Chapter 2 - Literature Review

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Introduction

This chapter aims to provide a critical review on the fundamental concepts and
mechanism of cement stabilization, changes of soil properties due to the cement
stabilization and factors affecting the engineering behavior of cement treated clay.
The present knowledge on the engineering behavior such as strength, stiffness,
compressibility and permeability behavior of cement treated clay presented in a large
number of published papers is discussed. The limitations of those studies are critically
reviewed. Previous research on the physico-chemical and microstructural behavior of
lime treated clay is also discussed, as there are ample similarities in the final reaction
products of lime and cement stabilization. At the end of this chapter, concluding
remarks on the previous research findings are given and need for the present study is
discussed.

2.2

Fundamental Concept of Cement Stabilization

2.2.1

Mechanism of Soil Cement Stabilization

The fundamental mechanism of soil cement stabilization has been outlined by

Schaefer et al. (1997), amongst others. The components of Portland cement are
tricalcium silicate (C3S), dicalcium silicate (C2S), tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and
tetracalcium alumino-ferrite (C4A) (Lea, 1956). These four main constituents are
major strength producing components. When the pore water of the soil comes into
contact with the cement, hydration reaction of the cement occurs rapidly and primary
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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

cementitous products, namely hydrated calcium silicates (C2SHx, C3S2Hx), hydrated

calcium aluminates (C3AHx, C4AHx) and hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 are formed. The first
two cementitious products are the primary cementitious products whilst the hydrated
lime is deposited as a separate crystalline solid phase. The cement particles bind the
adjacent cement grains together during hardening and form a hardened skeleton
matrix, which encloses unaltered soil particles. In addition, the hydration of cement
leads to the rise of pH of the pore water, which is caused by the dissociation of the
hydrated lime. The strong bases react with the soil silica and alumina (which are
inherently acidic) both from the clay minerals and amorphous materials on the clay
particle surfaces, in a manner similar to the reaction between a weak acid and a strong
base. The hydrous silica and alumina will then gradually react with the calcium ions
liberated from the hydrolysis of cement to from insoluble compounds (secondary
cementituous products), which hardens when cured to stabilize the soil. This
secondary reaction is known as the pozzolanic reaction.

The reactions that take place in soil-cement stabilization can be represented in the
following equations; the reactions given here are for tricalcium silicate (C3S) only,
because it is the most important constituent of Portland cement:
C3 S

+ H2O

C3 S2 Hx (hydrated gel)+ Ca(OH)2

(2.1)

primary cementitious product

Ca(OH)2

Ca++

Ca++ + 2(OH)- + SiO2 (soil silica)

+ 2 (OH)CSH

(2.2)
(2.3)

secondary cementitious product

Ca++ + 2(OH)- +Al2 O3 (soil alumina)

CAH

(2.4)

secondary cementitious product

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

In order to have additional bonding forces produced in the cement-clay matrix, the
silicates and aluminates in the compound matrix must be soluble. In the above
equations, the strength of the primary cementatious products is much stronger than the
secondary ones. The cement hydration and the pozzolanic reaction can last for months
or even years after the mixing and thus the strength of cement treated clay are
expected to increase with time (Bergado et al., 1996).

Thus, in the soil cement reactions, primary and secondary cementing substances
are formed. The primary products harden into high-strength additives. The secondary
processes increase the strength and durability of the soil cement by producing an
additional cementing substance to further enhance the bond strength between the
particles.

2.2.2

Schematic Illustrations of Clay-Cement Interactions and Improved Soil

The interaction between cohesive soils and Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is
schematically shown in Fig. 2.1 as proposed by Saitoh et al. (1985). They identified
the following reactions between clay and cement:
(a) hydration of cement produces Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide generated equivalent
to 25% of the weight of cement) and calcium silicate hydrate,
(b) adsorption of Ca(OH)2 by the clay and
(c) when the clay is saturated with Ca(OH)2, pozzolanic reaction occurs between
these two components.
At the end, an improved soil is obtained which contains cement hardened particles
and also soil particles hardened by their pozzolanic reaction products.

