Advance Data Communication

Introduction

Advanced Data Communication & Coding

(Proposed) IT705E
Contracts: 3L Credits- 3
Advanced Data Communication and Coding [40L]
1. Prerequisites: Data and signals, Classification of signals,
Communications systems, analog and digital communication
systems, Applications of communication systems. [2L]

2. Digital Communication: Nyquist Sampling theorem, Intersymbol interference and its removal, line codes (polar,
unipolar, bipolar, Manchester), Detection error probability
(polar, unipolar, bipolar), Digital Modulation techniques (ASK,
FSK, BPSK, QPSK, QAM, PCM, DPCM, Delta Modulation,
Adaptive Delta Modulation), Digital Transmission and
Transmission Impairments. [10L]

 3. Optical Networks: WDM, Telecommunication Infrastructure,

Switching, SONET, PDH and SDH, bit interleaving, Architecture of
Optical Transport Network, Link Management Protocols, Solutions.
[8L]

4. Satellite Communication: Basic Transmission Theory, System

Noise Temperature and G/T Ratio, Design Of Down Links, Domestic
Satellite Systems Using Small Earth Stations, Uplink Design, Design
Of Satellite Link For Specified (C/N). Multiple Access Techniques,
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), TDMA, CDMA,
Estimating Channel Requirements, Practical Demand Access
Systems, Random Access, Multiple Access With On Board
Processing, VSAT. [10L]

5. Mobile Communications: Mobile telephone service, Transmission

protocols, Introduction to GSM, GPRS, CDMA, Switching techniques,
Fading, Quality of service (QOS). [8L]

Data and Signals

v
Communication
Model

Component of the Communication System

Source: Source is where the data is originated. Typically it is a
computer, but it can be any other electronic equipment such as
telephone handset, video camera.
Transmitter: As data cannot be sent in its native form, it is necessary
to convert it into signal. This is performed with the help of a
transmitter such as modem.
Communication Medium: The signal can be sent to the receiver
through a communication medium, which could be a simple twistedpair of wire, a coaxial cable, optical fiber or wireless
communication system.
Receiver: The receiver receives the signal s(t) and convert it back
to data d(t) before forwarding to the destination.
Destination: Destination is where the data is absorbed. Again, it can
be a computer system, a telephone handset, a television set and so

Data and Signals

Data are entities that convey meaning
(computer file, music on CD, results from a
blood gas analysis machine)
Signals are the electric or electromagnetic
encoding of data (telephone conversation, we
page download)
Data and signals can be analog or digital
this can be misleading lets talk more about
this

Signals Classifications
CT signals and DT Signals can be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Deterministic or Random
Periodic or aperiodic
Real or complex
Causal or noncausal
Even or Odd
Power or Energy Signals
8

Signals Classifications
1. Continuous-time
2. Discrete-time

Deterministic signals

Stochastic signals

Signals Classifications
1. Deterministic signals
Deterministic signals can be described by
explicit mathematical expression, a table
of data or a well defined rule.
All past, present and future values of the
signal are known precisely without any
uncertainty

10

Signals Classifications

2. Random signals (stochastic)

Random signals either can not be described to any
reasonable degree of accuracy by explicit mathematical
formula, or such a description is too complicated to be
of any practical use.
These signals evolve in time in unpredictable manner
Analysis and description of random signals needs
statistical techniques instead of explicit formulas.

11

Periodic and aperiodic signals

a) For Continuous-time signals

Periodic signals have the property that

x ( t + T ) = x ( t)
for all t.
The smallest value of T that satisfies the
definition is called the period.

an aperiodic signal
12

a periodic

Periodic and aperiodic signals (cont)

If T is the period of x(t), then x(t) =
x(t+mT) where m=0,1,2
The fundamental Period:
The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the
smallest possible value of T.

13

Periodic and aperiodic signals (cont)

Example:

The fundamental period of this square

wave signal is T = 4 , but 8, 12 and 16 are
also periods of the signal.

Periodic and aperiodic signals (cont)

b) For Discrete-time signals

Periodic signals have the property that

x[n+N] = x[n]
for all n.

an aperiodic signal
15

a periodic

Periodic and aperiodic signals

If N is the period of x[n], then x[n] =
x[n+mN] where m=0,1,2
The fundamental Period:
The fundamental period N0 of x[n] is the
smallest possible value of N.

