Study on the microclimate condition along

a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore

Nyuk Hien Wong and Steve Kardinal Jusuf*
Department of Building, National University of Singapore, 4 Architecture Drive, Singapore 117566, Singapore

The research on urban canyons in the tropics is still very limited. Currently, the research focus has been on the temperate
climate, especially in the development of the urban canyon temperature prediction model. In the Singapore context, the
cooling impacts of greenery in the form of parks and rooftop gardens have been well established. However, the cooling effects
within the different green canyon forms have not yet been explored. Experimental data were therefore collected in this study to
examine the issues. Firstly, the microclimate condition and the thermal effects along two pedestrian canyons with different
greenery and building distribution conditions were investigated. The results show that the cooling effects inside the canyons
vary as a function of vegetation cover and shading effect from trees and buildings. Planting vegetation within the canyon can
be an effective passive measure to improve the microclimatic condition. Secondly, pedestrian thermal comfort was also cal-
culated. The calculated mean radiant temperature and physiologically equivalent temperature show that mature trees are able
to provide thermal comfort to the pedestrian due to their ability to provide sufficient shading.

Keywords: Green pedestrian canyon; impact of trees; microclimate condition; outdoor thermal comfort; Singapore

the cluster of trees demonstrated that, on average, there is a

INTRODUCTION
Rapid urbanization is taking place and 61% of the worlds
population is projected to live in cities and towns by 2030
(United Nations, 1997). Increasing urbanization has turned
cities into densely populated urban areas with less trees,
more roads and more buildings. The loss of vegetations
and their replacements with buildings or pavements increase
the heat storage in the ground layer and building fabrics, con-
tributing to the urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon (Oke,
1982). This phenomenon has become a rising concern to
the quality of the urban environment.
It is evident from the past studies that planting of vege-
tation in urban areas is the simplest and most effective
way of cooling the air temperature. From infrared photo-
graphs, it can be seen that large parks appear as cold
spots, indicating their ability to mitigate the UHI effect
(Forsyth and Musacchio, 2005). A preliminary study on 61
city parks in Taiwan has shown that urban parks have a
lower average air temperature than the surroundings of
0.81K at noon in the summer (Chang, 2007). Streiling and
Matzarakis (2003) investigated the influence of single and
small cluster groups of trees on the bioclimatic condition
of the city. Between the areas with trees and without trees,
the maximum air temperature difference was 2.2K. The
mean differences of the air temperature were 1.0 and 0.9K,
respectively. The differences between the single tree and
0.1K higher air temperature detectable under the single tree
than under the cluster of tree crowns. The maximum differ-
ences of 30.8 and 34.1K in TMRT were found between places
that were heavy and lightly influenced by trees. The
maximum mean differences are 19.3 and 21.0K, respect-
ively. The physiologically equivalent temperature (PET)
showed maximum differences of 17.6 and 16.6K, whereas
in relation to the mean values, there were maximum differ-
ences of 7.5 and 9.9K.
In the Singapore context, Chen and Wong (2006) investi-
gated the cooling impacts of greenery in the form of parks.
Through a field measurement, the built environment,
located close to a park, has a lower average air temperature
of 1.3K. Thus, the more the parks that are built in an urban
area, the lower the urban air temperature. The results
derived from the traffic analysis and simulation showed
that every 1K air temperature reduction lowers the cooling
energy consumption by 5%. The air temperatures measured
inside the parks also have a strong relationship with the
density of plants, since plants with higher leaf area indexes
(LAIs) may cause lower ambient temperatures.
The shade of trees can also be an effective passive method
of solar control for buildings (Papadakis et al., 2001). The
radiative and thermal loads in the area shaded with high
trees were significantly lower than those of the non-shaded
area. Vegetation, when properly located and arranged, can

