Lab Guide - Kaplan Turbine

PERFORMANCE TEST OF KAPLAN TURBINE
Experiment #3
EXPERIMENT OBJECTIVES
1. To be able to learn how to operate the USC-ME Kaplan Turbine.
2. To be able to verify and apply the concepts learned from class into this experiment.
3. To be able to gather data such as shaft speed, effective pressure head, flow rate, shaft
torque, shaft power, water power, efficiency and cavitation of the turbine through
conducting performance test on the USC-ME Kaplan Turbine.
4. To be able to determine how the variation of the swirl affect the efficiency and how
the cavitation affects the efficiency.
5. To be able to determine the relationship between, vane setting vs shaft power, vane
setting vs shaft speed, vane setting vs Thoma number, vane setting vs efficiency,
power specific speed vs Thoma number and Thoma number vs efficiency at different
II
MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

USC-ME Kaplan Turbine
Figure 1. Kaplan
Turbine
Prony brake
Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
University of San Carlos TC, Talamban, Cebu City
Figure 2. Prony
brake and Load measuring
mechanism
One Meter Stick
Figure 3. Wooden - Meter Stick

Sets of Weights (1kg,0.5kg and 0.1 kg)

Figure 4. Weights (0.1 Kg, 0.2 Kg, 0.5 Kg and 1 Kg)

One Pipe Wrench
Figure 5. Pipe Wrench

One Steel Pipe
Figure 6. Steel Pipe

V-notch Weir

Figure 7. V-notch Weir

III
THEORY
The Kaplan turbine is an improvement of the basic principles of a Francis turbine due to its
adjustable runner blades. Mainly, the Kaplan turbine is designed for low head water applications.
Most of the turbines developed earlier were suitable for large heads of water. With increasing
demand of power, the need was felt to harness power from sources of low head water, such as,
rivers flowing at low heights. For such low head applications, Viktor Kaplan designed a turbine
similar to the propellers of ships. Its working is just reverse to that of propellers. By using shaft
power, displacing the water axially and creating axial thrust in the turbine. The water flows
axially and it creates axial forces on the Kaplan turbine blades to produce generating shaft power.
(Rayan M.,et al, 2001)
The history and development of the Kaplan Turbine has a great impact on the Hydroelectric generation of our world today. The Kaplan bulb turbine was named after an Austrian
professor who designed and developed it in 1913, Viktor Kaplan. Born in Murzzuschlag, Austria
in 1876, Viktor Kaplan was educated in Vienna. He received a mechanical engineering diploma
from Vienna Polytechnic University in 1900. After a year in the navy and two years designing
and building diesel engines for an engine works, he went to Brunn Polytechnic university in
1903 as professor of mechanical engineering, kinematics and the science of machine
construction. He almost immediately began work on hydraulic turbine design and construction.
His first major work in 1908 was a book he submitted for his doctoral dissertation and through it
received his doctorate at 1909. The book was about a scientific design and construction of
Francis Turbine rotor. At 1909, he became assistant professor of water power machines at the
Brunn Polytechnic University and busied himself in setting up a laboratory for the study of
hydraulic turbines. (Shortridge R.,1995)
Viktor Kaplan eventually made 260 patents of his work. The basic patent underlying what
we now know as the Kaplan Turbine was Austrian patent 74, 244, issued August 7, 1913. This
patent covered a turbine machine with runner blades, which could be varied during operation.
4

Ten addition patents were awarded to Viktor Kaplan during the period of 1921 to 1924. These
covered various aspects of turbine runners, guide vanes, and draft tubes. (Shortridge R.,1989)
It was not until the last year of World War I (1918) that Kaplan found a costumer and a
fabricator for his commercial-size turbine. The costumer was a braid and wool yarn
manufacturer, Hofbauer Wwe., located in Velm, a small town near Vienna. The steelworks of
Ignaz Storek, a close co-worker of Kaplan in the past, in Brunn, was the fabricator. The Kaplan
Turbine at the Hofbauer establishment was tested in 1919. With a runner diameter of 24 inches
and a head of 9 feet, it developed 35 horsepower at 480 rpm, with a discharge of 286 gallons per
second. Soon after other manufacturers and costumers built and developed the Kaplan turbines
with bigger developed powers and with efficiency remaining always greater than 80 percent. In
1925, the Werkstaden people went on to build and install what was the largest Kaplan Turbine in
the world at Lilla Edet in southern Sweden. The turbine had four-bladed runner 19 feet in
diameter, which operated at 62.5 rpm under a normal head of 21.3 feet, and developed 11, 200
horsepower. Efficiency at this power level was guaranteed to 86 to 87 percent and was measured
at 89 percent. Overloaded to the point of developing 19,000 horsepower or at part-load and
developing only 4,000 horsepower, its efficiency remained above 75 percent. Now, even larger
Kaplan turbines are being installed.The Kaplan Turbine, Unit no. 1, of the Otori Power Station in
Japan, which started operating on 1964, generates power up to 100,000 kilo-watts or 134,
102.209 horsepower with a normal net head of 167.3 feet and a maximum discharge of 58,117.91
gallons and 6.1 meter runner diameter. (A. Sato and K. Goto, 2004)
The popular axial flow turbines are the Kaplan turbine and propeller turbine. (Rayan M.,
Textbook of Machine Hydraulic) Although the propeller turbine is almost adequate for high flow
and low head operation, its one quite serious disadvantage is its part load efficiency, which is
unsatisfactory. This is because their blades are fixed and therefore cannot vary or adapt if flow
conditions differ.In Kaplan turbines, this problem is overcome by using adjustable or movable
blades. The blades are mounted in the boss in bearings. Their angles of inclination may be
adjusted according to the flow conditions while the turbine is in motion in such a way that the
turbine can operate continuously at its maximum efficiency. Normally, a servomechanism is used
to rotate or change the inclination of blades. (Rayan M.,et al ,2001)
The over-all flow configuration of the Kaplan turbines is from radial to axial. The water
from the supply pipes enters from a spiral casing into the inlet guide vanes, which impart a
degree of swirl to the flow determined by the needs of the runner. The flow of water leaving the
guide vanes is forced by the shape of the passage into an axial direction and the swirl becomes
essentially a free vortex. The term vortex free might be more appropriate as the vorticity (axial
vorticity component) is then zero. The speed governor in this case acts on the guide blades and
5

