Introduction of Electric power

Transmission and Distribution:

For economical generation of power large generating stations are used. Capacities of
individual generating sets have gone up recently. Generating sets in the range of 10 MW,
210 MW and 500 MW are being manufactured in many countries. Generating station are
now not necessarily located at load centers. In fact other factors like availability of fuel and
water play more dominating role in the selection of sites for thermal stations. Hydro stations
are obviously located only at the sites where water is available at sufficient head. A vast
network of transmission system has been created so that power generated at one station
may be fed to grid system and may be distributed over large areas and number of states.
The transmission and distribution system comprises a network of three-phase circuits with
transforming and or switching substations at the various junctions. The parts of a
transmission and distribution network maybe grouped as given below.

Electric power TRANSMISSION:

Several generating stations can be inter connected. The main advantages are :

(i) reduction in the number of spare plants required as one station can assist the other at
the time of emergency.

(ii) during light loads one station or some generators can be shut off, thus affecting
operational economy.

Primary electric power transmission:

High voltages of the order of 66 kV 132 kV 220 kV and 400 kV are used for transmitting
power by 3 phase 3 wire overhead system. This is supplied to substations usually at the out
skirts of major distribution center or city.

Secondary electric power transmission:

The primary voltage is reduced to low values of the order of 3.3 kV, 11 kV or 33 kV for
secondary transmission.

Primary electric power distribution:

The transmission lines or inner connectors terminate at large main substations from which
the power is distributed to small secondary substations scattered throughout the load area.
The voltage may range from 11 kV to 132 kV.

Secondary electric power distribution:

This consists of the low-voltage network laid along the streets, localities and over the rural
areas. From these sources connections to individual customers are provided. The circuit
used for this purpose is 3 phase 4 wire, 440 V/220 V from which either 3 phase 440 V or
single phase 220 V supply to the consumers may be provided.

System layout of electric power

transmission and distribution:
From the power stations PS, emanate 3 phase feeder supplying secondary distributions
substations located at points throughout the supply area. The normal voltages are 132 kV,
33 kV and 11 kV.

COMPARISON OF AC AND DC power

TRANSMISSION:
(A) Advantages of DC electric power
transmission:

1. It requires only two conductors.

2. There is no problem of inductance, capacitance and phase displacement which is
common in ac transmission.

3. For the same load and sending end voltage, the voltage drop in dc transmission lines is
less than that in ac transmission.

4. As there is no skin effect on conductors, therefore entire cross-section of conductor is

usefully utilized thereby affecting saving in material.

5. For the same value of voltage insulating materials on dc lines experience less stress as
compared to those on ac transmission lines.

6. A dc line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.
7. There is no problem of system instability so common in ac transmission.

Disadvantages of DC transmission:

1. Generation of power at high dc voltages is difficult due to commutation problems and

cannot be usefully utilized at Consumer ends.

2. Step up or step-down transformation of dc voltages is not possible in equipment like

transformer.

(B) Advantages of AC electric power

Transmission:

1. Power can be generated at high voltages as there is no commutation problem.

2. Ac voltages can be conveniently stepped up or stepped down.
3. High voltage transmission of ac power reduces losses.
Disadvantages of AC electric power
transmission:

1. Problems of inductances and capacitances exist in transmission lines

2. Due to skin effect, more copper is required.
3. Construction of AC transmission lines is more complicated as well as costly

4. Effective resistance of ac transmission lines is increased due to skin effect.

Long distance power transmission:
Power transmission over long distances using alternating current is complicated by the
inductance and capacitance of the line. For satisfactory operation of such lines it is
necessary to balance the lagging inductive volt amperes of the line ( I 2 L) against the
leading capacitance volt amperes ( V2 C ). Equating the two we get V/I the impedance of
the load. L/C which is also known as characteristic impedance of the line, Z 0. The
corresponding load is thus V2/Z0 watts per phase or (kV) 2/Z, M W for three phase line where
kV is the line voltage in kilo volts. This load is termed as "natural load " on the transmission
line. Long distance high power high voltage transmission lines are designed for rated load
equal to its natural load.

Natural Loads of transmission lines:

Voltage kV
Z0 ()
Natural load, MW
Current (A)

132
350
50
220

220
320
150
385

400
290
500
752

CONDUCTOR MATERIALS of transmission

lines:
A material for conducting electric power should have the following properties :

1. High electrical conductivity.

2. Low cost.
3. Low specific gravity.
4. High tensile strength.
Commonly used materials for conductors are:

1. Copper.
2. Aluminium.
3. Aluminium conductor steel Reinforced (ACSR).
4. Galvanized steel.
5. Cadmium copper.
Economic Size of conductor: Kelvin's Law:
The most economical size of conductor is that for which the variable part of the annual
charges is equal to the cost of energy losses per year.

Limitations of Kelvin's Law:

1. The law assumes a linear relation between the cost on account of interest and
depreciation on the capital outlay which is not necessarily always valid. Moreover, it is
difficult to calculate these values.

2. Actual energy loss on a transmission line cannot be estimated without actual load
curves. Load curves are not available at the planning stages.

3. The conductor size estimated according to this law may not be the optimum as various
aspects of safety etc. have not been taken into account.

4. The law does not take into account some of the aspects like safe current destiny,
mechanical strength, corona loss etc.

TRANSMISSION LINES:
Transmission lines are used to transfer electrical power from one place to another. The
requirements of transmission lines are :

1. transmission losses should be least

2. power must be delivered at the specified voltage
3. no radio interference
4. high availability

Classification of overhead transmission

Lines:
1. Short Transmission lines:

When the length of an overhead transmission line is up to 50 km and the line voltage less
than 20 kV, its is known as short transmission line. Due to smaller length and lower voltage,
the capacitance effects are small and hence are neglected. Thus resistance and inductance
are the major parameters considered for these lines.

2. Medium electric transmission lines:

These lines are 50 km to 150 km and the range of voltage is 20 kV to 100 kV. Due to
sufficient length and voltage of the line , the capacitive effects are not neglected.

3. Long electric transmission lines:

The lines are more than 150 km in length and carry voltage higher than 100 kV.

Parameters of a transmission line:

1. Resistance in transmission lines :
Aluminum Conductors Steel Reinforced (ACSR) are used for transmission of power over
long distance. The acceptable limits of current density for aluminium is around 95 A in a
conductor of 1 cm diameter. In case of copper it is 160 A in a 1 cm diameter conductor.
Thus size of a conductor for a transmission line is given by

Diameter of the conductor = (Current to

be carried / 95) cm
As aluminum has got low tensile strength therefore steel cored (ACSR) conductor are used.

2. Inductance in transmission lines:

Inductance of a phase single circuit overhead line is given by

L = u / 2 (1/4 + log S/r) henry/ meter

0

u0= permeability of air = 4 x 10 -7 henry/ meter

S = Deq = 3 (D D D )
ab

bc

ca

Deq is equivalent equilateral spacing between 3 conductors a, b and c. D ca, Dbc and Dca are
distances between conductors a, b and c.
r = radius of the conductor.

3. Capacitance in transmission lines:

Capacitance of a three phase line CA is given by

C = 2 / S, Farads per meter, phase to

log S/R neutral
A

0 = permittivity of free air (8.55 x 10-12 Farads/ meter)

where, S and r have same meaning as in the estimation of inductance.

Transmission line constants :

The transmission lines up to 50 kilometer length and voltages up to 33 kV are considered as

short lines. Lines more than 50 kilometers in length and carrying voltages above 33 kV are
called long transmission lines. If Vs and Vr be respectively the sending end and receiving
end voltages (corresponding currents being 1s and lr) then

V = AV + BI and I = CV + DI
s

The values of constants A, B, C and D primarily depends on the R, L, C parameters of the

line.