*Corresponding author: Email: stevekj@nus.edu.sg

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doi:10.3763/asre.2009.0029 #2010 Earthscan ISSN: 0003-8628 (print), 1758-9622 (online) www.earthscan.co.uk/journals/asre
 Study on the microclimate condition along a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore 197
provide maximum cooling and reduce the outdoor air temp-
erature by up to 2.7K (Parker, 1983).
Wong et al. (2002) studied the impact of intensive and
extensive rooftop greenery on buildings and on the environ-
ment in Singapore. Rooftop greenery can provide benefits
not only to the building, but also to the environments
ambient temperature condition. With an intensive system,
the surface temperature may be reduced by up to 31K and
the ambient temperature at 1m may be reduced by up to
1.5K. The impact of rooftop greenery is clearer for a metal
roof. Without plants, the surface temperature of the metal
roof can be up to 60 708C during daytime and lower than
20K at night-time. With plants, it ranges only from 248C
to 328C. The benefits of reducing the surface temperature
by greenery can be observed from the mean surface tempera-
ture differences between the hard metal surface and those
below the plants. They are 4.7, 1.9 and 1.4K with the pres-
ence of dense plants, sparse plants and weed, respectively.
However, in urban areas, having large greenery areas may
be a constraint. As a result, the microclimatic conditions in
these canyons become the most crucial element in influen-
cing the citys overall climate (Shashua-Bar and Hoffman,
2004). A city with various land uses may comprise warm
and cold areas as a result of distinct urban land use
change. The change between park and built-up area can
produce urban air temperature differences up to 7K
(Spronken-Smith, 1998).
Toudert (2005) studied different street designs to improve
outdoor thermal comfort in the hot and dry climate of
Ghardia, Algeria and in the temperate climate of Freiburg,
Germany. The study found that wide streets (H/W  0.5)
are not favourable for either E W or N S street orientation.
However, N S orientation has some advantages and its
benefit increases as the aspect ratio (H/W) increases.
Shashua-Bar and Hoffman (2004) found similar findings in
their microclimatic study of urban streets and courtyards
with trees. Increasing the building height from 12 to 24m
reduces the air temperature by 1.5K in a street or a courtyard
24m wide. The cooling effect in the N S street orientation is
slightly stronger, about 0.64K, than that in the E W orien-
tation in the H/W 1.0 cluster with high albedo. Another
study in a hot and dry climate (Johansson, 2006) also con-
cluded that a deep canyon is favourable to providing shade
in the summer, cooler by as much as 10K during the
hottest period, as compared to a shallow canyon.
In addition to canyon geometry, materials and orientation,
researchers have also been interested in vegetation as a
climate component in urban street design. Shashua-Bar and
Hoffman (2000) studied the cooling effect of 11 small
urban green sites with trees in Tel-Aviv, Israel. Tree
shading provided an average of a 3K cooling effect at noon-
time, while the specific cooling effect of the site due to its
geometry and tree characteristics, besides the shading, was
found to be relatively small at about 0.5K.
Many researchers have explored the climatic impact of
vegetation and small green areas on either building energy
or various canyon types. However, similar studies in tropical
climates are rather limited and the cooling effects within the
different green canyon forms have not been explored. This
study will look into this aspect of work with the aim of pro-
viding a better understanding of the microclimatic environ-
ment in these canyons. This article involves two aspects of
study: (i) investigation of the microclimatic condition of
two different pedestrian canyons and (ii) the cooling effect
inside the canyons, including canyon ability to provide
thermal comfort to pedestrians.
CLIMATE OF SINGAPORE1
Located between latitudes 18090 N and 18290 N and longitudes
1038360 E and 1048250 E, Singapore can be classified as
having a hot humid climate. Uniform high air temperatures,
humidity and rainfall throughout the year characterize the
climate. The diurnal temperature variations are small with
the range for minimum and maximum air temperatures of
23 268C and 31 348C, respectively. The mean annual air
temperature was 27.48C between the period 1982 and 2001.
Relative humidity (RH) is generally high and although it
invariably exceeds 90% in the early hours of the morning just
before sunrise, it frequently falls to 60% during the after-
noons when there is no rain. During the prolonged heavy
rains, RH often reaches 100%. Between the period 1982
and 2001, the mean annual RH was 83.5%.
There are two main seasons in Singapore: northeast (NE)
monsoon and southwest (SW) monsoon seasons. The NE
monsoon occurs between November and early March, with
the prevailing wind blowing from north to northeast. Mean-
while, the SW monsoon occurs between June and Septem-
ber, with the prevailing wind blowing from south to
southwest. Two short inter-monsoon periods with a duration
of two months separate the main seasons.
There is no clear distinct wet or dry season as rainfall
occurs throughout the year. However, the NE monsoon
season is considered as wet weather, since the wind is gener-
ally cool and brings frequent spells of wet weather at about
48% of total annual rainfall. On the other hand, the SW
monsoon wind brings about 36% of total annual rainfall.
METHODOLOGY
Object of study
The National University of Singapore (NUS) campus
complex can be considered as a city on a smaller scale
(Figure 1). From the estate-wide air temperature measure-
ment (Wong et al., 2007a, b), daytime heat island intensity
(4K) was found to be higher than night-time heat island
intensity (3K). Prince George Park Residence (PGP) is one
of the hottest areas in the NUS campus due to its high-
density building arrangement and less greenery.
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198 Wong and Jusuf