16

Periodic and aperiodic signals (cont)

Example
Discrete-time signal x [n]= 1 is periodic with
fundamental period N = 1

17

Periodic and aperiodic signals (cont)

The opposite of a periodic signal is an aperiodic
signal. An aperiodic function never repeats,
although technically an aperiodic function can be
considered like a periodic function with an
infinite period.

Signals Classifications
1. Continuous-time
2. Discrete-time

Real signals

Complex signals

19

Real and complex signals

Signals can be real, imaginary, or complex.
An important class of signals are the
complex exponentials:
the CT signal x(t) = est where s is a complex
number,
the DT signal x[n] = z n where z is a
complex number.

20

Real and complex signals (cont)

Q. Why do we deal with complex signals?
A. They are often analytically simpler to deal
with than real signals.

21

Real and complex signals (cont)

22

Real and complex signals (cont)

e cos
jsin

23

Signals Classifications
1. Continuous-time
2. Discrete-time

Causal signals

Non causal signals

Anti causal signals

24

Causal and non-causal signals

a) CT signals
A causal Signal is zero for
t <0,

A non-causal signal has

a value for t<0 and t>0
An anti-causal signal
is zero for t >0
25

Causal and non-causal signals

b) DT signals
A causal Signal is zero
for n <0,

A non-causal signal has

a value for n<0
and n>0
An anti-causal signal
is zero for n>0

26

Signals Classifications
1. Continuous-time
2. Discrete-time

Bounded signals

unbounded signals

27

Bounded and Unbounded

signals (finite and infinite energy)

28

Signals Classifications
1. Continuous-time
2. Discrete-time

Even signals

Odd signals

29

Even and Odd Signals

CT signals
x(t) is even, if x(t)=x(-t)
x(t) is odd, if x(t)= -x(-t)
DT signals
x[n] is even, if x[n]=x[-n]

x[n] is odd, if x[n]=-x[-n]

30

Even and Odd Signals (cont)

The even part of any signal is:
Ev {x(t)} = (x(t)+x(-t))/2
Ev {x[n]} = (x[n]+x[-n])/2
The odd part of any signal is:
Od {x(t)} = (x(t)-x(-t))/2
Od {x[n]} = (x[n]-x[-n])/2
31

Even and Odd Signals (cont)

32

Signals Classifications
1. Continuous-time
2. Discrete-time

Energy signals

Power signals

33

Power and Energy Signals

Energy signal iff 0<E<, and so P=0.
examples:

0,
x(t) t
e ,

t 0
t 0

{
x
[
n
]}

...

1
,
1
,
1
,
1
,

1
,
1
...}

Power signal iff 0<P<, and so E=.

example:

x (t ) e

Neither energy nor power, when both

E and P are infinite.
34

Power and Energy of Signals

The energy of a signal is the
accumulation of absolute value of the
signal

T
2

lim
x
(
t
) dt
x
(
t
) dt

N
2

lim
x
[
n
]
x
[
n
]

35

Power and Energy of Signals

The Power of a signal is the average of
absolute value of the signal

1
E
2

lim
x
(
t
)
dt

lim

2
T
2
T

1
E
2

lim
x
[
n
]

lim
N

2
N

1
2
N

1
n

36

Signal Properties
All signals are composed of three
properties:
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase

3
7

Two signals with the same phase and frequency,

but different amplitudes

38

Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.

39

Two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but different frequencies

40

Units of period and frequency

41

Example
The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The period of this sine wave can
be determined as follows:

42

Example
The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from the
period (1 Hz = 103 kHz).

43

Note

Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time.
Change in a short span of time
means high frequency.
Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.
44

Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.

45

Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

46

Figure Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

47

Example
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and
radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is

48

The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

49

Example
The frequency domain is more compact and
useful when we are dealing with more than
one sine wave. For example, next figure
shows three sine waves, each with different
amplitude and frequency. All can be
represented by three spikes in the frequency
domain.

50

The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

3.51

Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and

frequency domains

3.52

Note

A single-frequency sine wave is not uselful

in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.

3.53

The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal, such someone

speaking into a microphone

3.54

Note

The bandwidth of a composite signal is the

difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.