rotates them as per load requirements. It changes the inlet blade angle as per the flow direction
from the guide blades, so that the entry is without shock. (Dixon S.L. and Hall C.A, 2010)
Mainly, the Kaplan turbine is designed for low head water applications. A section view of
the Kaplan Turbine is shown in figure 8. They are suited for head in the range 5 80 m and
specific speeds in the range 350 to 900. The flow rate is changed without any change in head.
The water directed by the guide blades enters the runner which has much fewer blades (3 to 10)
than the Francis turbine. (C.P. Kothandaraman, 2007)
As the head is low, many times the draft tube may have to be elbow type. The important
dimensions are the diameter and the boss diameter which will vary with the chosen speed. At
lower specific speeds the boss diameter may be higher. The number of blades depends on the
head available and varies from 3 to 10 for heads from 5 to 70 m. As the peripheral speed varies
along the radius (proportional to the radius) the blade inlet angle should also vary with the
radius. Hence twisted type or Airfoil blade section has to be used. The speed ratio is calculated
on the basis of the tip speed. The flow ratio lies in the range 0.35 to 0.75. (Dixon S.L. and Hall
C.A,2010)
Figure 8. Sectional view of a Kaplan Turbine (source: C.P. Kothandaraman, Fluid Mechanics and
Machinery 2nd edition, 2007, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi, page 500)
Typical velocity diagrams at the tip and at the hub are shown in figure 9. The diagram is in the
axial and tangential plane instead of radial and tangential plane as in the other turbines.
( Kothandaraman C.P.,2007)

Figure 9. Typical Velocity Diagrams for Kaplan Turbine(Source: C.P. Kothandaraman, Fluid
Mechanics and Machinery 2nd edition, 2007, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi, page 500)
Kaplan turbine has a flat characteristics for variation of efficiency with load. Thus the
part load efficiency is higher in this case. In the case of propeller turbine the part load efficiency
suffers as the blade angle at these loads are such that entry is with shock. The load efficiency
characteristic of the four
types of turbines is shown
in
figure
10.
(C.P.
Kothandaraman, 2007)

Figure 10. Load efficiency characteristics of hydraulic turbines (Source: C.P. Kothandaraman, Fluid
Mechanics and Machinery 2nd edition, 2007, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi,, page 501)
Figure 11 shows the typical design point efficiencies of different turbines plotted against the
specific speed and table 1 shows the operating ranges of hydraulic turbines.

Figure 11. Typical design point efficiencies of Pelton, Francis and Kaplan Turbines. (Source: S.L.
Dixon and C.A. Hall, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery 7th edition, 2014, The Boulevard,
Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford,225 Wyman Street, Waltham,,USA, page 371)
Table 1. Operating Ranges of Hydraulic Turbines
Specific Speed
(Rad)
Head (m)
Maximum power
(MW)
Optimum
Efficiency (%)
Regulation
Method
Pelton Turbine
Francis Turbine
Kaplan Turbine
0.05-0.4
0.4-2.2
1.8-5.0
100-1770
20-900
6-70
500
800
300
90
95
94
Needle valve and
Stagger angle of
guide vanes
Stagger angle of
rotor blades
deflector plate
(Source: S.L. Dixon and C.A. Hall, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery 7th edition, 2014, The
Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford,225 Wyman Street, Waltham,USA, page 371)
The power specific speed regimes of these turbine types are of considerable importance to the
designer as they indicate the most suitable choice of machine for an application. In general, low
specific speed machines correspond to low-volume flow rates and high heads, whereas high
specific speed machines correspond to high volume flow rates and low heads. Table 1
summarizes the normal operating ranges for the specific speed, effective head, maximum power,
and best efficiency for each type of turbine. (Dixon S.L. and Hall C.A,2010)
Figure 12. Application ranges for various types of hydraulic turbomachines, as plot of Q versus
H with lines of constant power determined assuming efficiency is equal to 80%.(Source: S.L. Dixon
and C.A. Hall, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery 7th edition, 2014, The Boulevard,
Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford,Wyman Street, Waltham,, USA, page 372)

According to
the experience of Sulzer Hydro of Zurich, the
application ranges of the various types
of turbines and turbine pumps (including some not mentioned here) are plotted in figure 12 on a
Flow rate Vs Head and reflect the present state of the art of hydraulic turbomachinery design.
(Dixon S.L. and Hall C.A,2010)
10

