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FORENSIC BALLISTICS
BALLISTICS
The term Ballistics was derived from the Greek word Ballo or Ballien mean to throw. Its root
was also called Ballista means a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl large objects such as
stones at a particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.
The meaning of the term however, has greatly broadened since the development of science of
Firearms Identification. And so today, the word Ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the press and
in the Police Parlance to Firearms Identification.
DEFINITION
BALLISTICS is defined as the science of motion of projectiles. Science to the systemized body of
knowledge; Motion refers to the movement of projectile from the firearm to the target; Projectile refers to
the metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from a firearm.
BALLISTICS is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic knowledge, research and
development. Training experience and education of those who pioneered in this field.
Technically, the term Ballistics refers to the science of Firearms Identification which evolves to the
scientific examination of Ballistic exhibits like bullets, shells, firearms and allied matters used in crimes.
With the application of this science, it is now possible to determine whether or not certain evidence such
as bullets or shells were fired from a particular firearm. It also involves the use of equipment such as
Bullet Comparison Microscope, Stereosopic, Shadowgraph, Bullet Recovery Box, Calipher and Analytical
Balance.
BRANCHES OF FORENSIC BALLISTIC
Interior Ballistics
The study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The time during which the projectile is
influenced by Interior Ballistics is very short. From the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of
the shot can be heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle. A blow
from the firing of a small arms-arms weapon on the center of the primer cup compresses the primer
composition violently between the cap and the anvil, thus causing the composition to explode, releasing
very hot gases and hot particles. The holes of vents in the anvils allow the flame to pass through the
primer vent in the cartridge case, thereby igniting the propellant. The powder begins to burn and the
pressure inside the cartridge rises rapidly. Almost at once the bullet is pushed from the case mouth, at
first the side of the bullet are forced outside to make firm contact with the bore, so that the gas would be
confined within the chamber of the firearm. As the bullet moves down the barrel the available combustion
space is increased. The powder burns progressively, at first increasing its burning rate faster that the
space increases. As long as this condition continues, the pressure continues to rise. The maximum
pressure is reached when the two rates are momentarily equal.
THINGS INVOLVED IN INTERIOR BALLISTICS:
Ignition of the primer - Flames is produced - Combustion of the gunpowder - Energy that is
generated - Force/Pressure developed - Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle) - Rotation
of the bullet - Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
Exterior Ballistics
It deals with the motion of projectiles from the time they leave the muzzle of the firearm to the
time they hit the target. The flight of most bullet or projectile does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum
rang, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation of about 33.
THINGS INVOLVED IN EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
Muzzle blast - Muzzle energy - Trajectory range - Range Velocity - Air resistance - Pull of
gravity

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Terminal Ballistics
The study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target. Penetration of the bullet
is of prime interest. Penetration is important also in determining safety requirements for target backstops.
They are important to both sportsman and military.
THINGS INVOLVED IN TERMINAL BALLISTICS
Terminal accuracy - Terminal energy - Terminal penetration
Forensic Ballistics
The study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of ammunition fired
through them.
THINGS INVOLVED IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Field investigation - Technical examinations of the ballistic exhibits - Legal proceedings or Court
trials
FIREARMS
Firearms or Arm (legal) includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers and all
other weapons from which a bullet, a ball, a shot, a shell or missiles may be discharged by means of
gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles, except that are in small in caliber and
usually used as toys. The barrel of any firearm is considered a complete firearm for purposes of Section
877 of the Revised Administrative Code.
Firearm (Technical) - is an instrument that is used for the propulsion of projectile by means of the
expansive force of gases of burning gunpowder.
MECHANISMS OF FIREARM ACTION
Generally, the principles involved in all firearms action are the same. When the firearm is cocked
and ready to fire, a pull on the trigger will cause the firing pin of the hammer to hit the percussion cap of
the cartridge in the firing chamber which is aligned with the rear portion of the barrel. The hit by the firing
pin on the percussion cap will cause generation of a sufficient heat capable of igniting the primer. The
primer will in turn ignite the gunpowder or propellant which will cause evolution of gases under pressure
and temperature. The marked expansion of the gases will force the projectile forward with certain velocity.
Owing to presence of the rifling at the inner wall of the bore, the barrel offers some degree of resistance
to the projectile. In as much as the riffling are arranged in a spiral manner, the projectile will produce a
spinning movement as it comes out in the muzzle.
Together with the bullet passing out of the barrel are high pressure heated gases, unburned
powder grains with flame and smoke.
During explosion, there is a backward fick of the firearm which in automatic firearm cause the
cocking and the cartridge cause thrown out by the ejector. The backward movement is called recoil of the
firearm.
RIFLING
Consist of the number of the helical grooves cut on the surface of the bore, it includes the lands
and grooves are running parallel with one another concentrically.
PURPOSE OF THE RIFLING
1. To impart of rotation to a bullet
2. To insure stability in flight
3. So that the bullet will travel nose towards the target