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Saitoh et al. (1985) also proposed a schematic diagram that illustrates the condition of
hardening of improved soil. Fig. 2.2a shows the condition of improved soil
immediately after mixing with the cement slurry. It is suggested that if the cohesive
soil and cement slurry mixed thoroughly, clay particles will form a cluster, which will
be surrounded by the cement slurry. Fig. 2.2b shows the condition after hardening of
cohesive soil and cement slurry that have formed hardened cement and soil bodies.
The cement slurry produces hydrated calcium silicate, hydrated calcium aluminate
and calcium hydroxide that forms hardened cement bodies. On the other hand, the
pozzolanic reaction between clay and calcium hydroxide obtained from cement
hydration reaction produces hardened soil bodies. Thus, it is postulated that the
strength of the improved soil depends on the strength characteristics of both hardened
cement and hardened soil bodies.

2.3

Predominant Factors Controlling the Hardening Characteristics of

Cement Treated Clay

The hardening characteristics of cement treated clay depend on number of factors as
illustrated in Fig. 2.3 (Kezdi, 1979). The effects of some predominant factors on the
strength of the cement treated clay are briefly described below:

2.3.1

Type and amount of Cement

The strength of the treated clay depends on type of hardening agent used (Porbaha et
al., 2000). Kawasaki et al. (1981) investigated the use of two types of cement namely
slag cement and Ordinary Portland cement on the strength characteristics of two
different Japanese soil. It was concluded that the improvement effect solely depends

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

on the chemical components of cementing agent and also the properties of the local
soil.

In general, it has been found that the strength of the treated clay increases with the
increase of cement content (Chew et al., 1997; Uddin et al., 1997). Fig. 2.4 shows
that the unconfined compressive strength and cement content relationship is a
function of initial water content of the untreated clay (Chew et al., 1997). Fig. 2.5
shows that beyond a certain percentage of cement content the rate of increase of
strength reduces (Uddin et al., 1997). Literature review also suggests that a minimum
percentage of cement is also required to improve the strength of the untreated clay
(e.g. Kamruzzaman, 1998; Uddin et al., 1997).

2.3.2

Curing Time

It is well established that the strength of the cement treated clay increases with the
increase of curing time (e.g. Kawasaki et al., 1981; Nagaraj et al., 1997; Uddin, et al.,
1997). Porbaha et al. (2000) reported that the rate of increase of strength is generally
rapid in the early stages of curing period and thereafter decreases with time. This rate
of reduction also depends on the amount of cement added. Uddin et al. (1997) found
that beyond a certain curing period (>4 months) the rate of increase of unconfined
compressive strength is almost negligible as can be seen in Fig. 2.5. Mitchell (1981)
established the following relationship among qu, curing time (t) and cement content
(C)
qu (t) = qu(t0) + Klog (t/t0)

(2.5)

Where, qu (t) = Unconfined compressive strength at t days, in kPa

qu (t0)= Unconfined compressive strength at t0 days, in kPa

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

K = 480C for granular soils and 70C for fine grain soil
C = Cement content, % by mass
Similarly, Kawasaki et al. (1981) suggested the following correlation based on the
Tokyo Bay marine clay:
qu60 = 1.17qu28

(2.6)

Where, qu60 and qu28 are the unconfined compressive strength at 60 days and 28
days curing periods respectively.
Saitoh et al. (1996) found that the strength ratio at 28 days to 7 days was between1.2
to 2.1.
Bergado et al. (1996) reported that the increase of curing temperature accelerates the
chemical reactions and solubility of the silicates and aluminates. Hence, the rate of
gain in strength increases. Similar results were also reported by Porbaha et al. (2000).