Figure 13. Schematic Diagram for the Kaplan Turbine Experimental Set-up
As shown in Figure 13, the priming will be assisted by the axial pump. Before the turning-on of
the axial pump, the gate valve 1 should be open(counterclockwise). After that, the axial pump
will be turn-on to prime the centrifugal pump. When the Priming cap is full of water and is
without air bubbles, the gate valve 1 will be close and the axial pump will be turn-off. The
centrifugal will be turn-on, to supply water for the Kaplan turbine and gate valve 2 will be
rapidly open. The excess water will flow to bypass pipe and flow back to the reservoir. The gate
valve 3 will be open to supply water to the Kaplan turbine. After the water pass the Kaplan
turbine, the water will flow to V-notch weir for the water flow rate measurement. After the water
pass to the V-notch weir, the water will go back to the reservoir which is to be draw back to the
centrifugal pump.
11

Torque derivation:
Figure 14. Lever arm (Torque Derivation)
Torque=F r
( 1)
where F is force in newton and r is radius of rotation in meter.
The Prony brake was invented in 1821 by French engineer Gaspard Prony (1755 - 1839). A
Prony brake, , provides a means for applying an adjustable load torque to the output shaft of a
prime mover. The power output is dissipated as heat in the braking material. The brake is
composed of a belt that is wrapped around the output shaft of an engine or motor. Adding a
series of weights on the ends of the Prony brake until the engine stalls under the friction which
the load has created. The amount of load that is required to stall the engine determines the
amount of torque or pulling power that the engine is adequate of producing.(Evers C.,2000)
12

Figure 15: Standard Prony Brake Arrangement(Source: Craig T. Evers, Minnesota State University
Mankato Principles of Dynamometer Operation page 1)
Flow measurement is extremely important even in the ancient times. Knowledge of the direction
and velocity of air flow was essential information for all ancient navigators, and the ability to
measure water flow was necessary for the fair distribution of water through the channel of such
early communities.One of the first pioneers of flow was Daniel Bernoulli when he published his
Hydrodynamica in 1783. In it, he introduced the concept of the conservation of energy for fluid
flows. Bernoulli determined that an increase in the velocity of a flowing fluid increases its
kinetic energy while decreasing its static energy. It is for this reason that a flow restriction causes
an increase in the flowing velocity and also causes a drop in the static pressure of the flowing
fluid. Also another one of the first pioneers was the English scientist Michael Faraday who
discovered the dynamo in 1831 when he noted that, if a copper disk is rotated between the poles
of a permanent magnet, electric current is generated.(The Flow Pioneers,1995)
There are numerous ways on how to measure or alter flow. A weir for example is a
barrier across a river designed to alter its flow characteristics Weirs are overflow structures built
across open channels to measure the volumetric rate of water flow. They are identified by the
shape of their opening or notch. The edge of the weir can either be sharp or broad-crested.
(Merkly G. 1999) .The head on the weir is the measured vertical distance from the water surface
to the vertex of the notch. The velocity of a fluid passing through an orifice in the side of a
reservoir is the same as that which would be acquired by a heavy body falling freely through the
vertical height measured from the surface of the fluid in the reservoir to the, center of the orifice.
(Horton R. ,2005)
13

Figure 16: Triangular Notch (Courtesy of CodeCogs Discharge over a Triangular Notch)
Let H is the height of the liquid above the apex of the notch, Q is the flow rate, is angle of the
notch, g is gravitational Acceleration and Cd is coefficient of discharge
From the geometry of the figure, we find that the width of the notch at the water surface is,
2 H tan
(2)
Area of strip,
2 ( H h ) tan . dh
2
Theoretical velocity of water through the strip,
2 gh
(4)
Discharge of the notch,
14

(3)

dq=C d x 2 ( H h ) tan . dh 2 gh 3
2
(5)
The total discharge over the whole notch is found by integrating within the limits 0 to H
H
Q= C d x 2 ( Hh ) tan .dh 2 gh
2
0
(6)
Q=2 C d 2 g x tan ( H h ) h dh
20
H
Q=2 C d 2 g x tan Hh 2 h 2
20
) h dh
(7)
(8)
Q=
C 2 g tan x H 2
15 d
2
15

(9)
Figure17. The triangular-notch, thin-plate weir(Source: Discharge Characteristics of Triangularnotch Thin-plate Weirs)
The discharge characteristics of a triangular notch, this-plate weir in a rectangular channel (See
Figure 17) are defined by these principal variables. Q is the discharge; B is the width of the
approach channel; P is the height of the notch vertex with respect to the floor of the approach
channel; h is the head on the weir, referred to the vertex of the notch; is the angle included
between the sides of the notch; is the density of the liquid; is the viscosity of the liquid; , the
surface tension of the liquid; and , the specific weight of the liquid.
Q=f ( B , P , h , , , , , )
Using Buckingham Pi method, 3 repeating variables (,,h)

terms = 9-3 = 6 terms
1 =f (2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6)
1=(h , ,
a
c,
,Q )
L
0 = ( a ( M L3 )b ( M L2 T 2) c ( L3 T 1 )
L; 0 = a-3b-2c+3
M; 0 = 0+b+c+0
16

T; 0 = 0+0-2c-1
5
a=- 2
1
2
b=
1=
2=(h , ,
a
c,
c =-
1
2
Q
2
h gh
, B)
L
0 = ( ( M L ) ( M L2 T 2) c ( L)
a
3 b
L; 0 = a+(-3b)-2c+1
M; 0 = 0+b+c+0
T; 0 = 0+0-2c+0
a = -1 b = 0 c = 0
2=
B
h
3=(h , ,
a
c,
, P)
L
0 = ( ( M L ) ( M L2 T 2) c ( L)
a
3 b
L; 0 = a+(-3b)-2c+1
M; 0 = 0+b+c+0
T; 0 = 0+0-2c+0
a = -1 b = 0 c = 0
3=
P
h
17