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CALIBER OF THE FIREARM

The caliber of the firearm is the diameter of the bore of the barrel measured from land to land in
rifled firearm. It is expressed in inches or fraction of an inch by the American and English manufacturers
and millimeters or in centimeters ir fraction there by manufacturers in Continental Europe.
CLASSIFICASTION OF FIREARMS AS TO BORE
A. Rifled Bore Firearms - those that contain riflings inside the gun barrel. Riflings refers the
lands and grooves such as the following;
1. Rifle
2. Pistol
3. Revolver
B. Smooth Bore Firearms those that have no riflings inside the gun barrel for the breech end
up to the muzzle of the firearm. Such as the following:
1. Shotguns
2. Muskets
SHOTGUN it is smooth bore firearm designed to shoot a number of lead pellets one discharge.
GAUGE as applied to shotgun indicates that the bore diameter is equal to the diameter of lead
ball weighing in pounds.
TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION
1. Single Rifle Firearms type of firearm designed to fire only one shot for every loading.
Example: Pistol, Rifle, Shotgun
2. Repeating Arms type of firearm designed to fire several shots in one loading. Example:
Automatic pistols, Revolvers, Rifles, Shotguns
3. Bolt Action Type reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt. Examples: Rifles, Shotguns.
4. Automatic Loading Type after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding of the
chamber takes place. Examples: Rifles, Shotguns
5. Slide Action Type (Trombone) loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of the
under forearm of the gun. Examples: Rifles and Shotguns.
6. Lever Type (Break-type) loading takes place by lever action on the firearm. Examples:
Rifles, Shotguns.
TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO USE
1. Military Firearms
a. Pistols
b. Revolvers
c. Rifles
d. Shotguns
e. Machine guns
2. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms
a. Pistols
b. Revolvers
c. Rifles
d. Shotguns
3. Target and Outdoorsman known as Sporting
a. Pistols
b. Revolvers
c. Rifles
4. Unusual/Miscellaneous Firearms those that are unique in mechanism and construction.
a. Paltik pistols
b. Paltik revolvers
c. Paltik rifles
d. Paltik shotguns
CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO ITS POWER PURSUANT TO R.A. 8294
Section 1. Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of Firearms or
Ammunition or Instruments used or intended to be used in the Manufacture of Firearms or Ammunitions.
The penalty of prision correctional in its maximum period and a fine of not less than Fifteen thousand
pesos (P15,000.00) shall be imposed upon any person who shall unlawfully manufacture, dealt in,

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acquire, dispose or possess any lowposered firearm, such as rimfire handgun, .380, .32 and other firearm
of similar firepower, part of firearm, ammunition or machinery, tool or instrument used in the manufacture
of any firearm or ammunition: provided, that no other crime was committed.
The penalty of prision mayor in its minimum period and a fine of thirty thousand pesos
(P30,000.00) shall be imposed in the firearm is classified as high powered firearms which includes those
with bore bigger in diameter than caliber .38 and 9mm such as caliber .40, .44, .45 and also lesser caliber
firearms but considered powerful such as caliber .357 and caliber .22 center fire magnum and other
firearms with firing capability of full automatic and by burst of two (2) or three (3): Provided, however, that
no other crime was committed by the person arrested.
AMMUNITION
I. DEFINITION
LEGAL DEFINITION it maybe found in Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of the National Internal Revenue
Code as well as in Sec. 877 of the Revised Administrative Code. It refers to ammunition as s loaded
shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or
other missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes
ammunition for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the Code.
TECHNICAL DEFINTION Technically speaking, the term ammunition refers to a group of
cartridges or to a single unit or single cartridge meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet,
cartridge, case, gunpowder and primer. The term may also refer to a single round.
II. ORIGIN
The term cartridge evolved from about the turn of sixteenth century. The earliest small arms
ammunition or cartridge consisted of a pre-measured charge of powder wrapped in a paper. In Websters
later edition, a cartridge is defined as A case capsule, shell or bag of metal, pasteboard, of the like,
containing the explosive charge and in small arms and some cannon, the projectile to be fired. The term
cartridge is derived from the word charta, the Latin word for paper. Later on, it came through the French
word cartouche, meaning a roll of paper, which indicates that the original cartridges were not the brass
gilding- metal tipped units which we are familiar with today.
The use of paper-wrapped powder charged greatly speeds the loading of military weapons,
avoided waste of powder from spillage, and provided a uniform charge from shot to shot. In time, the
bullet was either attached faster or more convenient.
III. ACCORDING TO CALIBER
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Caliber .22 used in revolvers, pistols, rifles

