Buckling of doublysymmetric cantilevers with

slender webs
M. A. Bradford

Department of Structural Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, The Universityof New

South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2033, Australia
(Received July 1991)
A line finite element method of analysis is described which can
predict elastic distortional buckling, and a procedure for modifying
this method for lateral buckling and for loading away from the shear
centre is given. The convergence and accuracy of the finite element
method are demonstrated. Elastic buckling solutions are produced for
cantilevers with a concentrated load at their free ends, and mode
shapes are generated. It is shown that elastic distortion of the web
is significant for a large range of cantilever geometries. The application of the elastic solutions to calculating the strengths of cantilevers
is discussed, for which the reduction in strength due to distortion is
not as large.

Keywords: buckling, cantilevers,

elements, webs, yielding

Cantilevers are a special type of member, in that one end

is usually fixed, while the other end is usually free.
Buckling analyses of these members have concentrated
on lateral instability, in which it is assumed that each
cross-section twists and displaces laterally as a rigid
body. However, the nature of the boundary conditions
suggests that this assumption may not be entirely true,
and cantilevers with slender webs may buckle in a
distortional mode, characterized by deformations of the
web in the cross-sections along the member.
Lateral buckling solutions for doubly-symmetric cantilever beams have been presented by Timoshenko and
Gere t. They showed that the elastic critical moment
Mor of a cantilever in uniform bending was given by

7r (ElyGJ) ,/z(
r2Elw~ l/z
Mot = ~
1 + 4Gj/2/

(1)

where Ely is the minor axis rigidity, GJ is the torsional

rigidity and EIw is the warping rigidity of the cantilever, and ! is its length. This equation is the same as
that for a simply supported beam in uniform bending 2,
but with the effective length replaced by 2l. Numerical
solutions were presented by Timoshenko and Gere for
other conditions of loading. There have been several
subsequent studies of the lateral buckling of cantilevers 3-8.
As was mentioned earlier, all these lateral buckling
studies assumed that the cross-sections of the cantilever
did not deform during buckling. It has been
0141-0296/92/05032708
1992 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd

distortion,

elasticity,

finite

demonstrated, however, that when a beam has partial

restraints at one of its ends, the member may buckle in
a distortional mode 9'~, for which the distortional
buckling load is considerably below the load to cause
lateral buckling. It is therefore instructive to consider
the distortional buckling of cantilever members which,
of course, have a free end.
The only previous study of the distortional buckling of
cantilevers in the open literature appears to be that by
Johnson and Will ~. In their study, two relatively fine
meshes of plane stress-bending finite elements were
used. The discretization of finite elements was prohibitive in terms of computer time, but their study
showed that even a cantilever with a stocky web may
buckle in a distortional mode somewhat below that
which would cause lateral buckling.
An elastic finite element method of analysis developed
by Bradford and Trahair ~2 has been deployed in a
number of studies of distortional buckling 9 10' 13 . This
method uses line elements for the beam discretization,
but allows for cross-sectional distortion. The method is
modified herein to account for loads above the shear
centre, and to produce solutions which assume an undeformable cross-section for comparison purposes.
Because of the line element discretization employed,
there are relatively few degrees of freedom in the stiffness buckling analysis, and solutions may be obtained
rapidly on microcomputers and desktop workstations.
This paper considers the distortional buckling of cantilever beams with a concentrated load at the free end.
A unique finite element method is used ~2, but because

Eng. Struct. 1992, Vol. 14, No 5

327

Buckling of doubly-symmetric cantilevers with slender webs: M. A. Bradford

the method has been well documented, only a brief summary is presented here. The modifications of the method
for the present study, however, are described. The
accuracy and convergence of the finite element method
are established, and it is then used to study the elastic
distortional buckling of cantilevers. The influence of
cross-sectional proportions and load height are considered, and design charts arepresented. The method of
'design by buckling analysis ~is then used to illustrate
the use of the elastic solutions to obtain design strengths.