4=( h , ,
a
c,
,)
L
0 = ( ( M L ) ( M L2 T 2) c ()
3 b
L; 0 = a+(-3b)-2c+0
M; 0 = 0+b+c+0
T; 0 = 0+0-2c+0
a=0b=0c=0
4=
5=(h , ,
a
c,
, )
L
0 = ( (M L
a
3 b
) ( M L T 2) ( M L1 T 1)
2
L; 0 = a-3b-2c-1
M; 0 = 0+b+c+1
T; 0 = 0+0-2c-1
a=
3
2
1
2
b=
5=
c=
1
2
3
2
h 22
5=
h h
h 2 gh
since, =g (equation 13)

2
and gh= v (equation 14)
18

5=
hpv
5=
1
Re
6=(h , ,
a
c,
, )
L
0 = ( ( M L ) ( M L2 T 2) c ( M T 2 )
3 b
L; 0 = a-3b-2c+0
M; 0 = 0+b+c+1
T; 0 = 0+0-2c-2
a = -2 b = 0 c = -1
6=
6=
h2
since =g
2
and gh= v
g h2
6=
h v2
6=
1
We
Q
B P
1 1
=f ( , , , ,
)
h h
Re W e
h gh
2
19

(10)
Water power is given by the formula,

Pw = Q H
(11)
where, Pw is the water Power , is the specific weight of water ,Q is the Flow rate and H is the
head
Shaft power is given by the formula,

Ps=2 T N
(12)
where, Ps is the shaft power, T is the Torque and N is the Shaft speed, rev
The Bernoulli equation can be derived from two basic physics principles, the Work Energy and
Conservation of Energy principles.
BERNOULLIS EQUATION:
WORK ENERGY:
The change in energy is equal to the work in minus the work out.
E=W 1W 2
(22)
where,
W =F d
(23)
since we are doing a fluid system,
20

F=P A
(24)
and
d=v t
(25)
therefore,
W =P ( A ) v ( t )
(26)
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:
From Physics, the change in energy is equal to energy out minus energy in,
E=E2E 1
(27)
where,
E=P . E+ K . E
(28)
where,
P . E .=mgh
(29)
K . E .=
( 30)
21

mv
2
In the figure, in a pipe system, point 1 and point 2 will have their own area, pressure, velocity
and head.
A2, P2, V2, H2
A1, P1, V1, H1
Figure 18. Flow of water through a pipe from point 1 to point 2

WORK ENERGY:
P
A
P
A
( 2) ( V 2 ) ( t )
( 2)
( 1) ( V 1 ) ( t )
( 1)
E=
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:
22

(31)
E= mg h2 +
)(
m v2
m v1
mg h1
2
2
(32)
Combining Equation 31 and 32,
P
A
P
A
mv 22
m v 21
mgh1
2
2
( 2)
( 1) ( V 1) ( t )
( 1)
( 2) ( V 2 ) ( t )= mg h2 +
)(
(33)
Since,
m=V = A v t
equation 33 becomes,
P
A
P
A
)(
m v2
mv
m g h1 1
2
2
( 2)
( 1) ( V 1 ) ( t )
( 1)
( 2) ( V 2 ) ( t )= m 0 g h 2+
23

(34)
)(
P1 P2
v
v
= g h2 + 2 g h1 + 1

2
2
(35)
rearranging equation 35,

P1
v 11 P2
v22
+ g h1 + = + g h 2 +
2
2
(36)
Dividing both sides with gravity, g
P1
v1 P
v2
+h1 + 1 = 2 +h 2+ 2
2g
2g
where, W is work, E is energy E

velocity, V is volume,
(37)
is Change in energy, F is force, d is distance, v is
is density, P is pressure, g is gravity, h is head, t
time, A is area, PE is potential energy, KE is Kinetic energy and m is mass.
24

is change in
Figure 19.
Flow of fluid from point 1 to point 2 through the turbine
Bernoullis Equation:
P1 V 21
P2 V 22
+ + z1 H t= + + z 2
2g
2g
(38)
Where, P1 is pressure of water at point 1, P2 is pressure of water at point 2, V1 is velocity of water

z
z
at point 1, V2 is velocity of water at point 2, 1 is elevation of water at point 1, 2 is
elevation of water at point 2 and Ht is head turbine.
Since z1 = z2 and V1 = V2 (negligible velocity head since small difference in diameter)
25

Thus,
Ht=
P1 P 2
(39)
One of the general principles of Kaplan turbine is the overall efficiency which has the equation
Shaft Power
Water Power
(40)
The water power is converted into shaft power by the force produced when the vanes deflect the
direction of the water. The two basic principles of this process are impulse and reaction. Impulse
occurs when the direction of the fluid is changed with no pressure change. It follows that the
magnitude of the velocity remains unchanged as for reaction, it occurs when the water is
accelerated or decelerated over the vanes. A force is needed to do this and the reaction to this
forces acts on the vanes. Impulsive and reaction forces are determined by examining the changes
in velocity (magnitude and direction) when the water flows over the vane.(Dunn D.J.,2000)
The vane is part of a rotor and rotates about some center point. Depending on the geometrical
layout, the inlet and outlet may or may not be moving at the same velocity and on the same
circle.
26