Figure 1 | Measurement points at the ENG (see Table 1 for the detailed equipment)

Two different characteristics of pedestrian canyons, in the enclosed between two blocks of four-storey-high buildings
Faculty of Engineering (ENG) and the PGP of NUS, were (Figure 1). The average H/W was 1.3. The site was predomin-
selected for the measurements. The first canyon was situated antly mature trees and they covered the canyon extensively.
in ENG, between the E4 and E5 buildings. It was 14m wide, The second canyon was in PGP . It was on average 13m wide

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 Study on the microclimate condition along a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore 199

with 7 13-storey-high residential buildings adjoining it canopy height of trees and shrubs as compared to the
(Figure 2). The calculated average H/W was 1.7. The canyon sidewalk at ENG. Both locations had the same
canyon had a relatively young and moderate or low NW SE orientation.

Figure 2 | Measurement points at the PGP (see Table 1 for the detailed equipment)

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200 Wong and Jusuf

Table 1 | Measurement equipment and parameters

Symbol Parameter Equipment Accuracy Sensor Logging
height interval
Air temperature and RH HOBO H08-003-02 +0.28C at 1.8m 1min, averaged
(Continuous) 218C to 1h data
Ground surface temperature T-type thermocouple +1.58C On 1min, averaged
(Continuous) wire and HOBO U12-014 surface to 1h data
Wind speed/direction inside S-WCA-M003 wind speed +0.5m/s 1.8m 1min, averaged
canyon and solar radiation and direction sensors +10W/ 1.8m to 1h data
below tree (Continuous) Silicon pyranometer # m2 1min, averaged
S-LIB-M003 to 1h data
Complete weather stations HOBO weather station 1.8m 1min, averaged
(Continuous) to 1h data

Field measurements
Field measurements were carried out from 17 July to 20
October 2007. Table 1 and Figure 3 show the complete
measured parameters and equipment. All the meteorological
equipment was calibrated for a few days in a controlled
environment.
Microclimate condition inside the canyon
Figures 1 and 2 show the various measured parameters and
the locations of measurement points in both locations. At
ENG, there were eight measurement points stretching over
an approximate length of 135m. Points 1 5 were placed
within the canyon, while Points 6 8 were placed outside
it. At PGP Residences, there were seven measurement
points installed over a span of 125m.
Meanwhile, HOBO weather stations (WS 1) were put on a
nearby (within 100m) open place with minimal effect from the
canyon and greenery. The WSs recorded the weather data,
which included air temperature, RH, solar radiation and wind
Figure 3 | Weather station at reference point (left) and HOBO
on the lamppost for temperature/RH measurement inside the
canyon (right)
speed/direction. These WSs served as reference points for the
respective canyons and were configured to measure at 1-min
intervals. Other HOBO weather stations (WS 2) were put in
the middle of the canyon, mainly to measure wind speed/direc-
tion and solar radiation at pedestrian level inside the canyon.
NUS weather station (NUS WS)
Meteorological data from the NUS WS were also collected to
obtain the climatic data above the canyons. The WS is
located on the rooftop of a building in the ENG and main-
tained by the Department of Geography (2008), NUS.
Calculation of mean radiant temperature (MRT)
and PET
To study the performance of two different characteristics of
canyons in providing thermal comfort to the pedestrian, a
thermal comfort index, PET, was calculated. PET is
defined to be equivalent to the air temperature that is required
to reproduce, in a standardized indoor setting and for a stan-
dardized person, the core and skin temperatures that are
observed under the conditions being assessed (Hoppe,
1999). Hoppe developed PET based on the Munich energy-
balance model for individuals (MEMI), which models the
thermal conditions of the human body in a physiologically
relevant way. This model is a modification of Fangers
indoor thermal comfort indices predicted mean vote and
predicted percentage dissatisfied, so that it is applicable
to the outdoor conditions by assigning appropriate par-
ameters to adjust the model with a much more complex
outdoor radiation condition. The MEMI model is based on
the energy balance Equation (1) for the human body,
where the unit of all heat flows is in Watt:
M W R C ED ERe ESw S 0 1
where M is the metabolic rate (internal energy production);
W is the physical work output; R is the net radiation of the
body; C is the convective heat flow; ED is the latent heat
flow to evaporate water diffusing through the skin (imper-
ceptible perspiration); ERe is the sum of heat flows for