2.3.3

Soil Characteristics

The physico-chemical properties of the soil (such as grain size, water content,
Atterberg limits, type of clay minerals, cation exchange capacity, amount of soluble
silica and alumina, pH of pore water and organic matter content) affect the properties
of the treated soil (Porbaha et al., 2000).

Fig. 2.6 (Taki and Yang, 1991) shows the effect of different soil types on unconfined
compressive strength of cement treated soil. As can be seen, the coarse grained soil
shows the largest increase in strength as compared to the fine grained soil for a given
cement content. Bergado et al. (1996) reported that the rate of increase in strength of
treated soil decreases with the increase of percentage clay content and plasticity
index. It was also reported that in general when the activity of the soil is very high,

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

the rate of increase in strength of treated soil is low. Similarly, Bell (1993) found that
as the clay content increases, higher quantity of stabilizing agent is required to
increase the strength, perhaps owing to the increase in surface area and contact
between the clay particles.

The unconfined compressive strength of cement treated clay decreases significantly

with the increase of initial water content of the untreated soil as shown in Fig. 2.7
(Porbaha et al., 2000). Similar results were also observed by other researchers (e.g.
Miura et al., 2001; Chew et al., 1997; Nagaraj et al., 1996).

Porbaha et al. (2000) suggested that special considerations are needed in the case of
soil with a high organic content and soils with an excessive salt content (especially
sulphates), which may retard the hydration reaction of the cement. The rate of
increase of strength in cement treated organic soil is very low as reported by Miura et
al. (1986).

Saitoh et al. (1985) suggested that in the case of soils with the property of higher
pozzolanic reactivity, the strength characteristics of the treated soils are governed by
the strength behavior of the hardened cement bodies. But in the case of soils with
lower pozzolanic reactivity, the strength behavior of treated soils is governed by the
strength behavior of the hardened soil bodies. Hence, if the improvement conditions
are equal, greater strength is obtained from the soil with higher pozzolanic reactivity.
Wissa et al. (1965) reported that for clay containing illite, the improvement of
effective cohesion intercept (c) from the untreated clay is very high, while the
improvement of angle of shearing resistance is moderate. It was also found that for

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

lime stabilization, clay that contained montmorillonite showed higher improvement of

angle of shearing resistance as compared to the clay that contained illite.

2.4

Physical Properties of Cement Treated Clays

2.4.1

Variation of Water Content

The effect of inclusion of cement into soft clay reduces the final water content of the
treated clay (Uddin et al., 1997; Yin and Lai, 1998). Yin and Lai (1998) found that at
higher cement content (cement content = wt of dry cement/wt of dry soil solid) with
higher initial water content of the untreated soil lead to the relatively higher reduction
of water content after cementation. It was suggested that higher initial water content
means more free water for the hydration reaction. Uddin et al. (1997) found that up to
a certain percentage of cement content the reduction of water content is very high, and
thereafter decreases as can be seen in Fig. 2.8. Reductions of water content were also
found with the increase of curing time as shown in Fig. 2.8. It was suggested that the
hydration reaction continues with time leading to the reduction of final water content
of the treated clays.

2.4.3

Plasticity

The plasticity index of cement treated clay reduces with the increase of cement
content and curing time arising from an increase in plastic limit and constant to slight
decrease in liquid limit as shown in Fig. 2.9 (Uddin et al., 1997). As the addition of
cement in clay produces hydrated lime Ca(OH)2, the effect of addition of lime on
liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of treated clay may be useful to explain
the physico-chemical behavior of cement treated clay. Sivapullaiah et al. (2000)
concluded that with the addition of lime, the plasticity index of Black Cotton Indian

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

soil decreases as can be seen in Fig. 2.10. They found that immediately after the
addition of lime, the liquid limit reduces significantly. This liquid limit was found to
increase as the curing time increases to 7 days. On the other hand, the plastic limit
increases with time. It was suggested that the significant reduction of liquid limit
immediately after the addition of lime is due to the depression of double layer,
resulting from the crowding of calcium ion (Ca++) concentration on clay surface. The
increase of liquid limit with curing time is also attributed to the changes of clay fabric
towards more flocculated condition (Sridharan and Jayadeva, 1982; Sivapullaiah et
al., 2000).

