Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Elaine Reese
Clark University
University of Otago
In line with theories that childrens pretend play reflects and extends their narrative skills, children with
imaginary companions were predicted to have better narrative skills than children without imaginary companions. Forty-eight 5-year-old children and their mothers participated in interviews about childrens imaginary companions. Children also completed language and narrative assessments. Twenty-three of the children
(48%) were deemed to have engaged in imaginary companion play. Children with and without imaginary
companions were similar in their vocabulary skills, but children with imaginary companions told richer narratives about a storybook and a personal experience compared to children without imaginary companions.
This finding supports theories of a connection between pretend play and storytelling by the end of early
childhood.
Imaginary companion play is captivating for children who engage in it, for parents who are surprised by it, and for developmental researchers
who want to understand it. Early research often
attributed imaginary companion play to psychopathology, personality defects, or deficiencies in social
skills (Ames & Learned, 1946; Svendsen, 1934).
Taylor (1999) argued that these early studies, taken
largely from clinical populations, were flawed
because they did not include comparison samples
from nonclinical populations. Indeed, contemporary wisdom is that imaginary companion play
may even offer some developmental benefits for
children (e.g., Bouldin & Pratt, 2002; Gleason, Sebanc, & Hartup, 2000; Taylor & Carlson, 1997). In
this study, we explore the potential developmental
benefits of imaginary companion play for childrens
narrative skills.
Traditionally, the definition of an imaginary
companion was restricted to repeated play with
an invisible other (Svendsen, 1934), but later the
definition of an imaginary companion expanded
to include certain instances of play with personiGabriel Trionfi is currently with IDEO.
The Marsden Fund of the Royal Society of New Zealand
funded this research. We thank Kathleen McMenamin, Smita Srivastava, and the members of the Language and Memory team
for data collection, transcription, and coding. Special thanks go
to Marjorie Taylor and Eric Amsel for their insights throughout
the project. We are also grateful to the families for sharing with
us their imaginary friends and their stories, both imagined and
real.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Elaine Reese, Psychology Department, University of Otago, P.O.
Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand. Electronic mail may be sent to
ereese@psy.otago.ac.nz.
1302
1303
with imaginary companions show stronger narrative skills, it is possible that children with imaginary companions will develop into stronger readers
in the elementary school years.
To explore our initial hypothesis that imaginary
companion play is linked to childrens narrative
skill, we drew upon measures from a larger longitudinal study of childrens language and socialcognitive development from ages 1 to 5 (see
Reese, 2002, for an overview of this study). At the
5-year data point, children and their parents participated in interviews about the childrens imaginary companions, past or present. Children also
completed two standardized language measures, a
measure of story understanding, and two narrative
production tasks at this same age. We hypothesized that children who engaged in imaginary
companion play would produce narratives that
were qualitatively richer and more detailed than
children who did not engage in imaginary companion play. Peterson and McCabe (1983), drawing upon Labov and Waletzkys (1967 1997) highpoint analysis, noted that a child narrators use of
orientations and evaluations could be used to classify the complexity and quality of a narrative. In
contrast to referential statements that simply tell
what happened in the story, orientations (to characters, time, and place) contextualize the story for
the listener, whereas evaluations (adjectives, emotions, and dialogue) emphasize meaning or high
points within the narrative. Both orientations and
evaluations in childrens narratives are positively
correlated with their later reading skill (Griffin
et al., 2004). We predicted that these individual
differences in narrative quality would be robust
and evident across the two contexts, whether or
not they involved an element of pretense. Finally,
we predicted that these differences in narrative
skill would still be evident even when we controlled for potential differences in the vocabulary
levels of children with and without imaginary
companions.
Method
Participants
All participants were part of a larger longitudinal study conducted in New Zealand (see Reese,
2002, for more details). Participants included 48
motherchild dyads (24 males and 24 females)
recruited initially by posting fliers on community
notice boards and contacting parents through
public birth records. Data for this study were taken
1304
1305
1306
Results
Analysis of the imaginary companion interviews
identified 23 of the 48 children in this study as having an imaginary companion (48% of the sample).
These childrens imaginary companions were identified in the following manner: Eight were reported
by children only (35% of the imaginary companion
sample), nine by mothers only (39% of the imaginary companion sample), and six by both mother
and child (26% of the imaginary companion sam-
SD
With IC
(n = 23)
M
SD
Vocabulary
t(46)
PPVTIII
106.32 10.62 105.22 14.45 )0.30 0.09
EVT
106.71 12.41 106.13 12.46 )0.16 0.05
Story comprehension
9.15 2.85
9.02 2.73 )0.16 0.05
Story retelling
Memory units
10.60 4.30 15.57 12.54 1.87 0.50
Narrative quality
2.76 2.49
9.43 14.61 2.25* 0.64
Narrative score
0.22 0.18
0.51 0.42 3.10* 0.90
Past event narratives
Memory units
10.36 7.36 11.22 9.57 0.35 0.10
Narrative quality
8.6
6.6
10.65 8.70 0.92 0.27
Narrative score
0.79 0.23
0.97 0.36 2.02* 0.60
Note. PPVTIII = Peabody Picture
EVT = Expressive Vocabulary Test.