Figure 20. Typical Inlet vector triangle
Figure 21. Typical outlet vector triangle
Figure 22: Velocity Diagram of Kaplan turbine (Source: Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machinces by Dr.
M.N. Shesha Prakash, College of Engineering)
where, R1 is the radius of the wheel at inlet of the vane, R2 is the radius of the wheel at outlet of
the vane, U1 is the tangential speed of the vane inlet which is equal to R1, U2 is tangential
speed of the vane outlet and is equal to R2, is the angle between absolute velocity of jet and
vane at inlet, is the angle between absolute velocity of jet and vane at outlet, is the vane angle
inlet, f is the vane angle outlet, V1 is the absolute velocity at inlet, V2 is the absolute velocity at
outlet, Vr1 is the radial velocity at inlet and Vr2 is the radial velocity at outlet.(Shesha Prakash
M.N.,2005
Torque provided to the runner derivation:
27

Figure 23: Torque provided to the runner

Torque equation (see equation 1).
Force=V =( AV )(VW )
(41)
where, is the mass flow rate of water, V is the swirl velocity, is the density of inlet and A is
the Area of water
At inlet vane:
T inlet = ( AV ) ( V w 1 ) (R1 )
(42)
outlet = ( AV ) ( V w 2) (R2)
T
(43)
At outlet vane:
outlet = [ ( A V 1 ) ( V w 1 ) ( R1 ) ] [ ( A V 2 ) ( V w 2 ) ( R2 ) ]
T inlet T
(44)
Torque provided to the runner

T =A V 1 ( V w 1 R1 +V w 2 R 2)
28

(45)
Cavitation is process of rupturing a liquid by decrease in pressure at roughly constant liquid

temperature.(Brennen,C.,2015) Cavitation was first studied by Lord Rayleigh in the late 19th
century, when he considered the collapse of a spherical void within a liquid .When a volume of
liquid is subjected to a sufficiently low pressure, it may rupture and form a cavity. This
phenomenon is coined cavitation inception and may occur behind the blade of a rapidly rotating
propeller or on any surface vibrating in the liquid with sufficient amplitude and acceleration. A
fast-flowing river can cause cavitation on rock surfaces, particularly when there is a drop-off,
such as on a waterfall. (Rayleigh L.,1917)
Other ways of generating cavitation involve the local deposition of energy, such as an
intense focused laser pulse (optic cavitation) or with an electrical discharge through a
spark. Vapor gases evaporate into the cavity from the surrounding medium; thus, the cavity is not
a perfect vacuum, but has a relatively low gas pressure. Such a low-pressure bubble in a liquid
begins to collapse due to the higher pressure of the surrounding medium. As the bubble
collapses, the pressure and temperature of the vapor within increases. The bubble eventually
collapses to a minute fraction of its original size, at which point the gas within dissipates into the
surrounding liquid via a rather violent mechanism which releases a significant amount of energy
in the form of an acoustic shock wave and as visible light. At the point of total collapse, the
temperature of the vapor within the bubble may be several thousand kelvin, and the pressure
several hundred atmospheres. (Brennen C. ,2015)
The physical process of cavitation is similar to boiling. The major difference between the
two is the thermodynamic paths that precede the formation of the vapor. Boiling occurs when the
local vapor pressure of the liquid rises above its local ambient pressure and sufficient energy is
present to cause the phase change to a gas. Cavitation inception occurs when the local pressure
falls sufficiently far below the saturated vapor pressure, a value given by the tensile strength of
the liquid at a certain temperature. (Brennen C. 2015)
29

Figure 24: Phase Diagram of Water (source: Cavitation and Bubble Dynamics by Christopher Earls
Brennen, page 16)
Figure 24 shows typical graphs of pressure, p, temperature, T, and specific volume, V, in which
the state of the substance is indicated. The triple point is that point in the phase diagram at which
the solid, liquid, and vapor states coexist; that is to say the substance has three alternative stable
states. The saturated liquid/vapor line extends from this point to the critical point.
Thermodynamically it is defined by the fact that the chemical potentials of the two coexisting
phases must be equal. On this line the vapor and liquid states represent two limiting forms of a
single ``amorphous'' state, one of which can be obtained from the other by isothermal volumetric
changes, leading through intermediate but unstable states. The critical point is that point at which
the maxima and minima in the theoretical isotherm vanish and the discontinuity disappears.The
30

line joining the maxima in the theoretical isotherms is called the vapor spinodal line; the line
joining the minima is called the liquid spinodal line. Clearly both spinodals end at the critical
point. The two regions between the spinodal lines and the saturated (or binodal) lines are of
particular interest because the conditions represented by the theoretical isotherm within these
regions can be realized in practice under certain special conditions. If, for example, a pure liquid
at the state A (Figure 24) is depressurized at constant temperature, then several things may
happen when the pressure is reduced below that of point B (the saturated vapor pressure). If
sufficient numbers of nucleation sites of sufficient size are present (and this needs further
discussion later) the liquid will become vapor as the state moves horizontally from B to C, and at
pressure below the vapor pressure the state will come to equilibrium in the gaseous region at a
point such as E. However, if no nucleation sites are present, the depressurization may lead to
continuation of the state down the theoretical isotherm to a point such as D, called a ``metastable
state'' since imperfections may lead to instability and transition to the point E. A liquid at a point
such as D is said to be in tension, the pressure difference between B and D being the magnitude
of the tension. Of course one could also reach a point like D by proceeding along an isobar from
a point such as D by increasing the temperature. Then an equivalent description of the state at D
is to call it superheated and to refer to the difference between the temperatures at D and D as the
superheat.(Brennen C.,2015)
Thoma number or Cavitation number is a dimensionless number defining

the onset of cavitation.(Frederick N.G,2001)
( P aPv )
z
=
He
31

(46)
where,
is the Thoma number or Cavitation number, Pa is the Pressure atmosphere, Pv is the
Vapor pressure of the water,
is the Specific weight of the water, z is the elevation of the
turbine and He is the Effective pressure head.( Dixon S.L.and Hall C.A.,2014)
Power Specific Speed is a specification used to determine the efficiency of a turbomachinery