2.4.2

Grain Size Distribution

Assarson et al. (1974) noted that the soluble products of cement hydration increases
the electrolytic concentration of the pore fluids and hence increases the pH value. The
dissolved bivalent calcium ions (Ca++) replace the monovalent ions (e.g. Na+, K+),
which are normally attracted to the surface of the negatively charged clay particles.
The crowding of Ca++ ions on the surface of the clay particles brings about the
flocculation of the clay particles (Suzuki et al., 1981; Shen, 1999). Therefore, the
particle sizes increases with the increase of cement content.

2.5

Engineering Properties of Cement Treated Clays

2.5.1

Compressibility Characteristics

The increase in apparent pre-consolidation pressure (yield stress) and reduction in

compression indices of soft clay arising from the inclusion of cement is well
established (e.g. Uddin et al., 1997; Balasubramaniam et al., 1999). Uddin et al.
(1997) concluded that a certain amount of cement is required to improve the

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

compressibility characteristics of the untreated clay. The treated clay behaved as

overconsolidated soil until the effective vertical stress reached the pre-consolidation
pressure. Balasubramaniam et al. (1998) found that at higher stress, which is far
beyond the pre-consolidation pressure, the e-logp relationship of the treated clay (A
to B) is almost parallel to the virgin consolidation of the untreated clay (C to D) as
shown in Fig. 2.11. Miura et al. (2001) suggested that the resistance to compression of
the treated clay is markedly enhanced until the consolidation pressure reaches the
apparent pre-consolidation pressure (yield stress), which is due to the induced
cementation bond created by the inclusion of cement. It was also suggested that
beyond the yield stress, drastic compression occurs at which the cementation bond
breaks down. Similar results were also reported by Porbaha et al. (2000) as shown in
Fig. 2.12. Sugiyama et al. (1984) concluded that the well defined consolidation yield
stress (Py ) and the unconfined compressive strength (qu) can be correlated as Py = (1.2
to 1.7)qu. Ahnberg et al. (1995) reported the CRS tests results from the samples
treated with lime, cement and mixture of lime and cement. It was concluded that the
type of stabilizer significantly affects the variation of the compressibility with time.

2.5.2

Permeability Characteristics

In regions where problems of groundwater seepage exist, alteration of the

permeability is often an important factor in the use of cement stabilization to construct
cut-off walls (Hooi and Yong, 1982; Yu et al., 1999; Porbaha et al., 2000). Porbaha et
al. (2000) reported that the distribution of pore sizes inside the soil cement mix
influences the co-efficient of permeability of treated soil. The permeability of the
cement treated clay reduces with the increase of cement content and curing time as
reported by Kauschinger et al. (1992). It was also found that the permeability of the

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

treated clay reduced to 1/4 or less than that of the untreated clay. Broderic and Daniel
(1990) suggested that this reduction could be due to the pozzolanic cement
substances, which block the pores in the soil cement matrix.

The effect of cement content on the permeability of cement treated clay is shown in
Fig. 2.13 (Kawasaki et al., 1981). It was found that the permeability reduced
significantly as the cement content increased from 10 to 20%. Further studies were
also reported by Hiroso et al. (1982). In contrast, opposite opinion was also reported.
Suzuki et al. (1981) mentioned that the cement hydration is accompanied by an
increase in pH of the pore fluid and Ca++ ion concentration on the clay surface. The
increased concentration of Ca++ ion causes shrinkage of the diffused double layer
leading to flocculation and hence an increase in permeability is observed.