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 Study on the microclimate condition along a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore 201
heating and humidifying the inspired air; ESw is the heat flow
due to evaporation of sweat and S is the storage heat flow for
heating or cooling the body mass.
The individual heat flows in Equation (1) are controlled
by the following meteorological parameters (Hoppe, 1999):
air temperature: C, ERe
humidity: ED, ERe, ESw
wind velocity: C, ESw
mean radiant temperature: R.
PET has been used in many outdoor thermal comfort studies
(Matzarakis et al., 1999, Spagnolo and de Dear, 2003) and is
sufficient for use in a comparison study of thermal comfort in
tropical climate canyons (Johansson and Emmanuel, 2006).
Another important parameter to determine thermal
comfort is MRT, especially in outdoor conditions, and
solar radiation intensity is the main climatic parameter that
influences the MRT value. RayMan 1.2 software (Matzara-
kis et al., 2000) was used to calculate the MRT and PET
values of the ENG and PGP canyons.
To calculate the MRT and PET values inside the canyon,
solar radiation below tree data was used rather than solar
radiation at the reference points from the respective
canyons. The tree in the obstacle menu of RayMan 1.2 soft-
ware serves as a parameter to calculate the sky view factor
(SVF) value. It is important to note that using the reference
points solar radiation data will present a misleading MRT
and PET value for the ENG canyon that has mature trees
fully covering its canyon. It will provide high MRT and
PET values, which to the contrary is not the case.
The PET threshold value of 338C was used as the upper
limit value to achieve outdoor thermal comfort, borrowed
from the Dhaka outdoor thermal comfort zone (Ahmed,
2003). Johansson and Emmanuel (2006) used this method,
since there is no established outdoor thermal comfort zone
for tropical climate. In the Singapore context, Dhakas
PET threshold value is probably too high, since Singapore
has a greener environment and less pollution, which may
give a higher tolerance for Singapores inhabitants towards
hot and humid climate conditions.
For the subject parameters, light trousers and short-
sleeved clothing of 0.5clo were used and activity of 115W
was set as walking at a speed of 0.89m/s (ASHRAE,
1989). The other climatic parameters (air temperature, RH,
wind speed, solar radiation) were structured as the average
of 24-hour data on selected hot days.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The data analysis focuses on fairly clear and hot weather
conditions, selected by analysing the solar radiation and air
Table 2 | Selected days of fairly clear and hot weather condition (total 20 days)
July August
Selected dates - 2, 5, 6, 7, 11, 25
temperature data. Table 2 shows the selected dates for the
analysis.
Microclimatic condition inside the canyons
Air temperature
Before discussing the air temperature profile inside the
canyon, the background air temperature of the respective
canyons was studied (see Figure 4). On the typical hot
days 5 6 August 2008, from morning until noontime, the
ENG site has slightly higher air temperature than the PGP
site and it remains higher until around 19.00 hours,
whereas the PGP site is warmer until around 08.00 hours.
The heat storage flux in the ground during this period is
negative and it gives heat to the surface after 16.00 hours,
which is greater in the PGP site than in the ENG site since
the PGP site is characterized by high-density building
arrangement and less greenery (Hamdi and Schayes, 2005).
The air temperature difference between NUS WS and both
canyons reference points (WS 1) is larger during daytime
than at night-time. As mentioned, NUS WS was located on
the engineering building rooftop, where the wind speed is
higher than at the ground level and the prevailing wind direc-
tion was relatively perpendicular to canyon orientation (see
the Wind section below). Hence, during daytime, the wind
shear provides a more cooling effect at the rooftop level as
compared to the ground level. Meanwhile, during night-time
when there is no solar radiation, the thermal properties of the
building fabrics and the pavement generate the temperature
difference (Arnfield, 2003).
The average air temperatures of all the measurement
points inside the ENG (Points 1 5) and PGP (Points 1 7)
canyons are shown in Figure 5 together with their respective
reference point to show the average air temperature condition
along the canyon. The air temperature inside the ENG
canyon is lower around 0.7 1.1K as compared to the PGP
site during daytime and maintains its coolness at about
0.4 0.5K during night-time. The mature trees planted
along the ENG canyon provide very good shading to the ped-
estrian walkway (see Figure 1 as compared to Figure 2).
Shashua-Bar and Hoffman (2000) also found that higher
tree canopies reduce the heating effect from the surrounding
environment through the shading effect.
It is very clear from Figure 5 that the air temperature
inside the ENG canyon is lower than its reference point.
Meanwhile, the condition is reversed in the PGP site where
young palm trees dominate its canyon. These palm trees
are not able to provide sufficient shading and cooling to
the environment due to the condition of their leaves. The
LAI value is only 2.2 as compared to 5.3, the mature trees
in the ENG site. The time shift of peak air temperature is
September October
5, 9, 13, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 28, 30 3, 4, 5, 6
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202 Wong and Jusuf