3.55

Figure The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

Note: each
frequency is
identifiable

Note:
frequencies
are all over
the place

3.56

Example
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves
with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz,
what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum (range of
frequencies), assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see next figure Figure).
3.57

The bandwidth Example

3.58

Example
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200
kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have
an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the
highest at 140 kHz. Figure shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.
3.59

The bandwidth for Example

3.60

DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1
bit for each level.

3.61

Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels

3.62

Example
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are
needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

3.63

Example
Assume we need to download text documents at the
rate of 100 pages per seconds. A page is an average of
24 lines with 80 characters in each line. What is the
required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits, the bit rate is

3.64

Example
A digitized voice channel, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz
bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the
signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per
hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits.
What
is
the
required
bit
rate?
Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as

3.65

Example
What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?
Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality
video signals. The HDTV screen is normally a ratio of 16 :
9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the
screen is renewed 30 times per second. 24 bits
represents one color pixel.

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps

through compression.
3.66

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are
not perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment.
This means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three
causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and
noise.

3.67

Attenuation (the first impairment)

Attenuation (in some contexts also

called extinction) is the gradual loss in
intensity of any kind of signal through a
medium

3.68

Decibels
Signal strength is measured in decibels (dB)
dB is a relative measure of loss (or gain)
NdB = 10 x log10 (P2 / P1)
P2 = ending power level in watts
P1 = beginning power level in watts

Example: P1 = 10 watts, P2 = 5 watts

Losses and gains are additive

69

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR or S/N)

Signal to noise ratio shows the ratio of
signal power to noise power
Power often expressed in watts
S/N = signal power/noise power
Just a simple ratio

70

Signal to Noise RatiodB

(SNRdB or S/NdB)
Signal to noise ratiodB shows the ratio
of signal power to noise power in
decibels
S/NdB = 10 log10 (signal power/ noise
power)
Example 1: Signal power = 1000
watts, noise power = 20 mw
Example 2: Signal power = 100 w,
noise power = 0.000002w
71

Example

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure

the changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel
numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just
two. In the figure a signal travels from point 1 to point
4. In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as
3.72

Example
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a
cable with 0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the
power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 (0.3) = 1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as

3.73

Figure Distortion (the second impairment)

Distortion is the alteration of the original

shape (or other characteristic) of signal.

3.74

Figure Noise (the third impairment)

In communication systems, noise is an error

or undesired random disturbance of a useful
information signal in a communication
channel

3.75

Example
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the
noise is 1 W; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:
SNR =10,000 / 1 = 10,000
SNRdB = 10 log10(SNR)= 10 log10(10000) = 40

3.76

Example
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel
are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

3.77

Figure Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

3.78

Channel Capacity

(noise less channel)

Nyquist
Maximum data rate of a noiseless channel =
2 * F * log2(L) bps
Where F = frequency
L = the number of discrete levels

79

Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

3.80

Example
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a
signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

3.81

Example
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel
with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do
we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If
we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have
64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
3.82

Channel Capacity(which includes noise)

Shannon Maximum data rate (in bps) =
B x log2(1 + S/N)
B = bandwidth, or frequency
S = signal power in watts
N = noise power in watts (S/N = SNR)
Example: B = 3400 Hz, S = 0.2 w, N = 0.0002 w
Max data rate = 3400 x log2(1 + 1000)
= 3400 x 9.97
= 33898 bps

83

Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value
of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we
cannot receive any data through this channel.

3.84

Example
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
3.85

Example
The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.
Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2
MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be
calculated as

3.86

Example
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR
for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate
and signal level?
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper
limit.

3.87

Example

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.

For better performance we choose something lower, 4
Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
find the number of signal levels.

3.88

Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper

limit; the Nyquist formula tells us how many
signal levels we need.

3.89

Note

In networking, we use the term bandwidth in

two contexts.

3.90

The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to

the
range
of
frequencies
in
a
composite
signal
or
the
range
of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

The second, bandwidth in bits per

second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.

Example
As the bandwidth increases, so too can the data rate.
Stated another way, to transmit a high data rate, we
need a wide bandwidth.
OR
We need to use a signaling technique that has a high
number of signal levels.
The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or
data. The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem
to change the digital signal to analog.

3.91