2.5.3

Stress-Strain Behavior

Yin and Lai (1998) investigated the stress-strain behavior of cement stabilized Hong
Kong marine deposits (clayey silty sand) through undrained triaxial compression test
at various confining pressures and different initial water content of the untreated clay.
It was found that while the amount of cement content and confining pressure is
constant, the treated clays behaved as heavily overconsolidated soil due to the
reduction of initial water content of the untreated clay. Similar overconsolidated
behavior was also observed due to the increase in cement content having the same
initial water content of the untreated clay and at the same confining pressure.
However, at very low cement content (e.g. 5%), even if the initial water content of the
untreated clay is low (e.g. 60%), the stress-strain behavior was still similar to the
normally consolidated clay with ductile nature.

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Uddin et al. (1997) reported that the confining pressure largely affected the deviator
stress-shear strain behavior of cement treated soft Bangkok clay as shown in Fig 2.14.
It was found that the peak deviator stress increased with the increase of confining
pressure. Furthermore, the deviator stress-shear strain relation was found to be linear
up to the 60 to 70% of maximum deviator stress, and thereafter deviation took place at
varying rate according to confining pressure. Uddin et al. (1997) also found that at
higher cement content with low confining pressure, the treated clay showed distinct
strain softening behavior. Similarly for the same amount of cement content with
longer curing periods, the treated clay showed well-defined peak deviator stress
followed by greater strain softening.

Porbaha et al. (2000) reported that the effect of confinement affects the mode of
failure of the triaxial soil sample. At small confining pressure, a distinct shear band
was observed at failure conditions. Azman et al. (1994) found that at consolidation
pressure approximately equal to the yield stress of the treated clay, the stress strain
relationships are not brittle anymore.

Porbaha et al. (2000) reported the results of isotropically consolidated drained (CID)
and undrained (CIU) compression test on laboratory prepared 5% cement treated
marine clay as shown in Fig. 2.15. It was found that both in CID and CIU tests,
higher deviator stresses were achieved with the increase in confining pressure. In the
case of CID test, the maximum deviator stress occurred at higher values of failure
strain (~20%). However, in CIU test, the deviator stress increased to a well-defined
peak at strain level less than 5% before reaching the residual state. Owing to the

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

generation of excess pore water pressure, the undrained samples were failed at stress
levels lower than the drained samples as expected.

2.5.4

Pore Pressure Characteristics

Uddin et al. (1997) reported that at low confining pressure (50-100 kPa), the cement
treated clay showed small positive pore pressure and then dropped to negative values
at larger strains as shown in Fig. 2.16. On the other hand, at higher confining pressure,
the positive pore pressure reached at peak values and then dilated to a lower value.
For the same confining pressure with higher cement content, the treated clay showed
the reduction of strain at peak pore pressure. Uddin et al. (1997) also found that a
distinct peak followed by significant amount of pore pressure reduction occurred for
longer curing time. Secondly, long term cured samples developed greater negative
pore pressure than that of short-term cured samples.

2.5.5

Failure Strain Characteristics

Uddin et al. (1997) investigated that at very low confining pressure the failure strain
reduced with the increase of cement content and curing time. However, at very high
confining pressure, the stress-strain curves showed normally consolidated behavior
associated with higher failure strain. The failure strain also depends on initial water
content of the clay slurry. At higher cement content with initial water content of the
clay slurry more than its liquid limit, the treated clay showed ductile behavior
associated with higher failure strain (Yin and Lai, 1998). As in Fig. 2.17 (Porbaha et
al., 2000) showed that at unconfined compressive strength lower than 1MPa, the
failure strain (f) was widely scattered between 1 and 3%. However, beyond this value
of strength, f remains almost constant at about 1%. Similarly, Uddin et al. (1997)

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

found that in the case of unconfined compressive strength, failure strain reduces
significantly with the increase of cement content and curing time. It was also found
that up to a certain amount of cement content, the rate of reduction of failure strain is
significant and thereafter reduces.