Notation
B
E
G

[G]
[g]
h

Iy
lw

[K]
[k]
L

[L]
l

Mb
gc
Mor
Mp
{Q}
{ql
{qL}
T
t

u~

UL

UT, UB
Uw

v~
ve
VT, VB
VW

Wod

Wo~
x, y, Z

k
p

II

OL
4~r, 4~B

height of load above shear centre

width of flange
Young's modulus for steel
shear modulus for steel
global stability matrix
element stability matrix
distance between flange centroids
minor axis second moment of area
warping constant
torsion constant
global stiffness matrix
element stiffness matrix
length of element
lateral buckling transformation matrix
length of cantilever
buckling bending strength
elastic critical moment
lateral buckling moment
plastic moment
vector o f global degrees of freedom
vector of element distortional degrees of
freedom
vector of element lateral degrees of freedom
flange thickness
web thickness
strain energy stored in element
lateral buckling displacement
top and bottom lateral displacement
web lateral: displacement
work done due to concentrated load
work done by element
top and bottom vertical displacements
web vertical displacement
distortional buckling load
lateral buckling load
Cartesian axes
buckling load factor
Poisson's ratio
total potential
lateral buckling twist
top and bottom flange twists, respectively

Theory

Distortional buckling analysis

The axis system of a typical beam finite element is
shown in Figure 1. The z-axis is the longitudinal centroidal axis, while the x and y axes are the major and
minor principal axes, respectively. The actions on the
beam element are shown in Figure 1, and are applied

328

Eng. Struct. 1992, Vol. 14, No 5

.Node

XU

ZVI~W~
X[~_M2r z
)~M1

Figure 1 Element axes and actions. (a), beam element; (b),

actions in y - z plane

initially in the plane of symmetry y - z . The initial action

set is WI, M l and V1 at end 1 (z = 0), and Me and Ve at
end 2 (z = L). These actions are increased monotonically by the load factor ~, until buckling occurs.
The lateral displacements of a cross-section of the
beam element are shown in Figure 2. During buckling,
it is assumed that the flanges, which ren~tin rigid ~4,
deflect Ur and un, rotate u~ and u'n about the y-axis, and
twist Or and On about flange axes parallel to the z-axis.
The displacement fields used are ~2
u r = L ( l ' ~, ~2,

~3)lOtl, Or2, 0/3,

O~4}T

(2)

u n = L ( I ' ~, ~2, ~3)1a5 ' a6, o~7, or8}r

(3)

~r = (ur - un)/h + ( 1, ~) [ Q~9' (2/10I T

(4)

q~n = (Ur -- un)/h + ( 1, ~) [ ~1, cq2 ] r

(5)

where

= z/L

(6)

and where [txl . . . . .

oq2} r are polynomial coefficients. The element nodal displacement vector {q] for
distortional buckling is given by
t

[q} = [ ur,, ur,, ur,, ur,, un,, us:, un,, UB:,

4~r,, Or,, On,, 4an,} T

(7)

Buckling of doubly-symmetric cantilevers with slender webs: M. A. Bradford

uT
I~

=.i

the coefficients {cq3. . . . .

t~16}r in equation (10) may
be written in terms of Iq}.
Having determined the displacement fields Ur, us, ~br,
~n, u,,, vw in terms of {ql and cubic interpolation
matrices, the strain energy U, for the beam element can
be derived by using the expressions given by
Timoshenko and Gere'. This was done in Reference
12, and the strain energy may be written as

F"

.....