Caliber .25 used in pistols and rifles
Caliber .30 used in carbines and other rifles
Caliber .32 used in automatic pistols and revolvers
Caliber .380 used in pistols
Caliber .38 used in revolvers
Caliber .357 used in .357 revolvers (Magnum)
Caliber .44 used in Magnum revolvers
Caliber .45 used in Automatic pistols
Caliber .50 used in caliber .50 machine guns

The abovementioned different classes of small arms cartridges are generally encountered by the
Police in the field of firearms investigation in our jurisdiction. These are commonly used by criminals
because they are used in firearms that are easy to carry, conceal, fire and dispose of.
MODERN AMMUNITIONS: ITS COMPONENTS AND MANUFACTURE
It is important for students if firearms investigation and identification to be well versed with
ammunition. In our discussion of ammunition, we shall limit ourselves to metallic cartridges and modern
shotgun shells since these are the types greatly encountered by investigators in most cases most
criminals prefer to use revolvers and pistols because these are easy to conceal before, during and after
the commission of crime. Moreover, it is easy to obtain ammunition for these types of firearms.

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Ammunition for various types of firearms is preferred to in several context. Originally, the word
ammunition means any unfired assembly of cartridge case, powder, primer and projectile which may be
used in a firearm. But today the word is generally used when referring to a file of assembled cartridges
in bulks as in boxes or lots. It is also often used to refer to the supply a person may be carrying with him.
The term round refers to a single cartridge.
In ammunition and firearm parlance, shotgun cartridges are commonly referred to as shell or
shotshell and rifle ammunition to as metallics or cartridges. When an investigator uses a term
cartridge he invariably refers to revolver, pistol, or rifle cartridges, and in speaking of any shotgun
ammunition he will use the term shell or shotshell. The layman uses the abovementioned terms
indiscriminately, although as general rule he speaks of cartridges when referring to a pistol, revolver, rifle
ammunitions and shells when referring to shotguns.
Among the uniformed, the word bullet as often misused, as it is commonly used to apply to any
sort of any unfired cartridge. Actually, the bullet is only that solid portion of the cartridge which leaves the
muzzle of the gun and does the striking or killing. The word can properly be used in connection with
pistol, revolver or rifle ammunition but other common designations for the bullet are projectile or ball is
a relic of old muzzle- loading days when all rifle projectiles were round lead balls.
FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIGE CASE:
The function of cartridge case are basically the same whether it is fired in revolvers, pistols, rifles,
shotguns, or machine guns. These includes:
1. It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are
forced against the walls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as a gas seal at the
breech end of the barrel.
PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE:
1. RIM the projecting rims of rimmed and semi-rimmed cases serve the purpose of limiting the
forward travel of cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit the clearance, if any
between the head and the supporting.
2. PRIMER POCKET performs three functions: a.) holding primers securely in certain
position; b.) providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge; c.)
providing a primer support for primer anvils, without which the latter could not be fired.
3. VENTS ORFLASH HOLES the vent or flash holes is the hole in the web or bottom of
the primer pocket through which the primer flash provides ignition to the powder charge. It
is the opening or canal that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.
4. THE HEAD AND BODY the head and body constitute the cork that plugs the breech of
the barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK applied to that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet to prevent the
bullet from being push back or loosened.
6. CANNELURES shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled
into the neck and body of cases at the location of the cases of the bullet to prevent the bullet
from being pushed back or loosened.
7. CRIMP is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It works two
ways a) it aids in holding the bullet in place; b) it offers resistance to the movement of the
bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of gunpowder.
8. BASE - the bottom portion of the case which holds: a)the primer which contains the priming
mixture; b) the shellhead which contains the headstamp, caliber, and year of manufacture.
9. SHOULDER that portion which supports the neck.
10. EXTRACTING GROOVE the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for
the automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.
PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE
1. BULLET the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of expansive
force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
2. CARTRIDGE CASE the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder. Sometimes called
shell or casting

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3. PRIMER the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical
compound, which when heat or struck by firing pin would ignite. Such action is called
percussion.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCDG. TO PRIMERS
As we mentioned before, there are many ways of classifying ammunition used in various types of
firearms. Once such classification is according to the location of the primer such as:a) Pin fire cartridge;
b) Rim fire cartridge and the c) Center fire cartridge.
1.