2.5.6

Stiffness (Modulus) Characteristics

In the laboratory, conventional method of strain measurement between two end caps
in triaxial test apparatus has been criticized for hard soil as well as soft soil (Jardine et
al., 1984; Baldi et al., 1988; Lo Presti et al., 1995; Scholey et al., 1995). The principle
sources of error in conventional method of external strain measurement are illustrated
in Fig. 2.18 (Baldi et al., 1988). The greatest sources of error in measurement of small
strain stiffness near the start of the test probably arises from the mis-alignment of the
load cell or contact between the specimen and the two end caps so called bedding
errors. Thus, the conventional method of external strain measurement leads to a
considerable under-estimation of stiffness. One of the ways to overcome the
inaccuracy of the measurement of stiffness is the use of local axial gauges (Jardine et
al., 1984; Burland, 1989; Goto et al., 1991; Tatsuoka et al., 1997). Different types of
local axial gauges are available that include: Halls effect transducer (Clayton and
Khatrust, 1986), Local Displacement Transducer (LDT) (Goto et al., 1991),
Electrolevel (Jardine et al., 1984) and submersible LVDT (Cuccovillo and Coop,
1997).

Table 2.1 shows some E-qu relationships, which have been suggested for cement
treated soil. As can be seen, most of the research has been done on unconfined
compressive strength having different linear relationship between modulus and

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

unconfined compressive strength. However, Tatsuoka et al. (1997) used Local

Displacement Transducer (LDT) in consolidated undrained triaxial test to measure the
stiffness of cement treated sandy soil in the linear elastic range of less than 0.01% of
strains. As shown in Fig. 2.22, the strain measured from local transducer shows much
higher stiffness than that of the conventional method of strain measurement. Tatsuoka
et al. (1997) also found that the stiffness is almost constant and independent of initial
loading, unloading and reloading cycle within the elastic range of strain of about
0.01%. The effect of confining pressures on the initial Young's modulus from the
conventional strain measurement Einitial, and Emax from the local axial gauges for
cement treated sandy soil is shown in Fig. 2.23 (Tatsuoka et al., 1997). It was found
that based on the local axial strain measurement, the initial elastic modulus at small
strain (Emax) did not change significantly with the increase of effective confining
pressure. On the other hand, while using conventional strain measurement, the initial
elastic modulus (Einitial) increased with the increase of confining pressure.

The modulus of elasticity of cement treated clay is a function of cement content,

curing time, confining pressure and initial water content of the untreated clay (Yin
and Lai, 1998). Yin and Lai (1998) conducted a series of consolidated undrained
triaxial tests with the use of conventional method of external strain measurement
transducer based on the Hong Kong marine deposit. It was concluded that the secant
modulus of elasticity (Esec50) increased with the increase in cement content and
confining pressure, and Esec50 decreased with the increase in initial water content. It
was also suggested that at very high confining stresses, the cemented structure may be
partially or fully destroyed. Hence the resulting stiffness may be less than that of
samples with lower confining stresses having the same amount of cement content and

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

initial water content of the untreated clay. Based on the results of consolidated
undrained triaxial tests, Azman et al. (1994) also observed that the initial elastic
stiffness of cement treated black soil in Malaysia increases with an increase of
confining pressure and curing time.

2.5.7

Shear Strength Parameters (c and ) and Failure Envelope

Strength is one of the important parameters of cement treated clay. The increase in
shear strength of untreated clay is partially caused by ion exchanges, when
monovalent ions existing in soils (e.g. Na+ and K+) are replaced by multivalent ions
(Ca++) from cement product (Broms, 1986; Shen, 1996). Broms (1986) noted that the
two components of the strength, namely frictional resistance () and cohesion
intercept (c) increase in two processes. The frictional resistance takes place with the
aggregation of hydrated cement particles and surrounding clay particles forming a
clay-cement skeleton. This contributes to form significant amounts of particle
interlocking and thus enhances the frictional component of the shear strength. The
cohesion component results from the reduction of the thickness of the diffused
doubled layered absorbed water, caused by the ion exchange and flocculation of the
clay particles. This reduces the inter-particle space and increases the inter-particle
bond strength. The inter-particle bond strength is also increased due to the pozzolanic
reaction forming the secondary cementitious materials.