];,

.-~114I
I

~,x(u)

~r

- I=~.---.'--'

Ue = ~h{q] r[k] {q}

"-.-----"J
tl s

where [k] is the element stiffness matrix given

explicitly in Reference 12. Similarly, the loss in potential or work done by the actions during buckling I,', for
the beam element may be obtained ~, so that

y(v)

Ve = I/2{ql TX[g] lq}

H = V2IQIr([K] - ~,[G])IQ}

b
2 Element d i s p l a c e m e n t s
section; (b), f l a n g e r o t a t i o n s

(a), d e f o r m a t i o n s

o f cross-

so that substitution in equations (2)-(5) and their

derivatives produces an expression for [ot~. . . .
,
~21 r in terms of Iq}.
In accordance with Reference 12, the vertical deflection of any flange point x, since the flanges remain
straight, is either
Vr = XC,r

(8)

vn = x~s

(9)

or

Moreover, it is assumed that the displacements of the

web follow a cubic curve, so that the deflections of any
web point y may be written as
uw = (1, r/, 172 1~3>{0/13, 0114, 0/15 , txl6}rf(z)

(t0)

Vw = 0

(11)

where

(16)

where (Q} is the vector of global degrees of freedom

assembled from the {q} vectors for each element.
Invoking the principle of stationary potential energy
yields J5
/~H = 16Q} r([K] - X[G]){Q} = 0

(17)

and noting the variations {diQ} are arbitrary produces

([K] - X[G])IQ} = 10}

r/= 2y/h

(15)

where h[g] is the element stability matrix given

explicitly in Reference 12, and h is the buckling load
factor.
The element matrices [k] and [g] may be asembled
into global stiffness and stability matrices [K] and [G],
respectively, using equilibrium and compatibility at the
nodes. The total potential II may then be written as

<
Figure

(14)

(18)

Since in the prebuckled configuration the buckling displacements {Q } are zero, bifurcation of equilibrium will
occur when
I [K] - X[G]

I = 0

(19)

Equation (19) is an eigenvalue equation, with the characteristic value of X representing the buckling load factor
and the corresponding value of {Q} in equation (18)
representing the buckled shape. Use was made of the
highly banded nature of [K] and [G] in solving the
eigenproblem, and the routines described by Hancock ]6
were deployed.
Effect of load height

(12)

and f ( z ) is a cubic function of z that has the dimensions

of length. By noting the compatibility identities

Ur = (Uw)-h:2

(13a)

u B = (UW)h/2

(13b)

~ r = --(Ouw/OY)-h/2

(13C)

q~n = - (8u wlOy)h/2

(13d)

It is well known 2 that when a concentrated load W acts

at a height a above the shear centre of a beam, the lateral
buckling resistance is lowered because of the additional
torque Wdq~ which increases the twisting of the beam.
The effect of load height was included in the finite element analysis described in the previous subsection so
that its influence on the distortional buckling of cantilevers could be considered.
When the load ~Wl, at element node 1 acts within the
web at a height a above the shear centre (i.e. y = - a ) ,

Eng. Struct. 1992, Vol. 14, No 5 329

Buckling of doubly-symmetric cantilevers with slender webs: M. A. Bradford

buckling, the cross-section does not distort, and the

buckling displacements may be expressed in terms of the
lateral deflection uL of the shear centre and the twist ~bL
of the cross-section. Provided that these are expressed as
cubic polynomials in 4, there are eight element degrees
of freedom given by ~7

the load point is lowered by

(OUw/Oy)z dy
2 o
so that the loss of potential Va is given by

I
i
t
[qL] = lULl, UL~, U L,,
U~,
0L,, ~bL,., OLd,
O'L,I 7

V~- XWl
2

(Ouw/Oy)2 dy

(24)

(20)
By noting that, for lateral buckling

When the load XW1, acts at or above the top flange

(i.e. a > h/2), the load point is lowered by ~
1

1 lh/z
(a - h/Z)4~zr~ + ~ jo (CgUw/Oy)z dy

UL = (UT + Un)/2

(25)

~bL = (UT- uB)/h

(26)

the degrees of freedom [q] for distortional buckling

may be related to those for lateral buckling [qL} by the
transformation

so that

Iq} = [L] [qL}

XWI (a h/2)4~2r' + XWI ~h:2
(Ouw/Oy) z dy
Va
2
2 oo

where [L] is the 12 x 8 matrix

(21)