Figure 4 | Temperature condition at ENG, PGP reference point (WS 1) and NUS WS

Figure 5 | Average air temperature (20 hot days) of all the measurement points inside the ENG and PGP canyons as compared
to ENG, PGP reference point (WS 1) and NUS WS during the period between 17 July and 20 October 2007

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 Study on the microclimate condition along a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore 203
Figure 6 | Average RH of all the measurement points inside the ENG and PGP canyons on clear hot days between 17 July and
20 October 2007
probably due to differentiation of solar reception inside the
canyon. The air temperature in the ENG site is at the
maximum at 15.00 hours, while at the PGP site
the maximum is at 14.00 hours. It can be concluded that
the maximum air temperature at different sites may not
occur at the same time. There is a strong influence from
the sites specific characteristics, such as canyon geometry
and the existence and density of greenery.
Relative humidity
In the early morning, the RH on both sites is relatively
similar to the average of around 82% (see Figure 6). The
RH difference is then becoming larger when the sun starts
rising and reaching its maximum around 15.00 hours when
the ENG site is 5% higher. This can be explained by the
fact that PGP, on average, has a higher air temperature and
less greenery.
Solar radiation below tree and surface temperature
The solar radiation inside the PGP canyon is higher as com-
pared to the ENG canyon (see Figure 7). Although both the
solar sensors were placed below the tree, it shows that palm
trees, which dominate the PGP canyon, are not able to
provide sufficient shading. The trees leaves density has a
strong correlation with the trees ability to intercept solar
radiation that is described in Beers law (Jones, 1992). The
sudden drop in the solar radiation intensity at the PGP site
and the increase at the ENG site at 14.00 hours are mainly
due to the positioning of the solar radiation sensors. At
14.00 hours, at the PGP site, multiple layers of palm
leaves coincidentally blocked the solar radiation. Similarly,
at the ENG site, the solar radiation was able to penetrate
through the gap between mature trees.
The ground surface temperature at the PGP site is higher,
on average, by 2K as compared to the ground surface temp-
erature at the ENG site (Figure 8). This is because the solar
radiation received by the PGP canyon is higher. However,
this surface temperature is not as high as compared to the
bare asphalt surface, which can reach a maximum surface
temperature up to 618C (Santamouris, 2001). The pavement
of the PGP site is made from yellow sandstone, which is con-
sidered as a light colour. A light colour pavement has been
proved to have a lower surface temperature, since it helps
to reflect the heat (Doulos et al., 2004). The measured
average solar reflectivity from the ENG pavement is 0.25
as compared to 0.3 in the PGP site. However, the high reflec-
tivity of a sandstone pavement reduces the visual comfort of
pedestrians.
The ground surface temperature in the ENG site is similar
to the ambient air temperature, although the pavement is
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204 Wong and Jusuf

Figure 7 | Average solar radiation below tree (20 hot days) measured at point WS 2 in the ENG and PGP canyons during the
period between 17 July and 20 October 2007

Figure 8 | Average ground surface temperature inside the ENG and PGP canyons (20 hot days) during the period between 17
July and 20 October 2007