For short lines,

V = V + LZI
s

I =I
s

A = D =1 ,
B=Z
And

C=0,
AD-BC =1,
A=D
For medium lines (T-network) :

A = D = 1 + (YZ)/2
B = Z + YZ /4
2

C= Y,
AD-BC=1,
A=D
( network ) :

A= 1+ (YZ)/2 B + Z,
C = Y + Y Z/4 ,
2

D= 1+ YZ / 2
Long lines :

A = cosh (YZ) ,
B = (Z/Y) sinh (YZ) ,
C = (Y/Z) sinh (YZ) ,
1/2

1/2

D = cosh (YZ) ,
1/2

AD - BC = 1,
A=D
Transmission Line Voltage Regulation:

Voltage regulation = ( Sending end

voltage - Receiving end voltage) /
Receiving end voltage
The permissible variation in voltage at the consumer ends 10% with reference to nominal
voltage. Following methods are used to control the voltage during transmission over long
distances

(i) Use of tap changing transformers

(ii) Use of shunt capacitors at the receiving end during heavy loads or low power factors
(iii) Switching in shunt reactors during low loads to neutralize the effect of shunt
capacitance of the long transmission lines.

(iv) Use of booster generators.

Skin effect in transmission lines:
When alternating current flows through a conductor it is always linked with flux. The flux
linking the central portion of the con doctor is always more than that at the surface. This
results in higher current density at the surface of the conductor as compared to that at the
core of the conductor. This is known as skin effect. This has following effects.

(i) Skin effect causes increase in dc resistance of the effective dc resistance

(ii) Skin effect is high for conductors of magnetic materials
(iii) Skin effect is more predominant at higher frequencies
(iv) In case of dc, skin effect does not exist.
Proximity effect in transmission lines:
For a conductor carrying alternating current, the current density in the conductor depends
on the internal flux distribution. When two ac current carrying conductors non parallel, the
internal current distribution in both the conductors gets rearranged in such a way so that ac
current density on the side nearer to the other conductor is lesser than that at the other end.
The effect. is known as proximity effect. As a result of this effect the effective dc resistance
of the conductors increases.

Corona :
Conductors carrying electric power at higher voltage have strong electrostatic field around
them. This results in a violet visible discharge, called corona. It is accompanied by hissing
sound, vibrations, power loss and radio interference.

The voltage between the conductors at which the surrounding air is ionized is called the
break down voltage or disruptive voltage. Break down voltage depends on atmospheric
conditions and also surface conditions of the conductor.

The electrical stress at the surface of a conductor is given by

E = V / r log (S/ r )
0

where,
V = phase to earth voltage,
r0 = radius of conductor
S = equivalent equilateral spacing between 3 phase conductors.

Factors affecting corona

1.Atmosphere:
There is more tendency during stormy weather.

2. Conductor size:
Rough and irregular surfaces give rise to more corona because unevenness of the surface
decreases the value of breakdown voltage stranded conductors having rough surface have
more tendency for corona.

3. Spacing between conductors:

Shorter distance between conductors increases tendency for corona.

4. Line voltage:
Higher voltages have increased chances of corona.

5. Insulators:
A insulator should have high mechanical and electrical strength and should be non-porous
free from impurities and cracks and should have high ratio of puncture strength to flash over.

Pin type insulators are used up to 33 kV. Suspension type insulators are used for voltages
higher than 33 kV. Strain insulators are installed at the dead end of the line or whenever
mere is comer or sharp curve.

Transmission lines > String Efficiency:

A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in

series through metallic links. The figure shows 3 strings of suspension insulators. The
porcelain portion of each disc is in between two metal links. Shunt capacitance exists
between porcelain discs as shown. The string efficiency is defined as the ratio of voltage
across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the voltage across the disc
nearest to the conductor. Thus,

String efficiency = Voltage across the string / n x voltage across disc nearest to conductor

where n is the number of discs in the string.

(i) using longer cross-arms

(ii) grading the insulators

(iii) using a guard ring.

Objective Questions > Multiple Choice
Questions of Transmission and Distribution
(1-15):
1. Which of the following is not the transmission voltage in America ?
(A) 66 kV
(B) l32kV
(C) 264 kV
(D) 400 kV

Get Answer

2. Which of the following is usually not the generating voltage ?

(A) 6.6 kV
(B) 9.9 kV
(C) 11kV
(D) 13.2 kV.

Get Answer

3. Boosters are basically

(A) inductors
(B) capacitors
(C) transformers

(D) synchronous motors.

Get Answer

4. Which of the following is not the distribution system normally used

(A) 3 phase-4 wire
(B) 3 phase-3 wire
(C) Single phase - 3 wire
(D) Single phase -4 wire.

Get Answer

5. Conductors for high voltage transmission lines are suspended from towers
(A) to reduce clearance from ground
(B) to increase clearance from ground
(C) to reduce wind and snow loads
(D) to take care of extension in length during summer.

Get Answer

6. Transmission efficiency increases as

(A) voltage and power factor both increase
(B) voltage and power factor both decrease
(C) voltage increases but power factor decreases
(D) voltage decreases but power factor increases.

Get Answer

7. With same maximum voltage to earth, which ac system (with p.f. 0.8) will require more
copper as compared to dc 2 wire system
(A) single phase. 2 wire (mid point earthed)
(B) single phase. 3 wire (neutral=1/2 outer)
(C) three phase three wire
(D) three phase-four wire (neutral = outer).

Get Answer

8. When alternating current passes through a conductor

(A) it remains uniformly distributed throughout the section of conductor
(B) portion of conductor near the surface carries more current as compared to the core
(C) portion of conductor near the surface carries less current as compared to the core
(D) entire current passes through the core of the conductor.

Get Answer

9. The fact that a conductor carries more current on the surface as compared to core, is
known as
(A) skin effect
(B) corona
(C) permeability
(D) unsymmetrical fault.

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10. The effective resistance of a conductor will be the same as ohmic resistance when
(A) current is in true sine wave form
(B) voltage is low
(C) power factor is unity
(D) Current is uniformly distributed in the conductor cross-section.

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11. Skin effect results in

(A) reduced effective resistance but increased effective internal reactance of the conductor
(B) increased effective resistance but reduced effective internal reactance of. the conductor
(C) reduced effective resistance as well as effective internal reactance
(D) increased effective resistance as well as effective internal reactance.

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12. Skin effect depends on

(A) size of the conductor
(B) frequency of the current
(C) resistivity of the conductor material
(D) all of the above.

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13. The skin effect of a conductor will reduce as the

(A) diameter increases
(B) frequency increases
(C) permeability of conductor material increases
(D) resistivity of conductor material increases.

Get Answer

14. Skin effect is proportional to

(A) diameter of conductor
(B) (diameter of conductor)1/2
(C) (diameter of conductor )2
(D) (diameter of conductor )2.

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15. In overhead transmission lines the effect of capacitance can be neglected when the
length of line is less than
(A) 200 km
(B) 160 km
(C) 100 km
(D) 80 km.

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1.C ----- 2.B ----- 3.C ----- 4.D ----- 5.B ----- 6.A ----- 7.D ----- 8.B -----9.A -----10.D -----11.B
----- 12.D -----13.D -----14.C ----- 15.D

16. For constant voltage transmission the voltage drop is compensated by installing
(A) synchronous motors
(B) capacitors
(C) inductors
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer

17. The disadvantage of constant voltage transmission is

(A) short circuit current of the system is increased
(B) load power factor in heavy loads
(C) large conductor area is required for same power transmission
(D) air of the above.

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18. The surge impedance for over head line is taken as

(A) 10-20 ohms
(B) 50-60 ohms
(C) 100-200 ohms
(D) 1000-2000 ohms.

Get Answer

19. Pin insulators are normally used up to voltage of about

(A)100kV
(B) 66 kV
(C) 33 kV
(D) 25 kV.

Get Answer

20. Strain type insulator arc used where the conductors arc
(A) dead ended
(B) at intermediate anchor towers
(C) any of the above
(D) none of the above.

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21. For 66 kV lines the number of insulator discs used are

(A) 3
(B) 5
(C) 8
(D) 12.

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22. Ten discs usually suggest that the transmission line voltage is

(A) 11 kV
(B) 33 kV
(C) 66 kV
(D) 132 kV.