(Dixon S.L. and Hall C.A,2014)
0.5
sp=
P
( )
(gHe)
where,
sp
5
4
(47)
is the Power specific speed in rad, is the Shaft speed, rad per second, P is
the Shaft power, watts, g is the Gravitational acceleration, meter per second squared and He is the
Effective pressure head in meter. (Dixon S.L. and Hall C.A,2014)
The relationship between Power specific speed and Thoma number can be seen in figure 25.
32

Figure 25. Cavitation coefficient versus Power specific speed for Kaplan and Francis turbines.
(source: Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery by Dixon S.L. and Hall C.A.,page 332)
33

IV
PROCEDURE
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND GUIDELINES IN PERFORMING THE EXPERIMENT :
No Horse-Playing when performing the experiment, you might entangle yourself in the
shaft of the running turbines and pumps.

Be careful in moving around the Hydraulics Lab, since most of the time the floor is wet
and slippery.
Remove any unnecessary clothing or accessories before performing the experiment to
prevent entanglement to the shaft.

Be careful in walking to the wood planks above the water channel because you might
accidentally fall in the water channel.

In switching ON the Axial pump and the Centrifugal pump make sure that your hands are
not wet to avoid electrocution.

In performing the experiment, you should be alert at all times because you are handling a
large pressure of water and accidents may happen during the experiment.
While inside the laboratory, be aware of your surroundings. Be attentive or careful of
your experiment and the experiment of others since you are sharing the laboratory with
other people.
Be attentive on the pressure gauges of the machineries involved in the experiment.
PREPARATION:
1. First and foremost, before starting the experiment, make sure all the valves are closed and all
other connections are tight-fit and leak-free. (NOTE: to check if the valves are closed, turn the
valves fully in clockwise direction.
)
34

Figure No. 1B: All valves closed before priming (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3
Members;Bonbon John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth Anthony and Paras Peter
Nicholas)
35

2. Keep the gas cock open and the

priming cap located in the centrifugal
pump in order for the air to be
released when priming.
Vertical
position means
gas cock is
open!
Figure No. 2B: Gas cock open (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon John
Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth Anthony and Paras Peter Nicholas)
Figure No. 3B: Open the Priming cap for the air and water to come out (courtesy from: S.Y. 20162017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth
Anthony and Paras Peter Nicholas)
36

3. If the Kaplan Turbine is not used for a long time, there will be an accumulation of rust
between the Shaft of the Kaplan, Bearings and Prony brake. This accumulation of rust can cause
friction that will prevent the Kaplan Turbine from working. Relieve this friction by applying
water lubrication to the shaft by partially opening the Valve No. 9,to prevent eddy-current
brake(Muller-Girard,et al,2003) and rotate the shaft manually by the use of Pipe Wrench until the
shaft can be rotated fully counter-clockwise. (Note: Once the water lubrication is set, do not
change the lubrication because it can make the gathered data erroneous because of varying
lubrication to the shaft)
Rotate counterclockwise to
partially open.
Figure No. 4B. Opening of Valve no. 9

PRIMING:
1. Turn on the axial pump with the switch located above it to start the priming. (NOTE: Make
sure that your hands are dry to avoid electrocution)
37

The switch is
located here!
Push this to turn

on!
Figure No.5B: Turning on the Axial Pump (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3
Members;Bonbon John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth Anthony and Paras Peter
Nicholas)
38

2. Once the axial pump is turned on, open valve #4 to allow the water into the centrifugal pump.
(NOTE: To open, turn the valve in a counter-clockwise direction.
)
Figure No.6B: Opening Valve no. 4 (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon
John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth Anthony and Paras Peter Nicholas)
3. Wait for a few minutes to see to it that the water comes out of the priming cap of the
centrifugal pump.
4. If the water is still not coming out of the priming valve, strike the foot valve of the centrifugal
pump located at the bottom of the floor. This process will close the foot valve and will let the
water fill the pump and not be sucked down.
39

Strike it like
this with a
pole
This is
what you
will strike
with the
pole
Figure No.7B: Troubleshooting if water is still not coming out of the priming cap (courtesy from:
S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude,
Tigullo Kenth Anthony and Paras Peter Nicholas)
5. When water finally comes out of the priming valve, turn the shaft of the centrifugal pump to
release some of the trapped air.
40

A lot of air
bubbles!
No air
bubbles!
Turn the shaft to

remove air bubbles!
Figure No.8B: Removing Air Bubbles (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon
6. After the air is removed, the gas cock and the priming cap can now be closed.
Horizontal position
means it is closed!
Figure No.9B: Closing the gas cock (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon
7. Close the Valve No. 4 , prevent the water from escaping the Primed centrifugal pump.
41

Rotate clockwise to
close
Figure 10B. Closing valve no. 4

8. Turn-off the axial pump (NOTE: Make sure that your hands are dry to avoid electrocution)
42

Push this to turn

off!
Figure 11B. Turn off switch of Axial pump

START-UP OPERATION:
1. Slowly open the gate valve to remove or open the allowance rotation of the gate valve
before turning on the centrifugal pump.
Rotate counter-clockwise
to open. Slowly open
until the allowance has
been opened.
Figure 12B. Opening the gate valve of the centrifugal pump.