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 Study on the microclimate condition along a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore 205
made of black pebble stone. This is because the mature trees
can provide very good shading. Meanwhile, in the PGP site,
the ground surface temperature can be up to 2K higher as
compared to the ambient temperature. With a higher
surface temperature, the thermal comfort of pedestrians can
be affected due to a higher mean radiant temperature
(Johansson and Emmanuel, 2006).
Wind
In Figure 9, the average wind speed over the 20 hot days is
between 1.0 and 4.0m/s measured at the NUS WS (rooftop).
Meanwhile, the wind speed at the pedestrian level is low, less
than 1.5m/s during daytime and less than 0.5m/s during
night-time. The graph also shows a pattern in which the
wind speed starts to increase at 09.00 hours and reaches its
maximum speed at 15.00 hours. The ENG reference point
(WS 1) has the lowest average wind speed due to its location,
surrounded by some mature trees and building blocks, which
prevents it from prevailing wind blow most of the time,
although the location was relatively open to the sky. On
average, the wind speed inside the ENG canyon is lower
than inside the PGP canyon. The dense greenery inside the
ENG canyon is believed to reduce the wind speed that
passed through inside the canyon. Trees are able not only
Figure 9 | Average wind speed (20 hot days) in ENG, PGP and NUS WS (20 hot days) during the period between 17 July and
20 October 2007
to provide shading, but also to block and redirect wind direc-
tion (Olgyay, 1992).
Figure 10 shows that the prevailing wind direction during
the period of measurement came from the southern and
southeastern directions, relatively perpendicular to the
canyons orientation, where around 22% was calm wind
(0.5 2.1m/s). The wind inside the ENG canyon followed
the canyon orientation. The wind blew in a direction from
Point 1 to Point 5. This is understandable because the area
outside the canyon edge in Point 1 is an open space, which
has a higher altitude than the other side of the canyon
Meanwhile, the observation found inside the ENG canyon
is different from that inside the PGP canyon. In the PGP
canyon, the wind direction follows the southern prevailing
wind direction. The position of WS 2 for wind measurement
was located in a small open space in the middle of the canyon
(see Figure 2). Hence, the wind direction at this location was
not influenced by the canyon orientation as in the ENG
canyon.
Calculated MRT and PET values
Figures 11 and 12 show the calculated MRT and PET values
inside the ENG and PGP canyons and their respective refer-
ence points. The representative point for the ENG canyon is
Point 3 (ENG 3) located in the middle of the canyon and
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206 Wong and Jusuf

Figure 10 | Wind speed and prevailing wind (blowing from) direction in ENG, PGP and NUS WS

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 Study on the microclimate condition along a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore 207

Figure 11 | Calculated MRT inside the ENG and PGP canyons and its respective reference point on selected clear hot days

Figure 12 | Calculated PET value inside the ENG and PGP canyons and its respective reference point on selected clear hot
days