[I]
[L] =

while if the load acts at or below the bottom flange

(i.e. a ___ - h/2), then
Va-

XW1 (a + h / 2 ) ~ , + hWl Io hI2

2
~(Ouw/Oy)2 dy

(27)

h/2

[I]

[I]

- h / 2 [I]

[0]

[J]

(28)

in which [I] is the 4 x 4 identity matrix, [0] is the

4 x 4 null matrix, and where

(22)
The inclusion of the load height in the finite element
model was therefore achieved by adding additional
terms to the element stability matrix [g]. These terms
may be derived from the work Va done in the element
given by
XWj
+ XWI lhI2
(OUw/Oy)2 dy
~ - (d - h/2)O~-,
2 jo

[j] =

~-

(OUw/Oy)2 dy

(23)

-h~2

(OUw/Oy)2 dy a <_ - h / 2

80

These terms were calculated explicitly, and were

included in the matrix format.
Modification for lateral buckling
The finite element distortional buckling analysis may be
modified for lateral buckling, to achieve a comparison
between these two modes of instability. For lateral

330

Eng. Struct. 1992, Vol. 14, No 5

1 0

(29)

Ue = I/zIqLj T[kL] [qL}

(30)

Ve = l/z[qLlX[gL] [qL}

(31)

and

- h / 2 < a < h/2

-XWI
XW1
~ (a+h/2)~, +-2

0 1
0

Substituting equation (27) into equations (14) and (15),

the strain energy Ue and work done Ve for the element
are

a >_ h/2
v~ =

1 0 0
0 1 0

where the 8 x 8 stiffness and stability matrices for

lateral buckling are
[kL] = [L] T[k] [L]

(32)

X[gL] = [L] rX[g] [L]

(33)

The matrices [kL] and [gL] may be assembled into

global stiffness and stability matrices, producing an
eigenproblem similar to equation (19). This eigenproblem, which of course is of lower order than the
corresponding di~tortional buckling formulation, may
thus be solved to produce the characteristic lateral buckling load factor X. In the finite element analysis, the pre-

Buckling of doubly-symmetric cantilevers with slender webs: M. A. Bradford

and postmultiplications in equation (32) and (33) were
carried out by computer for each element.

Accuracy and convergence

The distortional buckling of a cantilever beam with a

concentrated load at the shear centre of the free end was
considered by Johnson and Will 1~. The geometry of
their beam was: h = 533 mm, B = 254 ram, T = t =
25.4 mm and l = 3810 mm. In their analysis, two
relatively fine meshes of rectangular elements were
used. Mesh D- 1 consisted of 60 elements (20 in the web
and 20 in each flange), while mesh D-2 consisted of 96
elements (48 in the web and 24 in each flange). The
buckling loads quoted by Johnson and Will are 1410 kN
for mesh D-l, and 1370 kN for mesh D-2. Using the
finite element distortional buckling analysis described in
this paper, buckling loads of 1398 kN, 1393 kN and
1392 kN were obtained using 4, 8 and 10 longitudinal
elements, respectively. The value of 1396 kN differs by
only 1.6% from Johnson and Will's value of 1370 kN.
The convergence of the finite element distortional buckling solutions is demonstrated in Figures 3 and 4 for a
beam with a web slenderness h/t of 100 and 250, respectively. The percentage error is calculated from a base
value using 20 elements in each case. It can be seen that
the errors for top flange loading are greater than those
for shear centre loading. The convergence, however, is
quite rapid, with the greatest discrepancy using 10 longitudinal elements being 0.15%.
Elastic

~4

flange

l~--

2
1
0
Figure 4

10
Number of elements

lS

20

Convergence for h/t = 250

1.0

,00..A/,;/S, . - . 0.8

/11

buckling
o

II/,/,

,oo

I/;/ /,' ./I,','