*p < .05.
1307
Test
III;
Table 2
Story Retelling Narrative Subcategory Scores for Participants Without
Imaginary Companions (No IC) and With Imaginary Companions
(With IC)
No IC
(n = 25)
Descriptors
Dialogue
Characters
Temporallocative
causal
Verbatim recall
*p < .05.
With IC
(n = 23)
SD
SD
t(46)
0.17
0.02
0.14
0.01
0.38
0.05
0.10
0.03
0.36
0.09
0.23
0.03
0.58
0.14
0.30
0.70
1.35
2.23*
1.35
0.95
0.39
0.63
0.38
0.29
0.02
0.07
0.11
0.27
1.57
0.44
1308
Descriptors
Dialogue
Characters
Temporallocative
causal
*p < .05.
With IC
(n = 23)
SD
SD
t(46)
0.58
0.01
0.11
0.09
0.20
0.03
0.15
0.12
0.63
0.03
0.12
0.18
0.29
0.08
0.20
0.17
0.73
1.07
0.32
2.02*
0.21
0.31
0.09
0.58
.004
SE
0.003
nR2
.18
.02
).16
0.07
).32
.21**
.18
0.06
.37
.12**
1309
narrative score along a continuum of social interaction possibilities, from those children without imaginary companions (n = 25), to those children with
imaginary companions of which only the child had
knowledge (child knowledge; n = 8), to those children whose mothers knew about their imaginary
companions (mother knowledge; n = 15). Only children with imaginary companions could benefit
from social interactions with those companions, but
children whose mothers know about their imaginary companions may have an added source of
social interactions about the companion.
We used nonparametric analyses to test this prediction due to the small number of children with
child-knowledge-only imaginary companions. A
KruskalWallis test indicated a significant difference in childrens narrative scores as a function of
social-interaction possibilities, v2(2, N = 48) = 12.85,
p < .002. On their overall narrative scores, children
without imaginary companions had a mean rank of
18.38, children with child-knowledge-only imaginary companions had a mean rank of 24.38, and
children with mother-knowledge imaginary companions had a mean rank of 34.77. A follow-up
MannWhitney U test indicated a significant difference in the narrative scores of children with
mother-knowledge imaginary companions and children without imaginary companions (Z = )3.74,
p < .01). Children with child-knowledge-only companions did not differ significantly from either
group in their narrative scores.
Discussion
The main finding of this study was that 5-yearold children who currently or previously engaged
in imaginary companion play had more advanced
narrative skills than children who did not engage
in this type of play. Although children in the two
groups did not differ significantly in their vocabulary skills or in their story understanding, the children with imaginary companions told richer stories
in two different contexts compared to children
without imaginary companions. Firstborns also told
richer narratives than laterborns, but imaginary
companion play uniquely predicted childrens
narrative skill, even after accounting for birth
order and vocabulary skill. These findings add to
the growing body of evidence that imaginary
companion play is associated positively with childrens linguistic and social-cognitive development
(Bouldin et al., 2002; Singer & Singer, 1990; Taylor
& Carlson, 1997). These findings also fit well with
1310
found that parents descriptions of imaginary companions reached a higher level of agreement if a
childs imaginary companion was a classically
invisible rather than a personified object. Gleason
theorized that intangibility of invisible friends
may promote better efforts by parents to learn
about or to describe their childrens invisible
friends. Parents can see personified objects and
might even hear their children interacting with
them, meaning that neither parent nor child may
think to discuss a personified objects age or activities because both witness its existence (p. 211).
Recording actual conversations of this sort would
confirm their occurrence beyond the anecdotal
report of parents. It would also provide conversational evidence that could be used to support our
theory regarding childrens increased use of
decontextualized language when speaking about
their imaginary companions.
This stance echoes other theorists positions that
the developmental benefits of play are not solely a
result of engagement in play activities, but play can
also promote secondary interactions with added
developmental benefits (Pellegrini & Galda, 1993).
Although it would be difficult to execute such a
study, collecting childrens spontaneous narratives
about their imaginary companions would allow for
the elaboration of the proposed theory and potentially reveal how parents influence the development
of these childrens higher order language practices.