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208 Wong and Jusuf
fully covered below by mature trees and that for the PGP
caynon is Point 3 located in the middle of the canyon
under a young palm tree. As mentioned in the methodology,
the calculation made use of the solar radiation data below
the trees. Consequently, for the PGP canyon, the calculated
MRT and PET values for a subject who walks along the
PGP canyon were expected to be higher, close to the value
of the PGP reference point value, since young palm trees
are not able to fully cover the canyons and high solar radi-
ation intensity inside the canyon can be expected.
The calculated MRT-ENG 3 value is lower than the
MRT-PGP 3 one (see Figure 11). The young palm tree is
not able to provide shading to the subject as compared to
the mature tree. On the other hand, the MRT of the
ENG reference point is slightly higher than the PGP refer-
ence point due to a higher SVF value (0.91 compared to
0.86).
The calculated PET value inside the ENG and PGP
canyons is shown in Figure 12. At the ENG canyon, the
mature trees are able to provide thermal comfort at almost
all daytime hours, except at 14.00 hours, when the solar radi-
ation penetrated in between the trees. On the other hand,
young palm trees in the PGP canyon are not able to
provide comfort to pedestrians due to their less dense leave
characteristics.
Figure 13 | Averaged cooling effect (20 hot days) measured at points inside the canyon in the ENG site
ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE REVIEW
Cooling effect of greenery along the canyon
In this section, the air temperature behaviour in each
measurement point along the canyon and the cooling effect
of greenery are discussed. The cooling effect of each
measurement point was calculated by the subtraction of the
air temperature at respective points with the reference point.
At the ENG site
To determine the time of maximum cooling effect occur-
rence inside the canyon, the cooling effect profiles of
each measurement point were plotted against the 24h time-
line (see Figure 13). This shows that at most of the
points, especially points inside the canyon (Points 1 5),
the maximum cooling effect occurs twice a day, in the
morning at 11.00 hours and in the afternoon at 15.00
hours. This phenomenon is different from the findings of
Shashua-Bar and Hoffman (2000), who describe in the
methodology that the maximum cooling effect occurred
only at 15.00 hours, which coincided with the maximum
daily air temperature in Tel-Aviv, Israel. For Points 5
and 6, the maximum cooling effect occurred only once in
the morning at around 10.00 hours, while in the afternoon
the cooling effect was negligible. These Points 5 and 6
were located at the edge of the canyon and outside the
canyon, respectively, where there is less shading from
 Study on the microclimate condition along a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore 209
Figure 14 | Averaged cooling effect (20 hot days) measured at different points in the ENG site
the greenery, and it was observed that anthropogenic heat
from the opposite buildings air-conditioning cooling
tower further dismisses the cooling effect from the sur-
rounding trees. Meanwhile, although located outside the
canyon, the maximum cooling effect occurred twice at
Points 7 and 8. This is because they were located near
mature trees.
This twice-maximum cooling effect phenomenon can be
explained as the effectiveness of mature trees to provide
shading to the canyon. In the morning (09.0011.00 hours),
the sun radiation has not radiated the canyon directly due to
the shadowing effect of the building and upper tree canopies.
The air temperature inside the canyon increases gradually
along with the increase of background temperature. At
around 11.00 hours, the shading effect of trees gives its first
maximum cooling effect. When the sun moves gradually to
exactly above the head at around 13.00 hours in Singapore,
the canyon receives the maximum solar heat gain. Then, as
the sun sets (lower solar elevation), the trees provide shading
to the canyon and the second maximum cooling effect occurs.
The maximum cooling effects in the morning (11.00
hours) and in the afternoon (15.00 hours) are shown in
Figure 14. In general, the cooling effect was observed
inside the canyon sidewalk. It ranges from 0.9 to 1.5K.
The cooling effect pattern of both times is similar to the
cooling effect inside the canyon (Points 2 4). When
the air temperature reaches the maximum at 15.00 hours,
the trees stabilize the air temperature inside the canyon,
with the result of a further cooling effect at Point 4.
At 15.00 hours, Points 24 are found to display a higher
cooling effect than the other points at the edge of the canyon
and outside the canyon. This is because the points are situated
at the mid-section of the canyon, well shaded by dense cano-
pies and buildings. The cooling effect at Point 1 is slightly
lower as it is located at the edge of the canyon, with increased
exposure to direct sunshine. It can be realized that leaving the
canyon can result in an immediate air temperature increase of
about 2.1K. There is no cooling effect from the trees at
Points 5 and 6. The probable reasons are that they are
exposed to the open space, a reduction of tree shade at their
immediate environment and, as mentioned, there may be
anthropogenic heat from the opposite buildings cooling tower.
At Point 8, the cooling effect is found to be around 1.2K.
This is higher than the cooling effect at Points 5 7, even
though they are all located outside the canyon. The dense
tree cluster planted at the measurement point causes the
lower ambient temperature. It has provided shade to its sur-
roundings and has lowered the air temperature beneath.
At the PGP site
Figure 15 shows the 24h cooling effect pattern of each point at
the PGP site. On average, no significant cooling was observed
along the canyon sidewalk at the PGP site as compared to the
ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE REVIEW
210 Wong and Jusuf

Figure 15 | Averaged cooling effect (20 hot days) measured at points inside the canyon in the PGP site

Figure 16 | Averaged cooling effect (20 hot days) measured at different points in the PGP site

ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE REVIEW

 Study on the microclimate condition along a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore 211
ENG site, with only at around 0.5K. The cooling effects are
noticeable at some points with the maximum of 0.8K, that is,
Points 2, 3 and 5. At these points, the maximum cooling
effect pattern follows the phenomenon as in the ENG site. It
occurs twice a day, but at a different time, at 10.00 hours in
the morning and at 17.00 hours in the afternoon. This difference
is believed to be due to the difference of site characteristics, such
as the building density, H/W ratio and greenery condition.
The cooling effects at Points 2 and 3 were at the same inten-
sity for both times (see Figure 16). Point 3 is situated at the
centre of a semi-open space, planted with groups of shrubs,
small plants and palms, and received no shading from adjoining
buildings. The plants brought about the maximum cooling
effect for the location. At Point 2, young palm trees were at
the left and right sides of the walkways. The collective
impacts from the cooling effect of young palm trees near the
open space and the shading from the buildings provide
the same cooling effect as the air temperature measured at
the centre of the semi-open space.
The heating effect was identified at Points 6 and 7 and
a very minimal cooling effect at Point 5 in the morning. At
these points, the cooling effect intensity increases at almost
the same rate as in the afternoon at 17.00 hours. The effect of
solar radiation is the main reason for this air temperature behav-
iour. The curved form of the PGP canyon makes these points
more exposed to the eastern solar radiation than the other
points. Thus, although not intensively planted with greenery,
these points receive some shade from the surrounding buildings.
It is believed that the shade provided by these buildings is the
main factor contributing to the cooling effect in the vicinity.
Both Points 1 and 7 are situated at the ends of the canyon,
where they are constantly exposed to direct solar radiation. In
addition, there are only small trees and shrubs planted around
the points, which are inadequate to cool the environment
through their shading. The high building densities and con-
crete pavement at the site have also resulted in more heat
being radiated back to the built environment, thus contributing
to the heating effect. Comparable to Points 1 and 7, Point 4 is
situated at the edge of a semi-open space, exposed to similar
conditions as Points 1 and 7: hence, a heating effect is
found. The heating effect identified at this point is 0.6K.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A comprehensive field measurement has been conducted to
study the microclimatic condition in two different canyons,
ENG and PGP. ENG has the characteristic of mature trees
covering its canyon, while PGP has less greenery along the
canyon, dominated by young palm trees. The objective of
this study is to investigate the microclimatic condition of
these two different canyons. The summaries from this
study are as follows:
The mature trees inside the ENG canyon have the ability
to lower the air temperature rather than the young palm
trees in the PGP. The average air temperature inside the
ENG canyon is lower by around 0.7 1.18C as compared
to the PGP canyon during daytime and maintains its cool-
ness at about 0.4 0.58C during night-time. However,
higher RH can be expected by having dense greenery,
measured up to 5% on average as compared to the PGP
canyon.
The lower air temperature in the ENG canyon is the result
of good shading provided by the dense foliage, which is
able to intercept much more incoming solar radiation.
The mature tree is able to reduce the solar radiation inten-
sity to less than 150W/m2 as compared to the young palm
tree to less than 300W/m2. The lower ground surface
temperatures at the ENG canyon will in turn result in
less heating of the air.
The wind speeds inside both canyons are calm (,0.5m/s)
with more than 80% of the total occurrence. The wind
speed inside the canyon is reduced quite substantially at
the maximum of around 0.5 1.5m/s as compared to
above the canyon, which can be up to 4m/s.
The calculated MRT and PET show that the mature tree is
able to provide thermal comfort to the pedestrian walking
along the ENG canyon. On the other hand, assuming that
the young palm trees cover the whole stretch of the PGP
canyon, they are still not able to provide thermal
comfort to its pedestrian. This is mainly due to the
inability of young palm trees to provide sufficient shading.
Mature trees and young palm trees are able to generate a
cooling effect up to 1.5 and 0.5K, respectively. The
maximum cooling effect inside the canyon, especially
the location below the trees, occurs twice a day, in the
morning (around 10.00 11.00 hours) and in the after-
noon. The afternoon maximum cooling effect may not
happen at the same time for every canyon. It depends on
the characteristics of the canyons.
This study concludes that two main contributory factors influ-
ence the thermal effect within the canyons. They are vege-
tation covers and shading from buildings and trees. This
study has provided an indication that planting of vegetation
can be an effective passive measure to improve the microcli-
mate inside a canyon. However, in general, it can be noted
that increasing the greenery density will result in a higher RH.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Department Building and
Office of Estate and Development (OED), NUS. The authors
express their sincere thanks to Ms Lina Goh for providing the
necessary information.
NOTE
1 Based on meteorological data on 1982 2001, National
Environmental Agency, Singapore.
ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE REVIEW
212 Wong and Jusuf
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