

*As reported by Soderman and Kim (1970).

{
46 first stage, 17 abutment only

Fig. 17. Profile of subsurface conditions, settlement estimation parameters, and stress conditions for cases 2 and 3.

face conditions is provided in Fig. 19 along with the corresponding oedometer test results in Fig. 20. Consistent with
construction practice at the time, the embankment was partially constructed through the bridge area to provide access,
the embankment at and between the bridge abutments was
removed, the bridge and remaining embankment was constructed, and the creek was diverted into a new channel between the abutments. Settlement of the bridge foundations
was measured once the abutments were constructed and,
therefore, settlements of the embankments constructed prior
to bridge construction remain unknown.
Comparing the large differences between the original settlement predictions and field measurements, Soderman and
Kim (1970) derived a number of conclusions from their study

 In situ preconsolidation pressures were likely higher than

indicated by conventional interpretation of the oedometer
tests and, geologically, were the result of lower past
groundwater levels.
 The Casagrande construction was very difficult to use
for these soils.
 The parameters cv (coefficient of consolidation) and Cc
can be grossly underestimated due to sample disturbance as it was interpreted that the lack of a welldefined break in the consolidation test plots was indicative of disturbance (note that the original estimate applied
the Schmertmann (1955) approach to deriving an estimated field compression index, see Figs. 20 and 21).
 The most probable factor in the overestimation of settlePublished by NRC Research Press

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Fig. 18. Two oedometer test curves for cases 2 and 3 with unloading curves shown by dashed lines.

consistent with the other cases showing reasonably close

agreement between the estimated and observed settlements.

Conclusions
The preconsolidation pressure has been proven to be a
useful characteristic yield stress for defining a mathematically convenient bilinear approximation to the nonlinear
stressstrain behaviour of soils undergoing one-dimensional
consolidation within the standard oedometer test. The advantages of the proposed method of interpretation of this characteristic stress, when compared with others, are that it

Table 6. Summary of estimated preconsolidation pressure values, cases 2 and 3.

Test
BH101-7
BH101-13

0
s pC
(kPa)
250
250

0
s pPS
(kPa)
279
254

0
s pB
(kPa)
333
387

0
s pP
(kPa)
316
298

ments was an underestimation of the preconsolidation

pressure.
Their study considered that sample disturbance was a significant factor in the derivation of preconsolidation pressures
for settlement estimates. While the study provided some
useful explanations for the differences between estimated
and observed settlements, the use of higher Cc values based
on the Schmertmann (1955) construction coupled with
higher preconsolidation pressures may have had compensating effects, potentially obscuring the underlying factors in
the settlement estimate discrepancies. Tables 5 and 7 summarize settlement estimates and estimated s p0 values for this
case, respectively.
Based on a review of over 100 oedometer tests completed
on soils from the southwestern Ontario region, it was considered that the rounded curves were representative of
the soils composition and mechanical behaviour, rather
than directly the result of sample disturbance. Given that
the soils are plastic and of a relatively higher density than
sensitive or quick Leda clays from other regions of Ontario,
these soils may be less subject to the disturbing effects of
sampling and testing than quick clays. Therefore, the parameters illustrated in Figs. 19 and 20 were based directly on
the proposed approach for preconsolidation pressure determination and the Cc values derived from the oedometer tests
and correlated Cr values. Based on these profiles, settlements were estimated for the bridge abutments and these results are also provided in Table 5. These results are