In previous analyses with this sample (e.g.,
Cleveland & Reese, 2005; Farrant & Reese, 2000), as
well as in other samples (e.g., Haden, Haine, &
Fivush, 1997), parents who adopt an elaborative,
open-ended questioning style during reminiscing
have children with stronger personal narrative
skills. A next step in our research program will be
to explore a range of parentchild storytelling practices in early childhood that support childrens
imaginary companion play and their narrative
skills. Given the enriched language environment
for firstborns (e.g., Jones & Adamson, 1987), parentchild storytelling practices may also help us
understand the higher incidence of imaginary companions and better narrative skills for firstborns in
our study. Once again, however, we found that the
link between imaginary companion status and narrative was independent of childrens birth order. A
richer language environment for firstborns cannot
completely account for our findings.
Because our main finding is limited to a concurrent correlation between childrens imaginary companion play and their narrative skills, however,
there is always the possibility that children with
1311
better language or narrative skills are driven to create an imaginary companion as an outlet for their
verbal expression, or that a third variable can
account for this relation. Although we have ruled
out childrens vocabulary skills in accounting for
the relation we found between imaginary companions and narrative, other potential candidates are
childrens personality characteristics or their perspective-taking skills. In earlier time points from
this longitudinal study, we found no unique relations between childrens early temperament at ages
13 and their imaginary companion play at age
5 once birth order had been taken into account
(McMenamin, 2000). Nor did we find any significant links between childrens earlier language or
understanding of mind at ages 3 and 4 years and
their imaginary companion play at age 5. These
null findings mirror those of Taylor et al. (2004),
the only other study to explore older childrens
imaginary companions in depth. In that study, childrens imaginary companion play at ages 67 was
not predicted by their earlier characteristics or theory of mind, nor was imaginary companion play
correlated with concurrent personality and emotion
understanding. It is possible that the imaginary
companions of older children arise through different processes and for different reasons from the
imaginary companions of early childhood. Taken
together with Taylor et al.s results, we propose
that imaginary companion play arises from a more
general predilection for fantasy. The reason that
different correlates of imaginary companion play
are found at different ages could result from the
necessary skills to support fantasy at that age (e.g.,
perspective-taking at younger ages and complex
storytelling at older ages). The developmental outcomes of engaging in imaginary companion play
at different ages could also be expected to differ.
Longitudinal research on imaginary companion
play and narrative in the early elementary school
years is needed to tease apart cause and effect in
this relation.
We acknowledge several other limitations to this
study. Our sample was relatively small, and we
were unable to conduct the more stringent doubleinterview process for identifying children with
imaginary companions (Taylor & Carlson, 1997;
although see Taylor et al., 2004). Despite these limitations, we were able to replicate several findings
from previous research on imaginary companion
play. For instance, our identified rate of 48% of 5year-old children with past or present imaginary
companions is in line with Taylor et al.s
(2004) identification of 49% in a sample of 6- to
1312
7-year-olds, and with Pearson et al.s (2001) identification of 46.2% in a sample of 5- to 12-year-olds.
Also similar to Taylor et al.s research with older
children, we found no significant gender difference
in the incidence of imaginary companions in our
school-age sample (but see Pearson et al., 2001). As
in other studies, there was no difference in the
mothers education levels as a function of their childrens imaginary companion play (e.g., Bouldin &
Pratt, 1999). Finally, similar to other studies, the
majority of the children in our study with imaginary companions were firstborns (e.g., Bouldin &
Pratt, 1999; Gleason et al., 2000).
In conclusion, this work reveals a connection
between childrens engagement in imaginary companion play and the qualitatively richer stories that
children tell about fictional and personally experienced events. The value of this finding is threefold.
First, this finding extends our understanding of
imaginary companion play and its developmental
correlates. Second, this finding deepens the literature on the theoretical relation between play and
language. Third, this finding highlights childrens
engagement in play as an important factor to consider in understanding their developing narrative
skill, which in turn is critical for childrens reading
skill.
References
Ames, L. B., & Learned, J. (1946). Imaginary companions
and related phenomena. Journal of Genetic Psychology,
69, 147167.
Baumer, S., Ferholt, B., & Lecusay, R. (2005). Promoting
narrative competence through adult-child joint pretense: Lessons from the Scandinavian educational practice of playworld. Cognitive Development, 20, 576590.
Bouldin, P. (2006). An investigation of the fantasy
predisposition and fantasy style of children with
imaginary companions. Journal of Genetic Psychology,
167, 1729.
Bouldin, P., Bavin, E. L., & Pratt, C. (2002). An investigation of the verbal abilities of children with imaginary
companions. First Language, 22, 249264.
Bouldin, P., & Pratt, C. (1999). Characteristics of preschool and school-age children with imaginary companions. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 160, 397410.
Bouldin, P., & Pratt, C. (2002). A systematic assessment of
the specific fears, anxiety level, and temperament of
children with imaginary companions. Australian Journal
of Psychology, 54, 7985.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
1313