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23. The effect of corona is

(A) increased energy loss
(B) increased reactance
(C) increased inductance
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer

24. Corona usually occurs when the electrostatic stress in the air around the conductor
succeeds
(A) 30 kV (maximum value)/cm
(B) 22 kV (maximum value)/cm
(C) 11 kV (rms value)/cm
(D) 6.6 kv (rms value)/cm.

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25. Corona effect can be detected by

(A) hissing sound

(B) faint luminous flow of bluish color

(C) presence of ozone detected by odor
(D) all of the above.

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26. The current drawn by the line due to corona losses is

(A) sinusoidal
(B) square
(C) non-sinusoidal

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27. Presence of ozone as a result of corona is harmful because

(A) it gives bad odor
(B) it corrodes the material
(C) it transfers energy to the ground
(D) reduces power factor.

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28. Between two supports, due to sag the conductor takes the form of
(A) catenary
(B) triangle
(C) ellipse
(D) semi-circle.

Get Answer

29. The inductance of a single phase two wire line is given by (D is the distance between
conductors and 2v is the diameter of conductor)
(A) 0.4 loge (D/r) mH/km
(B) 0.55 loge (D/r) mH/km
(C) 0.4 loge (r/D) mH/km
(D) 0.55 loge (r/D) mH/km.

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30. The effect of ice deposition on conductor is

(A) increased skin effect
(B) reduced corona losses
(C) increased weight
(D) reduced sag.

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16.A ----- 17.A ----- 18.C ----- 19.D ----- 20.C ----- 21.B ----- 22.D ----- 23.A -----24.A ----25.D ----- 26.C ----- 27.B -----28.A -----29.A ----- 30.C

31. The effect of wind pressure is more predominant on

(A) transmission lines
(B) neutral wires
(C) insulator

(D) supporting towers.

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32. Which of the following statement is correct ?

(A) Wind pressure reduces corona effects
(B) Ice on conductors improves power factor
(C) Wind pressure is taken to act in a direction at right angles to that for ice
(D) Wind pressure and ice on conductors together improve regulation of power transmitted.

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33. Which of the following statements is incorrect ?

(A) As the temperature rises the tension in the transmission line decreases
(B) As temperature rises the sag in transmission lines reduces
(C) Tension and sag in transmission lines are complementary to each other.

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34. Wooden poles for supporting transmission lines are used for voltages up to
(A) 440 V
(B)11 kV
(C) 22 kV
(D) 66 kV.

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35. If K is the volume of cable conductor material required to transmit power, then for the
transmission of the same power, the volume of cable conductor required for single phase 2
wise AC system is
(A) 2k
(B) k cos
(C) k/ cos2
(D) 2k/ cos2p

Get Answer

36. Maximum permissible span for wooden poles is

(A) 10 meter
(B) 20 meters
(C) 60 meters
(D) 200 meters.

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37. When transformers or switchgears are to be installed in a transmission line, the

poles used are
(A) I type
(B) J type
(C) H type
(D) L type.

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38. For improving life, steel poles are galvanized. Galvanizing is the process of applying
a layer of
(A) paint
(B) varnish
(C) tar coal
(D) zinc.

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39. The disadvantage of transmission lines as compared to cables is

(A) exposure to lightening
(B) exposure to atmospheric hazards like smoke, ice, etc.
(C) inductive interference between power and communication circuits
(D) all of the above.

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40. ACSR conductor implies

(A) All conductors surface treated and realigned
(B) Aluminum conductor steel reinforced
(C) Anode current sinusoidally run
(D) Anodized Core Smooth Run.

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41. The surge resistance of transmission lines is about

(A) 50 ohms
(B) 100 ohms
(C) 250 ohms
(D) 500 ohms.

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42. During storm the live conductor of public electric supply breaks down and touches
the earth. The consequences will be
(A) supply voltage will drop
(B) supply voltage will increase
(C) current will flow to earth
(D) no current will flow in the conductor.

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43. In transmission system a feeder feeds power to

(A) service mains
(B) generating stations
(C) distributors
(D) all of the above.

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44. For transmission lines the standing wave ratio is the ratio of
(A) maximum voltage to minimum voltage
(B) maximum current to minimum voltage
(C) peak voltage to rms voltage
(D) maximum reactance to minimum reactance.

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45. In a transmission line following arc the distributed constants

(A) resistance and inductance only
(B) resistance, inductance and capacitance
(C) resistance, inductance, capacitance and short conductance.

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31.D ----- 32.C ----- 33.C ----- 34.C ----- 35.D ----- 36.C ----- 37.C ----- 38.D ----- 39.D ----40.B -----41.D ----- 42.C -----43.C -----44.A ----- 45.C

46. The bundling of conductors is done primarily to

(A) reduce reactance
(B) increase reactance
(C) increase ratio interference
(D) reduce radio interference.

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47. Which of the following regulation is considered to be the best

(A) 2%
(B) 30%
(C)70%
(D) 98%.

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48. The characteristic impedance of a transmission line depends upon

(A) shape of the conductor
(B) surface treatment of the conductors
(C) conductivity of the material
(D) geometrical configuration. of the conductors.

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49. For a distortion-less transmission line (G = shunt conductance between two wires)
(A) R/L = G/C
(B) RL=GC
(C) RG=LC
(D)RLGC=0

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50. Guard ring transmission line

(A) improves power factor

(B) reduces earth capacitance of the lowest unit
(C) reduces transmission losses
(D) improves regulation.

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51. When the power is to be transmitted over a distance of 500 km, the transmission
voltage should be in the range
(A) 33 kV - 66 kV
(B) 66 kV - 100 kV
(C) 110 kV - 150 kV
(D) 150kV - 220kV.

Get Answer

52. A relay used on long transmission lines is

(A) mho's relay
(B) reactance relay
(C) impedance relay
(D) no relay is used.

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53. Total load transmitted through a 3 phase transmission line is 10,000 kW at 0.8 power
factor lagging. The I2R losses are 900 kW. The efficiency of transmission line is

(A) 60%
(B) 90%
(C) 95%
(D) 99%.

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54. Litz wires are used for intermediate frequencies.to overcome

(A) corona effect
(B) skin effect
(C) radio interference
(D) all of the above.

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55. In order to reduce skin effect at UHF

(A) conductors are painted
(B) conductors are anodized
(C) copper lubes with silver plating are used
(D) copper rods with silver plating are used.

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56. Shunt capacitance is usually neglected in the analysis of

(A) Short transmission lines
(B) Medium transmission lines

(C) Long transmission lines

(D) Medium as well as long transmission lines.

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57. The chances of corona are maximum during

(A) summer heat
(B) winter
(C) dry weather
(D) humid weather.

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58. The power transmitted will be maximum when

(A) Sending end voltage is more
(B) Receiving end voltage is more
(C) Reactance is high
(D) Corona losses are least.

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59. Neglecting losses in a transmission system, if the voltage is doubled, for the same
power transmission, the weight of conductor material required will be
(A) four times
(B) double
(C) half

(D) one fourth.

Get Answer

60. When two conductors each of radius r are at a distance D, the capacitance between
the two is proportional to
(A) loge (D/r)
(B) loge (r/D)
(C) 1/loge (D/r)
(D) 1/loge (r/D).
46.A ----- 47.A ----- 48.D ----- 49.A ----- 50.B ----- 51.D ----- 52.A ----- 53.B ----- 54.B ----55.C ----- 56.A ----- 57.D ----- 58.A ----- 59.D ----- 60.C

61. In a transmission line having negligible resistance the surge impedance is

(A) (L+C)1/2
(B) (C/L)1/2
(C) (1/LC)1/2
(D) (L/C)1/2

Get Answer

62. A relay used on short transmission lines is

(A) Reactance relay
(B) Mho's relay
(C) Impedance relay
(D) None of the above.

Get Answer

63. In case the characteristic impedance of the line is equal to the load impedance
(A) all the energy will pass to the earth
(B) all the energy will be lost in transmission losses
(C) the system will resonate badly
(D) all the energy sent will be absorbed by the load.

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64. For a properly terminated line

(A) ZR=ZO
(B) Z/R > ZO
(C) ZR < ZO
(D) ZR =Z0 = 0.