 is based on simple slopeintercept mathematics

 can be directly adapted to manual or spreadsheet calculations, and thus produces a single value result
 does not require subjective and graphical interpretations
or best-fit approaches to nonlinear data
 is independent of plotting scale (maxima, minima)
 correlates well within the range of results from other approaches when applied to very soft and sensitive soils
 is directly linked to the in situ stress and voids ratio state
 correlates well with su =s p0 concepts
 correlates well with estimates and measurement of settlement for field cases
This method, as with all others, remains subject to the effects of poor quality sampling and testing and consequent
disturbance, as well as issues associated with the rate of
strain and choice of using either end of increment time or
end of primary consolidation for the selection of stress and
voids ratio data points. When examining oedometer test results and completing settlement calculations using oedometer data, it is further concluded that
 the shape of more rounded test data curves, when
plotted on semi-logarithmic scales, may be representative
of the character of the soils, rather than solely the result
of disturbance
 for soils of a particular mineralogical composition,
particle-size distribution, and depositional environment,
overconsolidation can produce more rounded test
curves than these same soils when normally consolidated
 soils with in situ voids ratios less than about 1 will seldom produce oedometer test curves that exhibit clearly
defined breaks, as the soil fabric has less potential for
significant particle rearrangement
 e0, derived from oedometer tests, should not be used in
conventional consolidation settlement equations as this
represents only the greatest value of e following unloading and swelling, and a more appropriate value on which
to base such settlement calculations is ev0 calculated directly from water content determinations for saturated
soils
 the recompression index, Cr, should be based on an
unloadreload cycle that bounds the in situ vertical effec0
tive stress, s v0
, to provide a reasonable approximation of
the soil behaviour when subject to additional loads be0
tween s v0
and s p0 , and the use of unloadingreloading cy0
cles above s v0
(or swelling index, Cs) may result in
overestimating s p0 and any settlement calculated within
the recompression range.
Judgement of the character of oedometer test results and
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294

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 47, 2010

Fig. 19. Profile of subsurface conditions, settlement estimation parameters, and stress conditions for case 4 showing s p0 profiles estimated at
the time of design and by Soderman and Kim (1970) with consideration of alternative geologic characterization of stress history.

Fig. 20. Twelve oedometer test curves for case 4 with unloading
curves shown by dashed lines. See Fig. 21 for interpretation of two
example curves.

Fig. 21. Two oedometer test curves for case 4 showing unloading
curves and estimated field consolidation curve (after Soderman and
Kim 1970).

subsequent interpretation is critical when using the proposed

method of s p0 estimation, as with all other methods. Indiscriminate application of this mathematical method may produce inappropriate results if derivation of Ccmax or Cr are

influenced by anomalies in the test data, e.g., significant

changes in Cc resulting from data permutations between
very small increments in a controlled-rate-of-strain test.
Comparison of the mathematical results to a graphical
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Table 7. Summary of estimated preconsolidation

pressure values, case 4.

Test
BH2B-569
BH2B-563
BH2B-559
BH2B-551
BH3B-550
BH2B-543
BH2B-533
BH2B-515
BH2B-507
BH2B-498

0
s pC
(kPa)
640
250
250
113
158
137
162
223
251
197

0
s pPS
(kPa)
375
337
217
165
200
128
270
183
202
192

0
s pB
(kPa)
640
480
390
270
240
150
230
240
300
240

0
s pP
(kPa)
302
269
213
183
179
163
263
272
299
354

check, s p0 values interpreted through other testing approaches, an understanding of the geologic history, and consideration of other mineralogical or mechanical (sampling,
testing, etc.) factors should be part of any s p0 interpretation
process.
As noted by Becker et al. (1988) . . . it is not a question of
which technique is correct; rather the issue is which technique provides the most repeatable result and is least ambiguous. It is anticipated that the proposed method may prove a
useful tool for obtaining less subjective estimates of s p0 and,
consequently, better future assessments of the relationships
between s p0 and su (as well as other geotechnical engineering
parameters), and better calibration of settlement studies.

Acknowledgements
The author thanks P.R. Bedell, Dr. D.E. Becker, and
M. Devata for their constructive comments and discussions
during preparation of this paper; Dr. R. Finno of Northwestern University for providing high quality data from the Chicago area; staff at the Ontario Ministry of Transportation for
providing the historical studies; and to the Ontario Ministry
of Transportation for permission to use the results of studies
carried out on their behalf.

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