2.

PIN FIRE CARTRIDGE the first cartridge of a self exploding type which enjoyed any real
general use was the type called the pin fire commonly attributed to Monsier Le Facheux of
Paris, around 1896. Pin-fire cartridges were made for all types was small arms in
appearance to a modern shotgun shell wherein it had a head of the cartridge and a
percussion fixed by a wad or metal cup. The percussion had a pin resting on its detonating
compound. The end protruding of the e pin is hit by a hammer coming down vertically from
the side of the cartridge instead of penetrating horizontally from its fear. This type of cartridge
is no longer used.
RIM FIRE CARTRIDGE The most simple form of modern cartridge is the rim-fire
cartridge. The name rim-fire is derived from the fact that this type can be fired only if the
cartridge is struck by the hammer of firing pin on the rim of he case. In this type, the priming
mixture is contained or located in a cavity inside and around the rim of the cartridge which is
a very sensitive area. If a rim fire cartridge is struck anywhere in the sensitive area, the
priming substance is crushed between the front and rear of the case rim. This denotes or
ignites the priming mixture, causing a flash of flame.
Rim-fire cartridges may be identified by the smooth base of the cartridge case, which
may or may not have a headstamps are merely letters or design found on the base of the
cases that identifies the manufacturer. This rim-fire cartridges are generally found in
caliber .22s. They can be fired in either caliber .22 pistols, caliber 22. revolvers and
caliber .22 rifles. Rim-fire cartridges can be further classified into:

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE CASE ACCDG. TO SHAPE

a.
b.
c.
d.

Straight ex. Caliber. 38 special

Tapered ex. 9mm cartridge cases
Bottleneck ex. 5.56mm cartridge cases
Belted ex. .30 magnum

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCDG. TO THE

CONFIGURATION OF ITS BASE
1. RIMMED It has a flange at the base which is larger than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case. This flange is to enable the cartridge to be extracted from the weapon in which it
is used.
2. SEMI-RIMMED It has a flange which is slightly larger than the diameter of the cartridge case
and a groove around the case body just in front of the flange.
3. RIMLESS The flange diameter is the same as the body and there is, for extraction purposes, a
groove around the case-body in front of the flange.
4. REBATED It has an extractor flange which is less than the diameter of the cartridge case.
5. BELTED CASE It has a pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge, the belt is
for additional strength in high pressure cartridge.
CARTRIDGE CASES ACCORDING SHAPES
1. Straight cased where the case diameter is approximately the same along its length.
2. Bottled-necked where a wide bodied case is, just before the case mouth, reduced in diameter to
that of the bullet.
3. Tapered case where a wide based cartridge case is gradually reduced in diameter along its
length.
FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASE

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1. Serves as container for bullet, powder charge and the primer

2. Prevent the escape of gases
3. It serves as the waterproof container of the powder charge.
BULLETS
PROJECTILE is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred to as a bullet that is completely
dependent upon an outside force for its power.
Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles propelled from shotguns
although strictly speaking these projectiles designed for shotguns are called shot, slug or pellets.
In a laymans viewpoint, a projectile fired from a firearms is called slug, although what be actually
mean is a bullet.
The term bullet originated from the French word boulette, a small ball. In common
Police parlance, a bullet may be called slug which is a colloquial term.
CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL
CONSTRUCTION
Basically there are two (2) kinds of bullets:
1. Lead Bullets those which are made of lead or alloy of this metals such as lead, tin and
antimony.
2. Jacketed Bullets those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket of harder metal such as
guiding metal and copper zinc.
TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO SHAPE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Pointed bullet
Round Nose bullet
Wad Cutter bullet
Semi-Wad Cutter bullet
Hollow Point bullet
Boat Tailed bullet

TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO USE:

1. Ball Bullets have a soft cores and are used against personnel.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet have hardened steel cores and are fired against vehicles, weapons and
armored targets in general.
3. Tracer Bullets contains compound usually similar to barium nitrates which is set on fire when
the bullet is projected. The flash of this smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to
be seen.
4. Incendiary Bullets contains a mixture such as phosphorous or other materials, that can be set
on fire by impact. They are used against target that will burn readily such as aircraft.
5. Explosives Bullets contains a high charge of high explosive and because of their small size it is
difficult to make a fuse tat will work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this reason the use of
high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20mm and above.
GUNPOWDER
Is a substance or a mixture of substances which upon suitable ignition releases a large amount of
chemical energy at a high and controllable rate, the energy liberation is to convert the propellant into
a high of gas.
CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION
Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:
1. Black Powder the standard ingredients are: Potassium nitrate 75%, Sulphur 10% and
Charcoal 15%.
2. Smokeless Powder Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the major ingredients, mixed with
one or more minor ingredients such as centralite, Vaseline esters, inorganic salts and etc.

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CLASSIFICATION OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. Single based (Nitrocellulose)
2. Double based (Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine)
3. Triple based (Nitrocellulose, Nitroglycerine and Nitroguanadine)
PRIMER
An assembly which ignite the propellant. The primer assembly of centerfire cartridges consists of
a brass or guiding-metal cup that contains a primer composition pellet of sensitive explosive, a paper disc
(foil), and a brass anvil.
A blow from the firing pin of a small arms weapon on center of the primer cup
compresses the primer composition violently between the cup and the anvil, thus causing the composition
to explode. The hole or vent in the anvil allow the flame to pass through the primer vent in the cartridge
case, thereby igniting the propellant.
Rimfire ammunition, such as the caliber .22 cartridge, does not contain primer assembly; the
primer composition is spun into the rim of the cartridge case and the propellant is in intimate contact with
the composition. In firing, the firing pin strikes the rim of the case and thus compresses the primer
composition and initiates its explosion.
TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL
1. Boxer primer (one flash hole)
2. Berdan
PARTS OF PRIMER AND FUNCTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Primer Cap it is the soft guiding metal which serves as the container of priming mixture, paper
disc and anvil.
Priming Mixture contains a small amount of explosive mixture which is sufficiently sensitive to
result of chemical reaction being set up by the caused by a sudden blow.
Paper Dics this is made of thin shellacked paper disc that protects the priming mixture that will
cause its disintegration.
Anvil it is made of spring tempered brass place inside the primer and it is on this side or point
which the priming mixture is crushed.
Battery Cap battery cap as applied to shotgun primer serves as the main support for the whole
primer components.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Is the study of recovered projectiles to identify the firearms which fired them. It would be better
termed firearms identification. The evidence thus obtained is generally accepted in criminal Courts trials
to establish use or possession of a certain weapon.
Formerly, all that an expert could testify in Court concerning a bullet recovered from the scene
of a crime was that it was a certain type and caliber. Thus a caliber .38 bullet could not have fired in a
caliber .45 revolver. Linking a bullet to a specific revolver was not then possible. About 1920, great
advances began to be made in identifying firearms by their fired bullets and/or cartridge cases, and for the
first time, formed criminology courses were offered by universities to train individuals in the techniques of
Forensic Ballistics. Colonel Calvin H. Goddard was the leader in this effort. The most important tools
used was the Comparison Microscope, a binocular instrument so arranged that two similar objects can be
compared in detail simultaneously, with corresponding surfaces adjacent.
When bullet is fired, it acquires marks or scratches from the bore surfaces. This marks, from
irregularities left by the tool cuts or caused by wear and rust, by reproducible by firing another bullet
through the same barrel. The bullet is evidence and the second bullet can then be compared for match.
The pattern obtain is comparable to a fingerprint, thus making coincidence of identical patterns from two
different guns most unlikely if not impossible. A composition is that, was yet, there has been no system
devised to classify such patterns, as there is with fingerprints.
When a cartridge is fired it is pressed forcibly against the breechface of the firearm, there
receiving an impression of any tool marks. The firing pin also leaves its marks can be compared by the
microscope, and a fired cartridge case thus be linked to a specific weapon.