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65. The dielectric strength of air at 25 C and 76 cm/Hg is

0

(A) 1 kV/cm
(B) 1 kV/mm
(C) 3 kV/cm
(D) 30 kV/cm.

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66. The chances of corona are maximum in

(A) domestic wiring
(B) distribution lines
(C) transmission lines
(D) all of the above.

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67. Transmission lines link

(A) service points to consumer premises
(B) distribution transformer to consumer premises
(C) receiving end station to distribution transformer
(D) generating station to receiving end station.

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68. In case of open circuit transmission lines the reflection coefficient is

(A) 1
(B) 0.5
(C) -1
(D) Zero.

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69. Impedance relay is used on

(A) Short transmission lines
(B) Medium transmission lines
(C) Long transmission line
(D) All the transmission lines.

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70. Which type of insulators are used on 132 kV transmission lines ?

(A) Pin type
(B) Disc type
(C) Shackle type
(D) Pin and shackle type.

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71. String efficiency can be improved by

(A) using Longer cross arm
(B) grading the insulator
(C) using a guard ring
(D) any of the above.

Get Answer

72. Minimum horizontal clearance of a low voltage transmission line from residential
buildings must be
(A) 11/2 feet
(B) 3 feet
(C) 4 feet
(D) 8 feet.

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73. If a 66 kV lines passes over a residential building, the minimum vertical clearance
from the roof of the building must be
(A) 8 feet
(B) 12 feet
(C) 13 feet
(D) 16 feet.

Get Answer

74. Alternating current power is transmitted at high voltage

(A) to safeguard against pilferage
(B) to minimize transmission losses
(C) to reduce cost of generation
(D) to make the system reliable.

Get Answer

75. Stranded conductors arc used for transmitting, power at high voltages because of
(A) increased tensile strength
(B) better wind resistance
(C) ease-in handling
(D) low cost.
61.D ----- 62.A ----- 63.D ----- 64.D ----- 65.D ----- 66.C ----- 67.D ----- 68.D ----- 69.B ----70.B ----- 71.D ----- 72.C -----73.C ----- 74.B ----- 75.C

76. For the same resistance of line the ratio, weight of copper conductor/ weight of
aluminium conductor , is
(A) 0.50
(B) 0.75
(C) 1.50
(D) 2.0.

Get Answer

77. The function of steel wire in a ACSR conductor is

(A) to take care of surges
(B) to prevent corona
(C) to reduce inductance and hence improve power factor
(D) to provide additional mechanical strength.

Get Answer

78. In high voltage transmission lines the top most conductor is

(A) R-phase conductor

(B) Y- phase conductor

(C) B-phase conductor
(D) Earth conductor.

Get Answer

79. For 11 kV line the inductance per km per phase will be of the order of
(A) 1 H
(B) 0.1 H
(C) 1 mH
(D) 0.1 mH.

Get Answer

80. For 11 kV. line the capacitance per km per phase will be of the order of
(A) 1 Farad
(B) 0.1 Farad
(C) 0.01 Farad
(D) 0.01 microF.

Get Answer

81. If 3000 kW power is to be transmitted over a distance of 30 km, the desirable

transmission voltage will be
(A) 11 kV
(B) 33 kV

(C) 66 kV
(D) 132 kV.

Get Answer

82. The permissible voltage variation in transmission and distribution system is

(A) 0.1%
(B) 1%
(C)10%
(D) 25%.

Get Answer

83. The voltage of transmission can be regulated by

(A) use of tap changing transformers
(B) switching in shunt capacitors at the receiving end during heavy loads
(C) use of series capacitors to neutralize the effect of series reactance
(D) any of the above methods.

Get Answer

84. The most economic voltage for transmitting given power over a known distance by
overhead transmission line is approximately
(A) 3.6 kV/km
(B) 1.6 kV/km
(C) 2.6 kV/km

(D) 3.6 kVkm.

Get Answer

85. String efficiency is given by

(A) (voltage across the string) / ((numbers of discs on the string) x (voltage across disc
nearest to the conductor))
(B) ((voltage across the string) x (numbers of discs on the string)) / (voltage across disc
nearest to the conductor)
(C) ( (voltage across disc nearest to the conductor) x (numbers of discs on the string)) /
(voltage across the string)
(D) (voltage across disc nearest to the conductor))/ ((numbers of discs on the string) x
(voltage across the string)

Get Answer

86. For a 66 kV line having span of 200 meters between towers the approximate sag will
be
(A) 0.02 m
(B) 0.2 m
(C) 2 m
(D) 20 m.

Get Answer

87. In the above case if the span is doubled, the sag will be
(A) 2 m

(B) 4m
(C) 8m
(D) 1 m.

Get Answer

88. The reflection coefficient for a short circuit line is

(A) 1
(B) Zero
(C) 0.5
(D) - 1.

Get Answer

89. In case the height of transmission tower is increased

(A) the line capacitance and inductance will not change
(B) the line capacitance will decrease but line inductance will decrease
(C) the line capacitance will decrease and line inductance will increase
(D) the line capacitance will decrease but line inductance will remain unaltered.

Get Answer

90. In a transmission line if booster transformer are to be used, preferred location will be
(A) at the receiving end
(B) at the sending end
(C) at the intermediate point

(D) any where in the line.

76.D ----- 77.D ----- 78.D ----- 79.C ----- 80.C ----- 81.B ----- 82.C ----- 83.D ----- 84.A ----85.A ----- 86.C ----- 87.C ----- 88.D ----- 89.D ----- 90.C

91. A 70/6 ACSR conduction is an aluminium conductor steel reinforced, having

(A) cross sectional area of aluminium as 70 mm2 and the cross-sectional area of steel as 6
mm2
(B) cross-sectional area of steel as 70 mm2 and the cross-sections area of aluminium as 6
mm2
(C) 70 aluminium conductors and 6 steel conductors
(D) 80 steel conductors and 6 aluminium conductors.

Get Answer

92. In aluminium conductors steel reinforced, the insulation between aluminium and
steel conductors is
(A) any insulator
(B) bitumen
(C) insulin
(D) no insulation is required.

Get Answer

93. Under no load conditions the current in a transmission line is due to

(A) corona effects
(B) capacitance of the line
(C) back flow from earth

(D) spinning reserve.

Get Answer

94. Which distribution system is more reliable ?

(A) Ring main system
(B) Tree system
(C) Radial system
(D) All are equally reliable.

Get Answer

95. Out of the following systems of distribution, which system offers the best economy ?
(A) Direct current system
(B) AC single phase system
(C) AC 3 phase 3 wire system
(D) AC 3 phase 4 wire system.

Get Answer

96. What are the advantages of dc transmission system over ac transmission system ?
(A) DC system is economical
(B) There is no skin effect in dc system
(C) Corona limits are highest for dc circuits as compared to ac circuits
(D) All of the above.

Get Answer

97. The main advantage of ac. transmission system over d.c. transmission system is
(A) Easy transformation
(B) Less losses in transmission over long distances
(C) ) Less insulation problems
(D) Less problem of instability.

Get Answer

98. Which curve correctly represents the relation between capital cost and dc voltage of
transmission ?

(A) curve A
(B) curve B
(C) curve C
(D) curve D.

Get Answer

99. Step-up substations are associated with

(A) distributors
(B) consumer location
(C) concentrated load
(D) generating stations.

Get Answer

Questions 100 to 102 refer to figure

given below :

100. A section of a single bus scheme is shown in the figure. In this figure B represents
(A) Isolator
(B) Circuit breaker
(C) Current transformer
(D) Inductance.

Get Answer

101. An isolator is represented by

(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) A and D.

Get Answer

102. C represents
(A) circuit breaker
(B) Mho's relay
(C) Earth switch
(D) None of the above.

Get Answer

103. When an alternator is connected to the infinite but bar and its excitation is
gradually increased
(A) the terminal voltage will rise
(B) the terminal voltage will drop
(C) the terminal voltage will remain unaltered
(D) the terminal voltage will vary rapidly.

Get Answer

104. Consumers having low power factor equipment are advised to install
(A) tap changing transformer
(B) capacitor bank
(C) synchronous condensers
(D) none of the above.