I IIf

"4/1 ,I /,/
0.4

ii',,,

0.2

10

15

20

I/h

Reductions for B/h = 0.2, B/7" = 10. (

centre loading; ( - - - ) , top flange loading

Figure 5

,o.,g

,oaO,ng

|
i,o0i j

'

~" ,

~...~ Shear centre

#.
2

2~ t

o. 3

0.6

The finite element distortional analysis presented in this

paper has been used to study the distortional buckling of
cantilevers with a load applied at the shear centre or on
the top flange. The results are presented in Figures 5-8,
where the elastic distortional buckling load Wod is normalized with respect to the elastic lateral buckling load
Wo,. For all analyses, Young's modulus was taken as
E = 2 x 105 MPa, while Poisson's ratio was taken as
1, = 0.3. Ten equal length elements were used.
It can be observed from Figures 5- 8 that the effects of
web distortion on the elastic buckling load become very

LTop

~tP

1
5
Figure 3

10
Number of elements

Convergence for h/t = 1 0 0

15

20

), shear

significant as the web slenderness h/t increases and as

the length l decreases. At very short beam lengths,
however, local buckling would be expected to precede
distortional buckling Is. The effects of distortion are
also accentuated by top flange loading. For plate girders
of the typical proportions covered in Figures 5-8, it is
imprudent to neglect the effects of distortion in
calculating the elastic buckling load, and the solutions
for Wor presented in texts such as References 1 and 2
should be modified according to these figures to produce
the elastic distortional buckling load Woa.
The effect of load height on elastic distortional buckling is illustrated in Figure 9, where the ratio Wod/Woris

Eng. Struct. 1992, Vol. 14, No 5 331

Buckling of doubly-symmetric cantilevers with slender webs: M. A. Bradford

1.0

1.0

h l t = l O0

'

h/t= 1

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

//I/I ,'/

IIII~ / /

=eo

C,

III/,' ,'/
///!///

0.4

0.4

iii

i!

I
I

10

15

shear cen-

1,0

h/t= l

0,8

,,N~

/~

,.4. -~

"X//

"A//.Y / /
/////

I///

/./"

"/

." _,

/'.."

.</

/'.I///

Figure 7

/I/I
II1
////

//,/

I
10
//h

I
is

Reductions for B/h = 0. 4 , B/T = 10. (

tre loading; ( - - - ) , t6p flange loading

332

10

15

20

Eng. Struct. 1992, Vol. 14, No 5

Figure 8

Reductions for B/h = 0.4, B/T = 1 5. (

tre loading; ( - - - ) , top flange loading

),shearcen-

plotted against the dimensionless position of the load

above the shear centre 2d/h. As was shown in the
previous four figures, Woa/Woris reduced by the top
flange loading (2a/h = 1), and the ratio reduces as the
load is positioned further above the top flange. It is
significant that positioning the load below the shear centre (2a/h < 0) also accentuates distortion and reduces
the ratio Woa/Wor. Although the distortional buckling
load Wo~ increases as the load height is lowered below
the shear centre (resulting in safer solutions than for
shear centre loading), it increases at a slower rate than
TO illustrate the effects of elastic distortion, a typical
cantilever buckled mode shape, obtained from the eigenvector IQI in equation (18), is shown in Figure 10,
where the deformations are normalized with respect to
the top flange displacement. Distortion of the web near
the free end is indicated by the difference between the
top and bottom flange twist angles ~br and q~B. The
buckled shape of the cross-section at the free end of the
cantilever studied in Figure 9 with h/t = 100 is shown in
Figure 11 for loading at the shear centre and at the top
and bottom flanges. The figure shows that distortion of
the web is more marked for flange loading than for shear
centre loading.

.; . ,,

i //'/

1
s

liE,' ,,,,,,

Wor.