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SCOPE OF ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND ITS RELATION TO

FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
How a firearm is manufactured?
The first thing which is of importance for the Firearms Examiner is the understanding of the
construction of a gun barrel and to be sufficiently familiar with the various steps in the manufacture of
firearms which may influence the investigation of the crime. There should always be sound reason for all
markings, scratches or dents visible or firearms evidence and it is the function of the firearms examiner to
determine how and why they were made and also to interpret their significance both to himself as well as
to the Court of Justice.
The process of manufacture starts with a solid steel bar which, when drilled from end to end
makes it is steel pipe. The interior surface at this stage bears numerous scratches resulting from irregular
cutting of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish. For smooth bore barrels, after the drilling
process the inside of the barrel is made very smooth by a process known as lapping. In barrels
intended for rifles the next steps after drilling consists of reaming and drilled hole for its entire length,
this removes some of the sears and scratches. The reamer removes metal from the entire surface
because it is slightly larger in diameter than the drill.
If the barrel is to be rifled it is done with the use of modern tools which automatically cut the spiral
grooves on the inside the barrel and impart to every firearms characteristics which are peculiar to the
barrel. Each manufacturer has its own characteristics designed for the lands and grooves. It has its
individual patterns which determines whether the grooves are inclined to the left or to the right.
In addition to these peculiarities there are other markings left by the rifling tools which cuts the
grooves that is as the rifling cutter wears small imperfections on its surface are transmitted to the surface
of the barrel and in similar manner the accumulation of metal chips remove by the cutter will scratch the
barrel as it passes along. Even in the button system imperfection will remain after the lapping and
finishing operations are completed. These microscopic scars will make a series of striations on every
bullet which passes through the barrel. It is the comparison of these bullet striations which is the basis of
examination.
Another phase of firearm manufacture which is of great importance to the identification of firearms
is finishing operations of the breechface of the breechblock of the firearm. It is that portion of the firearm
against which the cartridge is fired.
TWO (2) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICSA REGARDING FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS are those characteristics which are determinable even before the
manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized into the following:
Caliber - Number of Lands and Grooves - Width of Lands and Grooves - Twist of riflings - Pitch of
the rifling - Depth of grooves
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS are those characteristics which are determinable only after the
manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose existence is beyond the control of man and
which have a random distribution. Their existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools in their
normal operation resulting through wear, tear, abuse, mutilations, corrosion, erosions and other fortuitous
causes. These are the irregularities found on the inner surface of the barrel and on the breechface of the
breechblock of the firearms as a result of the failure of the tool beyond the control of the manufacturer to
make them smooth as a minor.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING FIREARMS EXAMINATION
1. BULLET IDENTIFICATION
a. No two barrels and micoscopically identical as the surface of their bores all posses
individual characteristics markings.
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the riflings and this
engraving on a bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that on a similar bullet fire
from another barrel. And conversely,. The engraving on bullet from the same barrel will
be the same.
c. Every barrel leaves its thumbmark on every bullet which is fired through it, just as every
breechface leaves its thumbmark on the base of the fired cartridge case.

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IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED BULLETS AND CARTRIDGE CASES

BULLETS:
a. The first thing to do in the examination of bullets is to conduct a visual examination of
the bullets in order to familiarize with all markings appearing on it.
b. Conduct examination of the bore of the firearm.
c. Determine the conspicuous characteristics appearing on the bullet or any markings
appearing therein.
d. Markings appearing on the test bullet No. 1 and does not appear on the succeeding
test bullet such markings should be disregarded. Consequently, such markings are
called accidental markings which came from foreign substances.
e. If the bullet is undersized or the bore of the firearms is badly worn out there will be a
cylindrical passage of the expending gas will appear dark or black in the picture.
WHAT TO COMPARE?
1. Evidence Bullet
2. Test/Standard Bullet
Before proceeding in the examination of the firearm by means of the fired bullets, first identify the
particular firearm through the class characteristics appearing on the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
Manufacturers of firearms make certain marks which may distinguish firearms manufactured by
them from that other manufacturers. Each manufacturer make specific number of spiral grooves and
direction of the twist of rifling. A bullet recovered at the crime scene or formthe body of the victim may
show those marks and on examination, the examiner may presumptively state from what make of firearm
it came from, thus, if one examination or recovered bullet, it was found out that there are six (6) grooves
and the rifling marks are twisted to the left, then it is possible that it came from a Colt firearm. Smith and
Wesson manufacturer has five (5) lands, five (5) grooves and with right hand twit of rifling. Other class
characteristics varied from one manufacturer to another.
SHELL IDENTIFICATION
The breechface and the striker of every single firearms leave microscopically individualities of
their own.
The firearm leaves its fingerprint or thumbmark on every cartridge which is fires.
The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the breechface of every
weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge case which it fires are imprinted with this
individuality. The imprint on all cartridges fired from the same weapon are the same and those
cartridges fired from different weapon must always be different.
IMPORTANCE OF FIRED BULLET IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
By means of fire bullet you can determine the particular barrel of firearm used.
Recovered bullet can tell the type, caliber and make of firearm from which it was fired.
Can determine also the condition of the firearm us
FIREARM CARTRIDGE CASE
Before proceeding in the examination, conduct a preliminary examination on the cartridge case
having a visual examination on the condition of such cartridge case. Determine whether or not it came
from a revolver or from an automatic pistol and sub-machine guns. Examine those markings that are
present on the base portion, the breechface marks, firing pin impression, the location of the extractor and
ejector markings. Check also the markings caused by the chamber of the firearm. The magazine and the
ejector port markings must also be taken into consideration particularly those cartridge cases from gums
having full automatic mechanism.
MARKINGS APPEARING ON A FIRED CARTRIDGE CASE
Breechface marks - Firing pin impression - Ejector mark - Extractor mark - Chamber mark