Get Answer

105. A bus bar is rated by

(A) current only
(B) current and voltage only
(C) current, voltage, frequency
(D) current, voltage, frequency and short time current.
91.C ----- 92.D ----- 93.B ----- 94.A ----- 95.A ----- 96.D ----- 97.B ----- 98.B ----- 99.D
-----100.C -----101.D ----- 102.A-----103.C -----104.B ----- 105.D

106. Material generally used for bus bar is

(A) copper
(B) aluminium
(C) steel
(D) tungsten.

Get Answer

107. Which of following properties has got higher value for aluminium as compared to
copper?
(A) Melting point
(B) Specific gravity
(C) Electrical resistivity
(D) Thermal conductivity.

Get Answer

108. For carrying a 100 A (rms) current the cross-sectional area of aluminium bus bar
should be at least
(A) 1 mm2
(B) 10 mm 2
(C) 25 mm 2
(D) 50 mm2

Get Answer

109. Isolators are used to disconnect a circuit when

(A) line is on full load
(B) line is energized
(C) circuit breaker is not open
(D) there is no current in the line.

Get Answer

110. Tap changing transformers are used for

(A) stepping up the voltage
(B) stepping down the voltage
(C) both stepping up and stepping down the voltage
(D) supplying low voltage current for instruments.

Get Answer

111. Which device automatically interrupts the supply in the event of surges
(A) Earthing switch
(B) Series reactor
(C) Isolator
(D) Circuit breaker.

Get Answer

112. In a substation the equipment used to limit short circuit current level is
(A) Series reactor
(B) Coupling capacitor
(C) Lightening switch
(D) Isolator.

Get Answer

113. Which of the following equipment is not installed in a substation ?

(A) Shunt reactors

(B) Exciters
(C) Voltage transformers
(D) Series capacitors.

Get Answer

114. Which bus bar scheme offers the lowest cost ?

(A) Single bus bar scheme
(B) Ring bus bar scheme
(C) Breaker and a half scheme
(D) Main and transfer scheme.

Get Answer

115. Which is the most expensive bus bar scheme ?

(A) Single bus bar scheme
(B) Ring bus bar scheme
(C) Double bus bar double breaker
(D) Main and transfer scheme.

Get Answer

116. Current rating is not necessary in case of

(A) Isolators
(B) Circuit breakers

(C) Load break switches

(D) Circuit breakers and load break switches.

Get Answer

117. Which of the following correctly represents the sequence of operations of isolator
circuit breaker and earthing switch while opening a circuit
(A) Close earthing switch - open circuit breaker open isolator
(B) Open isolator - close circuit breaker - open earthing switch
(C) Open circuit breaker - open isolator - close earthing switch
(D) Close circuit breaker - close isolator - open earthing switch.

Get Answer

118. Which of the following correctly presents the sequence of operations of isolator
circuit breaker and earthing switch while closing a circuit
(A) Ensure circuit breaker is closed - close isolator - open earthing switch
(B) Ensure circuit breaker is open - close isolator - open earthing switch if any close circuit
breaker
(C) Ensure circuit breaker is open - open isolator - open earthing switch if any - close circuit
breaker.
(D) None of the above.

Get Answer

119. Which of the following type tests are conducted on isolators

(A) Temperature rise test

(B) Impulse stage with stand test

(C) Short time current test
(D) All of the above.

Get Answer

120. In a balance 3 , 4 wire AC system, the phase sequence is RYB. If the voltage of
R phase is. 230 < 0 V, then for Y phase
(A) 230 < 0 V
(B) 230 < 60 V
(C) 230 < 90V
(D) 230 < 120 V.
106.B ----- 107.C ----- 108.C ----- 109.D ----- 110.C ----- 111.D ----- 112.A ----- 113.B ----114.A ----- 115.C -----116.A ----- 117.C -----118.B -----119.D ----- 120.D

121. The relation between traveling voltage wave and current wave is
(A) e = i (L/C) 1/2
(B) e = i (C/L) 1/2
(C) e = i (iL/C) 1/2
(D) (L/iC) 1/2

Get Answer

122. Steepness of the traveling waves is attenuated by

(A) resistance of the line
(B) inductance of the line

(C) capacitance of the line

(D) all of the above.

Get Answer

123. The protection against direct lightening strokes and high voltage steep waves is
provided by
(A) earthing of neutral
(B) lightening arresters
(C) ground wires
(D) lightening arresters and ground wires.

Get Answer

124. Voltages under Extra High Voltage are

(A) 1 kV and above
(B) 11 kV and above
(C) 132 kV and above
(D) 330 kV and above.

Get Answer

125. In outdoor substation, the lightening arresters is placed nearer to

(A) the isolator
(B) the current transformer
(C) the power transformer

(D) the current breaker.

Get Answer

126. Stability of a system is not affected by

(A) Reactance of line
(B) Losses
(C) Reactance of generator
(D) Output torque.

Get Answer

127. A 10 MVA generator has power factor 0.866 lagging. The reactive power produced
will be
(A) 10 MVA
(B) 8 MVA
(C) 5 MVA
(D) 1.34 MVA.

Get Answer

128. In order to increase the limit of distance of transmission line

(A) series resistances are used
(B) synchronous condensers are used
(C) shunt capacitors and series reactors are used
(D) series capacitors and shunt reactors are used.

Get Answer

129. A 30 km transmission line carrying power at 33 kV is known as

(A) short transmission line
(B) long transmission line
(C) high power line
(D) ultra high voltage line.

Get Answer

130. If K is the volume of conductor material required for 2 wire dc system with one
conductor earthed, then the volume of cable conductor material required for transmission of
same power in single phase 3 wire system is (A) K/3 cos
(B) 5K cos2
(C) K/ 5 cos2
(D) 5K/ 8 cos2

Get Answer

131. The permissible voltage variable in voltage in distribution is

(A) 0.1%
(B) 1%
(C) 10%
(D) 50%.

Get Answer

132. Surge impedance of transmission line is given by

(A) (L/C)1/2
(B) (C/L)1/2
(C) (CL)1/2
(D) 1/(CL)1/2

Get Answer

133. 750 kV is termed as

(A) Medium high voltage
(B) High voltage
(C) Extra high voltage
(D) Ultra high voltage.

Get Answer

134. In case of transmission line conductors with the increase in atmospheric

temperature
(A) length increase but stress decreases
(B) length increases and stress also increases
(C) length decreases but stress increases
(D) both length as well as stress decreases.

Get Answer

135. If the height of transmission towers is increased, which of the following

parameters is likely to change ?
(A) Resistance
(B) Inductance
(C) Capacitance
(D) None of the above.
121.A ----- 122.A ----- 123.D ----- 124.D ----- 125.C ----- 126.B ----- 127.C ----- 128.D ----129.A -----130.C -----131.C ----- 132.A -----133.D -----134.A ----- 135.C

136. For increasing the capacity of a transmission line to transmit power which of the
following must be decreased ?
(A) Voltage
(B) Capacitance
(C) Line inductance
(D) All of the above.

Get Answer

137. In terms of constants A, B, C and D for short transmission lines, which of the
following relation is valid ?
(A) A = B = 1
(B) B = D = 0
(C) A = C = 1
(D) C=0.

Get Answer

138.Which of the following is reduced due to the use of bundled conductors ?

(A) Capacitance of the circuit
(B) lnductance of the circuit
(C) Power loss due to corona
(D) All of the above.

Get Answer

139. The ratio of capacitance from line to line capacitance from line to neutral is nearly
(A)1/4
(B) 1/2
(C) 1
(D) 2.

Get Answer

140. Following effects are associated with transmission lines

I. Corona effect
II. Proximity effect
III. Skin effect.
The effect resistance of a conductor is increased by
(A) I only
(B) II and III only
(C) I and III only
(D) I. II and III.

Get Answer

141. The sag of a transmission line is least affected by

(A) self weight of conductors
(B) temperature of surrounding air
(C) current through conductor
(D) ice deposited on conductor.