43

2. Make sure to remove any hand or clothing accessories before turning on the centrifugal pump.
Remove your I.D., watch
and other accessories that
may get tangled or that
may slow you down in
rotating the valve.
Figure 13B. Unnecessary accessories that should be removed

3. Turn on the centrifugal pump and at the same time, open the valve beside it as fast as you can
and make sure that the pressure does not cross the red line. Keep it turning as fast as you can
until the valve is fully opened.
This is the valve

that you will open
Turn counterclockwise as fast as

44
you can

Push this to
turn on
Figure No.14B: Fully Opening the Valve of the Centrifugal pump (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 MELab 3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth Anthony
and Paras Peter Nicholas)
Beware of
the red line!
Keep
Spinning!
And FAST!
Figure No. 15B: Pressure Gauge of the Centrifugal Pump (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab
3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth Anthony and
Paras Peter Nicholas)
4. Adjust the bypass valve to obtain the desired pressure.
45

Figure no. 16B. Bypass Pipe Adjustable Lever
TURBINE OPERATION
1. Make sure that the vane setting of the Kaplan turbine is at 19.5 degrees before opening
Valve No. 10. (See Figure No.17B)
2. Open Valve No.10, which is the inlet valve for the Kaplan Turbine.
46

Figure No. 17B: Opening of inlet valve of the Kaplan Turbine (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3
Group 3 Members;Bonbon John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth Anthony and Paras
Peter Nicholas)
3. When the Kaplan turbine starts rotating, adjust back the the vane setting to 2.7 degrees.
4. Put a 0.5 kg weights to the prony brake lever arm. This will serve as a load to the shaft.
5. At the given load, measure the Speed of the shaft, Inlet Pressure ,Outlet Pressure, Flow
rate of the water using V-notch weir , and Torque dissipated at the shaft using prony
brake, at different vane settings(2.7, 5, 10.5, 15.2, 19.5, 23, 26.7, 29). (See Figure No.
18B, Figure No.19B and Figure No.20B)
47

Make sure
the vane
setting is
at the
center at
the start of
the
operation.
Adjust
this for
the
propeller
to start
spinning!
Figure No. 18B: Default Settings of the Turbine at the start of the operation (courtesy from: S.Y.
2016-2017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo
Kenth Anthony and Paras Peter Nicholas)
Take the
speed here
Inlet and outlet

pressure gauge
Adjust vane setting

here
Place the weights

here
48

Figure No.18B: Kaplan Turbine (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3 Group 3 Members;Bonbon John
Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth Anthony and Paras Peter Nicholas)
Figure No. 19B: The V-notch weir and the scale reading (courtesy from: S.Y. 2016-2017 ME-Lab 3
Group 3 Members;Bonbon John Benedict,Masbad,Neil Arden, Echavia Edsel Jude, Tigullo Kenth Anthony and
Paras Peter Nicholas)
49

6. In measuring the Speed of the Shaft wait until the reading in the tachometer stabilizes,
and then record the Speed of the Shaft in rpm.
7. In measuring the Inlet and Outlet pressure, record the the highest reading the dial in the
pressure gauge can reach, since the reading in the pressure gage is fluctuating.
8. In measuring the Flow rate using the V-notch weir, wait until the reading in the Weir scale
stabilizes before recording the reading in the Weir scale.
9. In measuring the Torque using the Prony brake, wait until the Speed of the shaft stabilizes
before applying additional load. Continue this process until, the rotation of the shaft
stops.
10. Repeat procedure no.5 at different loads (0.6 kgf,0.7 kgf ,0.8 kgf, 0.9 kgf,1.0 kgf)
11. Tabulate all the data acquired.
12. Solve for the Shaft power, Water power, Efficiency and Cavitation.
13. Graph graph for the vane setting vs shaft power, vane setting vs shaft speed, shaft speed
vs shaft torque, vane setting vs efficiency and cavitation vs efficiency at different shaft
loads.
SHUTTING DOWN:
1. Gradually close valve #10, to prevent a Water Hammer Effect. (NOTE: Water hammer can
create a pressure build up that can damage the foot valve, pipe flanges and the centrifugal
pump)( Government of the Northwest Territories Municipal and Community Affairs(2003); Bureau of
Indian Standards(1987);)
2. Close Valve No. 9. (See figure 4B)

3. Return the vane setting to the center.
4. Gradually close the gate valve of the centrifugal pump, wait until it reaches the red line of the
inlet pressure gage of the gate valve.
5. When the inlet pressure of the gate valve reaches the red line, turn off the centrifugal pump
and close the gate valve as fast as you can to prevent a hammering effect of the water to the foot
valve.
50

SUGGESTED TABULATION OF RESULTS
Table 1B. Load : 0.5 kg

Vane
Setting
Shaft Speed
(rpm)
(degrees)
Inlet
Outlet
Pressure
Pressure
(kgf/cm2)
(kgf/cm2)
Weir Scale
Reading
(cm)
Prony
Shaft
weights
Torque
(kgf)
(Nm)
Table 1B. (continuation)