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TWO TYPES OF MARKINGS

1. Impression type those markings caused by direct pressure contact. (ex. Breechface mark)
2. Striated mark those markings caused by sliding contact. (ex. Minute striations on the
cylindrical surface of the bullet)
TECHNIQUESOF EXAMINATION
Physical Evidence bullets, cartridge cases and suspected firearm once submitted by the
requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials made by the investigator
for identification purposes. If no identifying marks were found the firearms examiner will, before anything,
affix his own identifying markings or initials derived form the names of the requesting party, victim or
suspect in that order of priority. The firearm will also be physically examine to determine its safety devices
seeing to it that there is no cartridge inserted in the chamber that will cause accidental firing. Likewise, it
will be examined of its vital parts whether or not it is in operating condition and a tag will be attached for
distinction.
Bullets of different class characteristics will be segregated from one another especially the
determination of caliber, number of lands and grooves, twist of rifling, etc. to facilitate its easy final
microscopic examination.
Cartridge cases will also be segregated to determine the caliber, type and make of firearm from
which they were fired. Misfired or dud cartridges will also be taken into consideration. Although they may
not have any ballistics probative value, yet, they may give a clue to the solution of a crime.
Test Firing The firearm is test fired before a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test bullets
and test cartridge cases for comparison with the evidence bullets and cartridge cases, respectively,. But
before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side of the case and on the nose portion of the bullet with
letter T (to represent test) followed by the last two digits of the serial number of the firearm of the test to
be made (eg) T-77-1 to T-77-3 in their order of firing to distinguish the number 1 test from the number 2 or
3 as the case may be.
Microscope Examination After the recovery of the test bullets and cartridge case, they will be
compared with the evidence cartridge cases under the Bullet Comparison Microscope to determine
whether or not the have the congruency of striations or the same individual characteristics.
BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE
Toady, the most widely and reliable instrument in Firearms Identification is the Bullet Comparison
Microscope. With this instrument, the firearms examiner can make a complete examination and
comparison of the so called Class and Individual characteristics that appears on the fired bullets and fired
cartridge cases.
This instrument consists of two single tubes fitted with a cross arm and comparison eyepiece, in
which the images of two objects held on its two adjustable stages are fused into one, forming a single
image as can be seen on the comparison eyepiece. The microscope tubes are built as a unit with the
comparison eyepiece which has a prism arrangement that brings the images of the specimen held under
the microcopic tubes into a side by side position in the left and right side of the eyepiece field the
eyepiece is threaded for focusing on the dividing line between the two fields.
Under the microscope the two fired bullets or fired cartridge cases can be examined in a
juxtaposition and whatever the observation and findings obtained during the examination can be
photographed for court presentation and also to give the Court a better understanding and good
appreciation of how he came to that conclusion.
TO OPERATE THE MICROSCOPE
Place the two objects on the two adjustable stages under the two microscopic tubes and peep
through the comparison eyepiece. If the objects cannot be seen ,adjust the stages through the rock and
pinion mechanism. Once the two objects focused, the next step is to find the similarities existing between
the objects either shifting them vertically or horizontally.
Every examiner, no matter how experienced or expert he may be, has had the experience of
spending many hours in the attempt to get the satisfactory and convincing matching in cases where there
was every reason to believe that the has the gun that fired the evidence bullet or shell.