Get Answer

142. The sag of the conductors of a transmission line is 1.5 m when the span is 100 m.
Now if the height of supporting towers is increased by 20%, the sag will
(A) increase by 20%
(B) increase by 10%
(C) reduced by 20%
(D) remain unchanged.

Get Answer

143. ACSR conductor having 7 steel stands surrounded by 25 aluminum conductor will
be specified as
(A) 7/25
(B) 7/32
(C) 25/7
(D) 25/32.

Get Answer

144. The networks associated with transmission lines are

I. T-network
II. network
III. Tree net.
A two terminal pair of network of a transmission line can be represented by
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) Either of I or II
(D) Either of I, II or III.

Get Answer

145. Which of the following relationships is not valid for short transmission lines ?
(A) B = Z = C
(B) A = D = 1
(C) Is = Ir
(D) None of the above.

Get Answer

146. In order to improve the steady state stability of an overhead transmission lines,
which of the following methods can be adopted
(A) Reducing impedance between the stations

(B) Adopting quick response excitation systems

(C) Using series capacitors to make X = (3 R)1/2
(D) Any of the above.

Get Answer

147. Transient disturbances arc due to

(A) Switching operations
(B) Load variations
(C) Faults
(D) Any of the above.

Get Answer

148. Which of the following short circuit is the most dangerous ?

(A) Line to line short circuit
(B) Dead short circuit
(C) Line to ground short circuit
(D) Line to line and ground short circuit.

Get Answer

149. In case line to line fault occurs, the short circuit current of an alternator will
.depend on its
(A) Synchronous reactance
(B) Transient reactance

(C) Short circuit resistance

(D) All of the above.

Get Answer

150. Transient state stability is generally improved by ,

(A) using high speed governors on machines by
(B) using low inertia machines
(C) dispensing with neutral grounding
(D) any of the above.
136.C ----- 137.D ----- 138.C ----- 139.A ----- 140.B ----- 141.C ----- 142.D ----- 143.C ----144.C -----145.A -----146.D ----- 147.D -----148.B -----149.A ----- 150.A

151. Aluminium is being favored as bus-bar material mainly because of

(A) case of fabrication
(B) low density
(C) low cost
(D) non availability of copper.

Get Answer

152. Which section can lie used for bus bar ?

(A) bars
(B) rods
(C) tubes
(D) any of the above.

Get Answer

153. A string efficiency of 100% implies that

(A) shunt capacitance is 1 MF
(B) potential across each disc is same
(C) potential across each disc is zero
(D) one of the insulator disc is shorted.

Get Answer

154. Steel poles for transmission lines need protection against

(A) termites
(B) borer
(C) corrosion
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer

155. Which type of copper wire will have highest tensile strength ?
(A) Soft drawn
(B) Medium drawn
(C) Hard drawn.

Get Answer

156. Guy wire is used to

(A) Support the pole
(B) Provide protection against surges
(C) Provide emergency earth route
(D) Protect conductors against short circuiting.

Get Answer

157. Which of the following is a leading power system ?

(A) Underground cables
(B) Reactors
(C) Mercury arc rectifiers
(D)Transformers.

Get Answer

158. Which of the following is a static exciter ?

(A) dc separately excited generator
(B) amplidyne
(C) retool
(D) rectifier.

Get Answer

159. The service mains connect

(A) distributor and consumer terminals

(B) distributor and transformer
(C) distributor and relay system
(D) transformer and earth.

Get Answer

160. System grounding is song

(A) so that the floating potential on the lower voltage winding for a transformer is brought
down to an insignificant value
(B) so that arcing faults to earth would not set up dangerously high voltage on healthy
phases
(C) so that inductive interference between power and communication circuits can be
controlled
(D) for all above reasons.

Get Answer

161. Hot template curves are plots of

(A) conductor sage and span lengths
(B) temperature and ground clearance curves
(C) temperature and humidity
(D) conductor weight and sag.

Get Answer

Questions 162 and 163 refer to data

given below:
A 66 kV system has string insulator having five discs and the earth to disc capacitance ratio
of 0.10.

162. The string efficiency will be

(A) 89%
(B) 75%
(C) 67%
(D) 55%.

Get Answer

163. The voltage shared by the individual discs will be

(A) 1.25 kV
(B) 2.50 kV
(C) 3.88 kV
(D) 5.28 kV.

Get Answer

164. The shape of heat rate (HR) versus power (P) curve for a power station will be as
shown in

(A) figure A
(B) figure B
(C) figure C
(D) figure D

Get Answer

165. The reflection coefficient for the voltage wave in case of overhead lines is given by
(A) (RL - R0 )/ (RL+ R0)
(B) (RL + R0 )/ (RL- R0)
(C) (RL + R0 )/ (RL+ R0)
(D) (RL R0 )/ (RL- R0)

Get Answer

166. In a diesel engine the governor controls

(A) fuel pressure

(B) fuel flow rate
(C) fuel temperature
(D) fuel volume.

Get Answer

167. For overhead transmission line when the conductors are supported between two
supports, the variation of tension T will temperature is represented by

(A) Curve A
(B) Curve B
(C) Curve C
(D) Curve D.

Get Answer

168. If the voltage across the units in a two unit suspension insulator is 60% and 40%
respectively of the line voltage, the. ratio of capacitance of the insulator to that of its
capacitance to earth will be
(A) 0.5
(B) 0.50
(C) 0.65
(D) 0.75.

Get Answer

169. In the analysis of short transmission lines which of the following is neglected ?
(A) I2 R loss
(B) Shunt admittance
(C) Series impedance
(D) All of the above.

Get Answer

170. In medium transmission lines the shunt capacitance is taken into account in
(A) Tee method
(B) Pie method
(C) Steinmetz method
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer

Questions 171 and 172 refer to data

given below:
A transmission line has a capacitance of 0.01 micro F/km and an inductance of 2 mH/km
and is connected to a cable having an inductance of 0.25 mH/km. When voltage surge
having peak value of 100 kV travels along the cable towards the line, the resulting peak
voltage at the junction of the cable and the line is 180 kV.

171. The surge impedance of the cable is

(A) 14.1 ohms
(B) 42.5 ohms
(C) 87.75 ohms
(D) 141.2 ohms.

Get Answer

172 . The capacitance of cable per km is

(A) 0.1 microF
(B) 0.7 microF
(C) 1.5 microF
(D) 10 microF.
151. C -----152.D -----153.B -----154.C ----- 155.C ----- 156.A ----- 157.A ----- 158.D ----159.A -----160.D -----161.A ----- 162.C ----- 163. D----- 164. C ----- 165.A ----- 166.B ----167.C ----- 168.B ----- 169.B ----- 170.D ----- 171.D ----- 172.A

1. Guy wires are generally galvanized.

Get Answer

2. Soft drawn copper wires are cold-drawn to size and then annealed.
Get Answer

3. The surge resistance for overhead lines is 500 ohms.

Get Answer

4. In modern power stations generation voltage range from 6.3 kV to 33 kV.

Get Answer

5. In order to maintain the frequency and voltages at their prescribed value at all times, it
is necessary to maintain the balance of active power and reactive power in the system.

Get Answer

6. In generation system at any instant the generation should be exactly equal to the
demand.

Get Answer

7. Synchronous condensers provide flexible control of power factor as compared to that

by shunt capacitors.

Get Answer

8. V-strings are suitable for single circuit lines.

Get Answer

9. As an insulator material, toughened glass insulators have greater puncture strength.

Get Answer

10. The life of a toughened glass insulator is greater than that of porcelain insulator.
Get Answer

11. In long transmission lines incident and reflected waves travel in opposite directions.
Get Answer

12. The characteristic impedance of a long transmission line is independent of the length
of the line.

Get Answer

13. For a loss less line the characteristic impedance is called surge impedance.
Get Answer

14. Corona reduces the effect of surges.

Get Answer

15. Corona discharges emit radiations which induce noise signals in the communication
channel.

Get Answer

16. In short lines A = 1. B = Z, C = 0 and D = A.

Get Answer

17. In nominal T line D = A, C = Y and B = Z (1 + (YZ)/4)

Get Answer

18. Galloping frequency may be of the order of 50 to 100 Hz..

Get Answer

19. Armour rods on conductors are provided to reduce the amplitude of vibrations.
Get Answer

20. The choice of economic span length of transmission lines depends on size, material
and number of conductors.

Get Answer

21. A booster is connected in parallel with feeder.

Get Answer
Get all answers at once
1. T ----- 2. T ----- 3. T ----- 4. T ----- 5. T ----- 6. T ----- 7. T ----- 8. T ----- 9. T ----- 10. T ----11. T ----- 12.T ----- 13.T ----- 14.T ----- 15.T ----- 16.T ----- 17.T ----- 18.F ----- 19.T ----- 20.T
----- 21.F
In a transmission system, a 3.3 kV/0.4 kV transformer is installed on-side __________.