Yin and Lai (1998) found that for Hong Kong marine deposit the cohesion (c) of
treated soil increased with the increase of cement content and decrease of initial water
content of the untreated soil. However, the internal friction angle () decreased with
the increase of cement content and decrease of initial water content. They concluded

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

that as the cement content increased the treated soil shifted from Mohr-Coulomb type
of failure to Von-Mises type of failure with increase in c and decrease in . On the
other hand, Uddin et al. (1997) concluded that for Bangkok clay both the cohesion (c)
and friction angle () increased with the increase of cement content and curing time,
and reached at asymptotic value at very high cement content.

Azman et al. (1994) studied the effect of cement content and consolidation pressure
on shear strength parameters (c and ) of black soil in Malaysia. It was found that at
low cement content (2% by weight of dry soil), the effect of confining pressure on
shear strength parameters was negligible. However, as the cement content increased,
the effect of consolidation pressure became more significant. Similarly, for a
particular cement content, as the confining pressure increased, the treated soil showed
higher friction angle and lower cohesion. On the other hand, higher cohesion and
lower friction angle was achieved as the confining pressure decreased. Based on the
different confining pressure, the failure pattern of cement treated clays were classified
as: friction dominated (class 1) at very high confining stresses, cementation plus
friction (class 2) medium confining stresses and cementation dominated (class 3) at
low confining stresses as shown in Fig. 2.24.

Shibuya and Ozawa (1996) showed a group of Mohr circles at failure condition for
cement treated sandy soil as in Fig. 2.25. Based on their results, they found that the
failure envelope of the treated soil could not be characterized by a single straight line
over the range of confining pressures investigated. The author is of the opinion that it
fits well into a model of bilinear failure envelope. On the other hand, Deep Mixing

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Association of Japan (1994) found that both peak and residual failure state of cement
treated soil can be represented by a best fit straight line as shown in Fig. 2.26.
2.5.8

Undrained Stress Paths

Uddin et al. (1997) investigated the undrained behavior of cement treated Bangkok
clays through the effective stress path as shown in Fig. 2.27. It was found that at
higher confining pressure the beneficial effect of cement stabilization tends to reduce
owing to the reduction of over-consolidation ratio of the treated soil. At this stage,
the behavior of treated clay may govern from the frictional component of the shear
resistance. At low confining pressure, the stress path of the treated sample moved
almost parallel to the q-axis and reached the failure state followed by strain softening.
The treated clay strain softened with the residual state lying close to the critical state
line of the untreated clay. Small strain and large strain phases were manifested by the
abrupt change in the curvature of the stress path. Uddin et al. (1997) also found that
for a particular confining pressure as the cement content increased, the treated clay
rendered more over-consolidation effect in the q-p space as shown in Fig. 2.28.

2.6

Physico-chemical and Microstructural Behavior of Lime Treated Clay

The focus of this research is on the cement treated clay and not lime treated clay.
However, in this section some previous research on the physico-chemical and
microstructural behavior of lime treated clay is discussed, as there are ample
similarities in the final reaction products of lime and cement stabilization. Rao and
Rajasekaran (1996), studied the physico-chemical behavior of lime treated clay. They
found that the exchangeable calcium ions (Ca++) on the treated clay surface increased
with the increase of curing time as shown in Fig 2.29. Similarly pH of the pore fluid
also increased with the increase of curing time. The increased Ca++ ion concentration