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Obtain matching as many as possible, because convincing ones self and convincing the Court
beyond all reasonable doubt are two quite different matters. Te expert must always keep in mind the
fact, judges are always keep in mind the fact, judges are always unpredictable: if some pairs of grooves
(or lands) match and others do not, the expert must be prepared to explain why they do not.
FINDINGS/CONCLUSION
Findings are the bases of conclusion. A conclusion cannot be made without the findings. A good
conclusion is always based on good findings. In comparative examination of the evidence bullet that are
found on the periphery running from the forward shoulder to the base portion (these are surface of the
barrel), are discernible with the test bullet or if they have the congruency, correspondence or
intermarriage, then the evidence bullet and the test bullet were fired from one and the same firearm. For
conclusive of findings, there be at least three (3) test that should be compared. The first is for preliminary,
the second is for confirmation and the third is for conclusion. The is also true for fired cartridge cases.
Although the individual characteristics of the cases may be found at the base portion where breechface,
ejector, extractor markings are found on the sides that are in contact with the inner surface of the
chamber.
Clip or magazine markings may also give discernible markings. Like the ejector or extractor
markings if considered singly may not be a basis for conclusion. These only serves as corroborative
characteristics but certainly lacks legal significance. This is so because the case may have these
markings even if they were unloaded from the firearm without firing. As a rule, the point of the examination
and comparison is at the area of the primer proper where breechface markings together with the firing pin
impression are located. Primers are softer metals and receive more prominent striation than any other
portion of the base.
Conclusion is the opinion gathered from the finding. This is the end result of the examination and
should be taken seriously as it involves the life and liberty of the suspect. When the evidence and the test
bullets or cartridge cases have the same individual characteristics, the competent examiner will conclude
that they were fired from one and the same individual characteristics, the competent examiner will
conclude that they were fired from one and the same suspected firearm. If they have different individual
characteristics, certainly, the evidence bullet or case were not fired from the suspected firearm. Where the
evidence has prominent or minor striations that the three tests, it calls for uncertainty and doubt for a
positive or negative conclusion. Only those evidence bullets or cases that have the same individual
characteristics may be taken of photomicrograph for Court presentation.
REQUIREMENTS FOR A POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION
1.
2.

PROMINENT Standing out or projecting beyond a surface or line, readily noticeable.

CONSISTENT Possessing firmness. The impression or striation found on the evidence
bullet or cartridge case appearing in every test bullets and cartridge cases.
3.
SIGNIFICANT The markings have meaning or capable of being interpreted by the Firearms
Examiner or Ballistician.
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT FIREARMS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Colt Type ---------------------------------------- .45 6L G2X

Grease Gun ------------------------------------- .45 6R G+
Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .45 6R GL
Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .38 5R G=L
Colt Revolver ---------------------------------- .38 6L G+
Colt Pistol Super------------------------------- .38 6L G+
Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .32 6L G+
Colt Pistol --------------------------------------- .32 6L G+
Colt Pistol --------------------------------------- .25 6L G2X
Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .22 6L G2X
Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .357 6L G2X
Smith and Wesson Rev. ----------------------- .32 5R G=L
Smith and Wesson MRF Rev. ---------------- .22 6R G=L
Enfield Revolver --------------------------------- .38 7R G2X
US Carbine --------------------------------------- .30 4R G3x
Browning Pistol ---------------------------------- 9mm 6R G=L
Star Pistol ----------------------------------------- .380 6R G+
Llama Pistol -------------------------------------- .380 6L G+

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19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

Beretta Pistol ------------------------------------- .32 6R G2X

Astra Pistol --------------------------------------- .32 6R G2X
Arminius Revolver ------------------------------- .22 6R G2X
Burgo Revolver ------------------------------------ .22 8R G+
Marlin M57 Rifle --------------------------------- .22 2OR G+

EQUIVALENT OF CALIBER TO MILLIMETER

1.
Caliber .22 about 5.56 mm
2.
Caliber .25 about 6.35 mm
3.
Caliber .32 about 7.65 mm
4.
Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Mauser)
5.
Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Luger)
6.
Caliber .38 about 9mm
7.
Caliber .45 about 11.43 mm
CONVERSION TABLE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

cm to mm
mm to inch
inch to mm
meter to yard
grain to gram
gram to grain
gram to kg

Multiply
- 10.0
- 0.03937
- 25.4
- 1.094
- 0.06480
- 15.43
- 0.001

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