Get Answer

2. Guy wire should have high __________ strength.

Get Answer

3. A Peterson coil has __________ reactance.

Get Answer

4. In ACSR conductors aluminium conductor __________ and __________ steel

conductors.

Get Answer

5. In ACSR conductors, due to steel the resistance of conductor __________.

Get Answer

6. In short transmission lines the shunt capacitance is totally neglected and the series
impedance is a __________ parameter.

Get Answer

7. In long transmission lines the incident component of voltage increases in magnitude

and phase as we move __________ receiving end.

Get Answer

8. In long transmission lines, as we move away from the receiving end, the reflected
component of voltage __________ in magnitude and phase.

Get Answer

9. In modern power stations the range of distribution voltages is 110 V to __________.

Get Answer

10. The highest transmission voltage in the world is __________ kV.

Get Answer

11. In a power system there will always exist an unbalance between the demand and
supply conditions of active and reactive power and this leads to variation of __________
and __________ from their respective rated values.

Get Answer

12. Shunt capacitors as compared to synchronous condensers have __________

losses.

Get Answer

13. In harmonic voltage the possibility of resonance exists in case of __________.

Get Answer

14. Initial cost of synchronous condensers is __ ________as compared to that of shunt

capacitors.

Get Answer

15. Dancing of conductors can be seen in __________ temperature regions.

1. secondary distribution side ----- 2. tensile ----- 3. inductive----- 4. carry current,
provide strength ----- 5. increases----- 6. lumped ----- 7. away from----- 8. decreases----9. 33kV ----- 10 . (750) ----- 11. frequency,voltage ----- 12. less ----- 13. shunt
capacitors----- 14. high-----15. Low

16. Galloping is __________ frequency __________ amplitude vibration of conductors.

Get Answer

17. For 400 kV transmission lines the ground clearance will be nearly __________
metes.

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18. For transmission line conductors, as the temperature increases sag __________ and
tension __________.

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19. An electric transmission line has four parameters namely resistance, inductance,
capacitance and __________.

Get Answer

20. A load power factor of 95 lagging implies reactive power demand of __________.
Get Answer

21. In short transmission lines the effect of __ ________is negligible.

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22. Circuit constants of a transmission line can be found easily with the help of
__________ charts.

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23. The induction regulator is essentially a __________ transformer.

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24. Quadrature boosters inject the voltage leading the system voltage by __________.
Get Answer

25. The affect of corona can be reduced by the use of __________ conductors.
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26. One of the advantage of high voltage dc transmission is no __________ effect.

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27. The particular value of the wave length of the line for which the voltage or current
undergoes a shift of 2 radians is called a __________.

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28. The phenomenon of corona is generally accompanied by __________.

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29. Eddies produced behind the conductors by the action of low velocity winds result in
__________ vibration.

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30. Armour rods and stock bridge dampers are used to minimise __________ in a
conductor.

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31. A shunt connected inductance __________ vary while a shunt connected capacitor
__________ vars.

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32. Synchronous compensators can __________ vars if over- excited and __________
vars when under-excited.

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33. The addition of about 1% cadmium to copper raises its __________ strength.
Get Answer

34. Addition of about 1/2 % each of silicon and magnesium to aluminium, increases its
resistance to corrosion and also __________ strength.
16. low,large-----17. (8.5) -----18. increases,decreases -----19. shunt conductance ----20. (0.33 kVAR per kW)----- 21. capacitance ----- 22. Woodruff ----- 23. step-down ----24. 900 ----- 25. bundle ----- 26. skin----- 27. wave length----- 28. a hissing sound ----- 29.
resonant----- 30. vibrations ----- 31. absorbs,generates ----- 32. generate,absorb ----33.tensile ----- 34.tensile

Electrical Grounding Systems:

Use of electricity brings with it an electric shock hazard for humans and animals particularly
in case defective electrical apparatus. It is therefore necessary to connect the system to
ground at suitable points. In case of fault, sufficient current will flow through and operate the
protective system isolating the faulty circuit Hence the connection to ground should be of
low resistance.

Soil resistivity is a deterministic factor in evaluating the ground resistance. It is an electro

physical property. The soil resistivity depends on type of soil, its moisture content and
dissolved salts.

Type of Soil
Loam, garden soil
Clay
Sand and gravel
Sand stone
Rocks

Resistivity ( m )
5-50
8-50
60- 100
10-500
200- 10,000

Resistance of a Electrical Grounding Point

Electrode:

The ground resistance of a hemisphere electrode is sum of resistances of an infinite number

of thin hemispherical shells of soil.

R = ( dx) / (2x ) = / 2 ( 1/r - 1/r )

r

r1

where is earth resistivity.

As

r =, R (infinity) = / 2r
1

Resistance of driven rods for electrical

grounding:
Driven rod is one of the simplest and most economical forms of electrodes.

R = / 2l ln (4l/d )
If rod is cylindrical with hemispherical end,

R = / 2l ln (2l/d )
when rod crimes current uniformly along its length,

R = / 2 l (ln(8l / d) -1)
The resistance of n rods in parallel is found to exceed (1/n) of that of a single rod because of
their mutual screening. The screening coefficient for n electrodes in parallel is defines as

= Resistance of one electrode/ n

(resistance of n electrodes in parallel)
Electrical Grounding grids:

To obtain a low ground resistance at high voltage sub-stations we used inter connected
ground grids. Size of the grid conductors required to avoid fusing under fault current I is

a = I [ ( 76 t ) / ( ln[234+ T ]/[ 234 + T ]) ]

m

where,
a = copper cross section,
t = fault duration (sees),
Tm = Maximum allowable temperature,
Ta = Ambient temperature.

Such a grid not only effectively grounds the equipment but has the advantage of controlling
the voltage gradients at the surface of the earth to values safe for human contact.

Neutral Electrical Grounding:

Grounding of the neutral points of generators, transformers, and transmission schemes is
an important item in the design of power systems. It has a considerable bearing on the
levels of transient and dynamic over-voltages stressing the equipment insulation. It also
directly affects the levels of short-circuit currents in the power network and accordingly, the
ratings of switchgear needed to cope with them.

The methods of system neutral grounding include resistance and low reactance for effective
grounding.

(Examples of power system neutral grounding)

Introduction of circuit breakers

All electric circuits needs a switching device and also a protective device. Switchgear is the
general term covering a wide range of equipment connected with switching and protection.
A circuit breaker is a switching and circuit interrupting device. A circuit breaker serves two
purposes:

(i) Switching on and off during normal operation for maintenance etc.
(ii) Switching during abnormal conditions- short circuits, earthing etc. to protect the
associated equipment.

In short, a circuit breaker is a sort of automatic switch which can interrupt the fault currents.
Two important parts of a circuit breaker that need consideration are:

(i) Arc extinction system

(ii) Relay for operation

Arc Extinction in circuit breakers:
Whenever a circuit carrying current is interrupted by a circuit breaker an arc is inevitably
formed between the contacts which prolongs the current interrupting process for a duration
ranging from 10 to 100 or more milliseconds.

Since arc is produced in every circuit breakers, therefore suitable energy dissipating device
must be incorporated in the design of circuit breaker. Unless carefully controlled, arc can
lead to danger of fire or explosion.

The arc consists of a column of ionized gas i.e. gas in which the molecules have lost one or
more of their negative electrons, leaving positive ions. The negative electrons are attracted
towards the positive contact and being light, more towards it very rapidly. The positive ions
attracted towards the negative contact. Due to electron movement the current flows.