//i/I/I I

0,2

I I I / i ,,."
II III// // / ,' . /// , "

I/h

Reductions for B/h = 0 . 2 , B/T = 1 5. ( - - - - ) ,

tre loading; ( - - - ), top flange loading

0.4

///,/,,

0.2

20

Figure 6

..-

I I//
I I//
/ ///

l/h

0.6

III/ / / / /
Ill / Jill/

Ii/
I/!

0.2

~0
), shear cen-

Strength
The strength of a beam is generally determined by the
interaction of overall buckling (lateral or distortional

Buckling of doubly-symmetric cantilevers with slender webs: M. A. Bradford

1.0

0.9l

h / t = 100

3=

I
I
r
J
I
I
I
E

0,8
t.

T-

I
I

J..=.= -

3=
0.7

2~/h =-1
Figure 11

0.6

-1.5

Figure 9
I/h=12

S.C.
S.C.
I
I
I
-0.5
0
0.5
1.0
Dimensionless load height, 2~/h

Distorted end s h a p e s : B / h =

0.4, B / T = lO, I/h = 12,

h ~ = 200

I h / t = 200

I
-1.0

1.5

simply supported beam with equal and opposite end

moments on its full plastic moment Me and its elastic
critical moment Mo. If it is assumed that the interaction
between yielding and buckling is the same for lateral and
distortional buckling 2, then the strength Mb of the cantilever may be written in terms of its full plastic moment
Me and its elastic critical moment M~ at the root by 2'19

Effect load height on reductions: B/h = 0.4, B / T = 10,

Mb-o.6[ffMP~=+31'/2-(-~)]

buckling) and yielding. Thus while the elastic reductions

Wod/Wor are greatest for short cantilever beams, the
strength of these beams is determined by yielding rather
than by buckling, so that the severe reductions for elastic
budding may lead to an unclear picture of the strength
of shorter beams. This effect of yielding was investigated by calculating the strengths of a cantilever which
exhibited severe distortion at elastic buckling in accordance with 'design by buckling analysis '2 using the
strength formula in the Australian limit states steel
standard tg.
The application of 'design by buckling analysis' is a
general approach to beams and flexural frames which
fail by yielding and lateral buckling, and is based on the
dependence of the ultimate moment capacity Mb of a

(34)

For distortional buckling, ME is taken as Wool, while

for lateral buckling it is taken a s Worl.
The elastic solutions in Figures 5-8 may thus be used
to determine ME for distortional buckling, if use is
made of the lateral buckling solutions for cantilevers
given in References 1 - 3 . This may then be transformed
into the strength Mb in accordance with equation (34).
This procedure was used for a beam with severe elastic
distortion, and the results are shown in Figure 12. It can
be seen that while the reduction in the elastic distortional
buckling moment Woal below that to cause lateral
buckling was very large (Figure 8), the maximum
reduction in distortional buckling strength below lateral
buckling strength is reduced to 15% by the effects of
yielding. This reduction, however, is still not insignificant, and the distortional buckling solutions in Figures
5-8 should be used for beams with slender webs in
order to calculate cantilever strengths.

uT

Conclusions

CT
. . . .

---_--_"

_ --%

--.-.

*B

Figure 10 Buckling eigenvector: B/h = 0.4, B/'/" = 10, I/h =

12, h / t = 100

A finite element method for analysing elastic distortional

buckling has been briefly described, and it has been
shown how this could be modified to obtain lateral
buckling solutions, and to include loads placed away
from the shear centre. The convergence and accuracy of
the method were demonstrated.
The analysis showed that large reductions in the
elastic lateral buckling load could occur due to web
distortion when the beam was short, when its web was
very slender and when the load was positioned away
from the shear centre. However, while the elastic distortional buckling load may be well below the elastic lateral

Eng. Struct, 1992, Vol. 14, No 5 333

Buckling of doubly-symmetric cantilevers with slender webs: M. A. Bradford

1.0

References
buckling

0,8

0.6-

0.4--

0.2--

10

15

20

l/h

Figure 12 Strength predictions for cantilever with a slender web:

B/h = 0.4, B/T = 15, h/t = 250, E/ov = 800

buckling load, the reduction in strength, when yielding

is included, it not so large. The reduction in strength
may still be appreciable for certain cantilevers, and it is
suggested that the design charts in the paper be used to
calculate the elastic distortional buckling load, which
may then be converted into a strength in accordance with
Equation (34).