Flow Rate
Effective
Shaft
Water
Efficiency
Thoma
Power
(m3/s)
Pressure
Power
Power
(%)
Number
Specific
Head
(Watts)
(Watts)
(m)
Speed
(rad)
51

Table 2B. Load: 0.7 kg

Vane
Setting
Shaft Speed
(rpm)
Inlet
Pressure
Outlet Pressure
Weir Scale
(kgf/cm2)
Reading
(kgf/cm2)
(degrees)
(cm)
Prony
Shaft
weights
Torque
(kgf)
(Nm)
Table 2B. (continuation)

Flow Rate
Effective
Shaft
Water
Efficiency
Thoma
Power
(m3/s)
Pressure
Power
Power
(%)
Number
Specific
Head
(Watts)
(Watts)
52

Speed
(m)
VI
(rad)
REFERENCES
Brennen,C.,(2015). Cavitation and Bubble Dynamics . Oxford University,10-16,18-21,23-25.

Bureau of Indian Standards,(1987). Handbook of Water Supply and Drainage with special
emphasis on plumbing,Manak Bhavan,Bahadur Shah Zafar,New Delhi,31.
Dixon S.L. and Hall C.A.,(2010). Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery 6th
edition, University of Liverpool and University of Cambridge United
Kingdom,306,371,372.
Dixon S.L.and Hall C.A.,(2014). Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery 7th
edition, The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford,225 Wyman Street,
Waltham,USA,33,304.
Dunn D.J.,(2000). Fluid Mechanics-Water Turbine,University of Minnesota,5.
Evers
C.(2000).Principles
of
Dynamometer
Operation,Minnesota
Mankato,1.
53

State
University-
Frederick
N.G..(2001).
Incompressible
Flow
Turbomachines:
Design,
Selection, Applications, and Theory,University of Pulberick,272.

Government of the Northwest Territories Municipal and Community Affairs,(2003). Class II
Water reatment Plant Operator Program Manual, FSC Architects & Engineers 4910
53rd Street,69.
Horton R.,(2005). Department Of The Interior United States Geological Survey, University of
California,10-11.
Kindsvater C.,(2003). Studies of Flow of Water Over Weirs and Dams-Discharge Characteristics
of Embankment-Shaped Weirs, Duke University,103.
Kothandaraman C.P.,(2007). Fluid Mechanics and Machinery 2nd edition, Ansari Road,
Daryaganj, New Delhi,53,500,501.
Merkly G.,(1999). Weirs for Flow Measurement ,Schertwick, Germany, 62.
Muller-Girard, et al, (2003). Instrumentation and Control, Department of Civil
Engineering,College of Engineering, University of Delaware,l5.
Rayan M.,et al, (1985). Textbook of Machines Hydraulic, Zagazig University, 145.
Rayleigh,L., (1917). On the pressure developed in a liquid during the collapse of a spherical
cavity. Philosophical Magazine Series,9498
Sato A. and Goto K.,(2004). Commissioning of 87,000 kW Kaplan Turbine and Generator
Hitachi Review Vol. 53, Otori Power Station,115.
Shesha M.N.,(2005). Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machine ,Prakash College of Engineering,85.
54

Shortridge R. ,(1989). Viktor Kaplan and the Adjustable-Blade Propeller Turbine,3,4-10.

South African National Standards,(1997). Water supply and drainage for buildings,
SABS Standards Division,Lategan Road Groenkloof,115.
The Flow Pioneers,(1995). Complete Flow and Level Measurement Handbook and
Encyclopedia,Brooklyn University,8.
55


Lab Guide - Kaplan Turbine

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Lab Guide - Kaplan Turbine

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PERFORMANCE TEST OF KAPLAN TURBINE

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

brake and Load measuring

Figure 3. Wooden - Meter Stick

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Figure 4. Weights (0.1 Kg, 0.2 Kg, 0.5 Kg and 1 Kg)

Figure 5. Pipe Wrench

Figure 6. Steel Pipe

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Figure 7. V-notch Weir

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Table 1. Operating Ranges of Hydraulic Turbines

Needle valve and

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Figure 14. Lever arm (Torque Derivation)

where F is force in newton and r is radius of rotation in meter.

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Using Buckingham Pi method, 3 repeating variables (,,h)

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

since, =g (equation 13)

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Water power is given by the formula,

Shaft power is given by the formula,

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

A2, P2, V2, H2

A1, P1, V1, H1

Figure 18. Flow of water through a pipe from point 1 to point 2

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

rearranging equation 35,

Dividing both sides with gravity, g

where, W is work, E is energy E

is Change in energy, F is force, d is distance, v is

is density, P is pressure, g is gravity, h is head, t

time, A is area, PE is potential energy, KE is Kinetic energy and m is mass.

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Where, P1 is pressure of water at point 1, P2 is pressure of water at point 2, V1 is velocity of water

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Figure 20. Typical Inlet vector triangle

Figure 21. Typical outlet vector triangle

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Figure 23: Torque provided to the runner

Torque provided to the runner

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Cavitation is process of rupturing a liquid by decrease in pressure at roughly constant liquid

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

Thoma number or Cavitation number is a dimensionless number defining

Barcelona, Paquibulan, Sesbreo

is the Thoma number or Cavitation number, Pa is the Pressure atmosphere, Pv is the