The ionization process is accompanied by the emission of light and heat. Also some portion
of power is dissipated as heat. The temperature of arc may be as high as 6000 0 C.

Methods of arc extinction in circuit breakers :

Two methods commonly used are:

(i) High resistance interruption :

In this the arc is controlled in such a way that its resistance is caused to increase rapidly,
thereby reducing the current until it falls to a value that is insufficient to maintain the
ionization process. The arc resistance may be increased by

(a) Arc lengthening

(b) Arc cooling
(c) Arc splitting

(ii) Low resistance interruption :

In this the arc resistance is kept low, in order to keep the arc energy to a minimum and use
is made of a natural or artificial current zero when the arc extinguishes itself and is then
prevented from re striking.

Protection of contacts of circuit breakers :

During arcing mechanical as well as electrical erosion of contacts occurs. Therefore the
resistance to erosion by arching is the important property of contact materials. In case of dc
circuits the process of erosion is represented by loss of material from one contact and the
deposition of part of this material on to the other contact. However, in case of ac circuits
there is no marked direction of transfer, as either contact becomes successively positive and
negative.

There are two distinct forms of protections which may be employed with the object of
reducing the rate of erosion of contacts by arcing thereby prolonging their useful life.

(a) Arc dispersion in circuit breakers :

In this the destructive effects of the arc are minimized, using one of the following methods:

1. Oil immersion of contacts

2. Multiple break contacts

3. De ionization of arc path

4. Magnetic blow out of arc
5. Blast principle using air, oil, gas or water.
(b) Arc prevention in circuit breakers:
In this the occurrence or arc is prevented by reducing the current and voltage below the
minimum arcing values or reducing its destructive effects as far as possible. The principle
devices used to quench circuits of this kind are :

(i) Discharge resistance

(ii) Rectifiers
(iii) Condensers
Circuit breakers:
These are heavy-duty devices capable of interrupting comparatively large electric currents
safely. They are designed not only to carry and interrupt the normal load currents flowing in
circuit but also to interrupt any abnormally high current that may flow under fault conditions
such as short circuit. Circuit breakers are constructed mechanically strong enough to
withstand the forces set-up by enormous short-circuit currents.

The ability of a breaker to withstand short circuit forces is expressed in Volt-Amperes, i.e.,
product of nominal circuit voltage and the short-circuit current for which the breaker is
designed.

Specifications of circuit breakers:

1. Operating voltage of the circuit :
It determines the insulating requirements.

2. Normal operating or maximum load current :

It determines requirements of the normal or load-carrying parts.

3. Maximum abnormal or fault current that must be interrupted :

It determines the mechanical requirements of the breaker itself and of its supporting
structure.

Commonly used insulations are:

l. Oil
2. Vacuum
3. Inert gas e.g. sulphur hexafluoride.
Principle of operation of Circuit Breakers :

The circuit breaker actually makes a physical separation in the current-carrying or

conducting element by inserting an insulating medium sufficient to prevent current from
continuing to flow. In so doing, the persistence of an arc across the gap is prevented. The
circuit is usually opened by drawing out an arc between contacts until the arc can no longer
support itself. The arc formed when the contacts of a circuit breaker move apart to interrupt
of a circuit is a conductor made up of ionized particles of the insulating materials.

Whenever voltages and currents are large other forms of insulation are used in place or air
to extinguish the arc as quickly as possible.

Whenever fault occurs in the circuit breaker, relay connected to the current transformer CT
actuates and closes its contacts. Current flows from the battery in the trip circuit As soon as
the trip coil of the circuit breaker gets energized the circuit breaker operating mechanism is
actuated and it operates for the opening mechanism.

Thus relay forms a vital part of a circuit breaker. Various types of relays used are given
below:

Relay
1.Differential relay

Operation
Responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.
Operates when the impedance between relay point and fault point is below a
2.Impedance relay
specified value.
Responds to increase in current. The relay operates when the current exceeds
3.Over current relay
a present level
4.Instantaneous
A quick operating relay (less than 0.2-second operating times).

relay
5.Static relay

A relay without moving parts. In this the measurement is performed by a

stationary circuit.

Types of Circuit Breakers:

Type
1.Air break C.B.

Medium
Air at atmospheric pressure

2.Tank type oil circuit breaker Dielectric oil

3.Minimum oil circuit breaker

Dielectric oil

4.Air blast C.B.

Compressed air (pressure 20 to 30

atmospheres)

Range
Low voltage Up to l000
V
Up to 33 kV
36 kV, 1500 MVA
132 kV, 3000 MVA
132 kV, 220 kV
400 kV, 760 kV
132 k V, 220 kV

5.SF6 C.B.

SF6 gas

6.Vacuum C.B.
High voltage direct current
7.
C.B.

Vacuum

11 kV. 33 kV

Vacuum or SF6

500 kV DC.

400 kV, 760 kV.

1. Air circuit breakers :

An air circuit breaker employs air as the interrupting insulation medium. Of all the insulating
media mentioned, air is the most easily ionized and, hence, arcs formed in air tend to be
serve and persistent.

The switching elements for an air current, breaker, consists of main and auxiliary contacts.
The auxiliary contacts open before the main contacts do, and the arc is drawn on them,
thereby avoiding serve pitting of the main contacts.

2. Oil Circuit Breakers :

Oil circuit breakers have their contacts immersed in insulating oil. They are used to open
and close high-voltage circuits carrying relatively large currents in situations where air circuit
breakers would be impractical because of the danger of the exposed arcs that might be
formed. When the contacts are drawn apart, the oil covering them tends to quench the arc
by its cooling effect and by the gases thereby generated, which tend to "blow out" the arc. At
the instant the contacts part, the arc formed at each contact not only displaces the oil but
decomposes it, creating gas and a carbon residue. If these carbon particles were to remain
in place, as a conductor they would tend to sustain the arc formed. However, the violence of
the gas and the resulting turbulence of the oil disperse these particles and they eventually
settle to the bottom of the tank. The insulating oil normally used as a dielectric strength of
around 30 kV per one tenth of an inch (compared to a similar value of 1 kV for air). Oil is
also an effective cooling medium.

. Vacuum Circuit Breaker :

Here the contacts are drawn apart in a chamber from which air has been evacuated. The
electric arc is essentially an electric conductor made up of ionized air. Thus, if there is no air,
theoretically the arc cannot form. In practice, however, a perfect vacuum is not likely to be
obtained. The small residual amount of air that may exist permits only a small arc to be
formed and one of only a very short direction. The same vacuum however, will not dissipate
the heat generated as readily as other insulating media. This type of breaker has certain
advantages in terms of its size and simplicity.

4. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) breaker :

This type of breaker is similar to the vacuum types of breaker except that the vacuum is
replaced by an inert non-toxic, odorless gas-sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6). This gas,
extinguished the arc so rapidly as almost to prevent its formation. It is also excellent heatdissipating characteristics, and its dielectric strength is very much greater than that of oil.

The breakers are constructed to modules capable of operation at voltages from 34.4 kV at
gas pressure of 45 psi to 362 kV at 240 psi. By connecting two or three such modules in
series, breaker capable of operating at 800 kV at 240 psi can be constructed with two-threecycle interrupting time. Features of sulphur hexafluoride interrupting module.

Terms associated with circuit breakers:

1. Arcing time :
Time between separation of circuit breaker contacts and Final current zero.

2. Dead time :
Time between final current zero of first opening and contact touch during subsequent re
closing.

3. De ionizing time :
Time for de ionizing the arc space after opening of circuit breaker.

4. Fault clearing time :

Time between occurrence of fault and closing of tripping contacts or energizing of shunt trip
release.

5. Opening time :
Time between energizing of shunt trip release and opening of circuit breaker contacts.

6. Rated Short circuit breaking circuit :

The rated short circuit breaker current of a circuit breaker is the highest value of short circuit
which a circuit breaker is capable of breaking under specified conditions of recovery voltage
and power frequency recovery voltage.

7. Relay time :
Time between occurrence.of fault and closure of relay contacts.