334

Eng. S t r u c t .

1 9 9 2 , V o l . 14, N o 5

1 Timoshenko, S. P. and Gere, J. M. 'Theory of elastic stability',

McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961
2 Trahair, N. S. and Bradford, M. A. 'The behaviour and design of
steel structures', (2nd edn), Chapman and Hall, London, 1988
3 Anderson, J. M. and Trahair, N. S. 'Stability of monosymmetric
beams and cantilevers', J. Struct. Div. ASCE, 1972, 98 (STI),
269-286
4 Nethercot, D. A. 'The effective lengths of cantilevers as governed by
lateral buckling', The Struct. Engr., 1973, 51, 161-168
5 Trahair, N.S.'Lateralbucklingofoverhangingbeams',inlnstability
and plastic collapse of steel structures (L. J. Morris Ed.), Granada,
London, 1983, pp 503-518
6 Wang, C. M. and Kitipornchai, S. 'On stability of monosymmetric
cantilevers', Engng. Struct, 1986, 8, 169-182
7 Wang, C. M. Kitipornchai, S. and Thevendran, V. 'Buckling of
braced monsymmetric cantilevers: Timoshenko energy approach',
Int. J. Mech. Sci., 29(5), 321-337
8 Attard, M. M. and Bradford, M. A. 'Bifurcation experiments on
monsymmetric cantilevers', Twelfth Australasian Conf. on Mechanics
of Structures and Materials, 1990, Brisbane, 207 -213
9 Bradford, M. A. and Trahair, N. S. 'Lateral stability of beams on
seats', J. Struct. Engng. ASCE, 1983, 109(9)2212-2215
10 Bradford, M. A. 'Design of beams with partial end restraints ', Proc. ,
Inst. of Civ. Engrs., Part 2, 1990, 89, 163-181
11 Johnson, C. P. and Will, K. M. 'Beam buckling by finite element
procedure', J. Struct. Div. ASCE, 1974, 100(ST3), 669-685
12 Bradford, M. A. and Trahair, N. S. 'Distortional buckling of lbeams', J. Struct. Div. ASCE, 1981, 107(ST2), 355-370
13 Bradford, M. A. and Gao, Z. 'Distortional buckling solutions for
composite beams', J. Struct, Engng., ASCE, 1992 118(1), 7 3 - 8 9
14 Hancock, G. J. 'Local, distortional and lateral buckling of I-beams',
J. Struct. Div. ASCE, 1978, 104(STll), 1787-1798
15 Hall, A. S. and Kabaila, A. P. 'Basic concepts of structural analysis',
GreenwichSoft Pty Ltd., Sydney, 1986
16 Hancock, G. J. 'Structural buckling and vibration analyses on
microcomputers', Civ. Engng. Trans., Inst. Engrs Australia, 1984,
CE26(4), 327-332
17 Hancock, G. J. and Trahair, N. S. 'Finite element analysis of the
lateral buckling of continuously restrained beam-columns', Civ.
Engng. Trans., Inst., Engrs Australia, 1978, CE20, 120-127
18 Hancock, G. J., Bradford, M. A. and Trahair, N. S. 'Web distortion
and flexural-torsional buckling', J. Struct. Div. ASCE, 1980,
106(ST7), 1557-1571
19 Standards Australia 'AS-4100 Steel Structures', S.A., Sydney, 1990
20 Bradford, M. A. 'Buckling strength of deformable monosymmetric lbeams', Engng. Struct., 1988, 10, 167-173