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

along with the increased pH values, suggested a better condition for flocculation to
occur. In this process, pozzolanic reaction compounds were expected to form with-in
a period of 7 to 15 days. Rajasekaran and Rao (1998), reported that the XRD analysis
of lime treated clay identifies different types of cementitious products such as calcium
silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH) and calcium aluminium
silicate hydrate (CASH) as shown in Fig 2.30. They also observed the presence of
cementitious products from the scanning electronic microscopic (SEM) images of
treated clay. Locat et al. (1990), found that at early stage of curing (10 days) lime-clay
lumps are formed due to the flocculation reaction while, at longer curing periods (100
days), platy type of CASH and reticular CSH can be seen from the SEM images of
treated clay as in Fig. 2.31. These cementitious products are mainly responsible for
the long-term strength development of lime treated soil (Rajasekaran and Rao, 1998;
Locat, et al. 1990).

2.7

Concluding Remarks

From the discussions above, it is clear that most researchers have concentrated their
studies on strength as well as stiffness, compressibility and permeability
characteristics for the cement stabilization of their local soils. So far no research has
been carried out on the fundamental physico-chemical and microstructural (i.e. Ca++,
pH, pore size, XRD, SEM) behavior of cement treated clay both in global as well as
local condition. However, some researches on physico-chemical as well as
microstructural (Ca++, pH, XRD and SEM) behavior of lime-treated clays have been
done by Locat et al. (1990) and Rao & Rajasekaran (1996). There are some similarity
between lime treatment and cement treatment. However, there are also major
differences. In particular due to the absence of primary hydration reaction in lime

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

treatment, which may lead to a different form of microstructure from that produced by
cement treatment. Hence, it is an urgent need to study the fundamental physicochemical and microstructural behavior of cement treated Singapore marine clays.

Chew et al., (1997) and Goh et al., (1999) have done some works on strength and
stiffness properties of cement treated Singapore marine clays based on the unconfined
compression tests. But proper interpretation of the strength and stiffness properties
both in short term as well as prolonged curing period (up to 1 year) with the observed
microstructural behavior remains undone to date. Moreover due to the limitations of
unconfined compression test, triaxial tests are now recognized to be preferred for the
proper investigation of strength and stiffness of treated clays. The detail triaxial test
also enables the interpretation of the process leading to structuration (existing of
cementation bond) and destructuration (breaking of cementation bond) of cement
treated clays. Hence, this enables an explanation of the observed engineering behavior
with the microstructure.

It is also known that the inclusion of cement in soft clays increases the apparent preconsolidation pressure (or yield stress) and decreases the compression indices
significantly as reported. However, so far no definitive explanation for the
improvement of such consolidation characteristics of treated clays has been advanced.
This is likely to be associated with structuration and destructuration processes
discussed above. Thus, further study is needed to verify this hypothesis with the help
of observed microstructure of the treated clay.

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Uddin et al., (1997) conducted triaxial tests to study the strength and deformation
behavior of cement treated soft Bangkok clay without considering the small strain
effect. On the other hand, the small strain stiffness of cement treated Japanese sandy
soil have been studied by Goto et al. (1991), Shibuya et al. (1992) and Tatsuoka et al.
(1997). So far no research has been done on small strain as well as post
destructuration stiffness of cement treated Singapore marine clays, and hence it needs
to be investigated urgently.

There has been little research on the changes of permeability of cement treated clays.
It was suggested that cement hydration is accompanied by an increase in pH and Ca++
concentration, leading to the formation of flocculated structure and increase in
permeability. More over, permeability is directly associated with the pore size of the
clay particles. Thus, detailed investigation on permeability of cement treated
Singapore marine clay is needed to complement with the observed microstructure in
particular, with the pore size distribution.

In summary, little or no comprehensive study has yet been carried out to understand
the fundamental physico-chemical as well as microstructural behavior of cement
treated clays and use them as a basis to explain the observed changes in abovementioned engineering properties. This issue is the central theme of the present
research study.

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