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Introduction:
Vibration is defined as a motion which repeats after equal interval of time and is
also a periodic motion.The swinging of a pendulum is a simple example of
vibration.Vibration occurs in all bodies which are having mass and elasticity. They
are caused due to several reasons such as presence of unbalanced force in rotating
machines, elastic nature of the system, external application of force or wind loads
and earthquakes. Vibrations are undesirable as they induce high stresses in system
components leading to noise and failure, in such cases they are to be minimized if
not totally eliminated.. The desirable effects are seen in musical instruments and
cement compactors used in construction work.
From subject point of view the following notations and definitions are very
important:
Periodic Motion:
It is a motion which repeats itself after equal intervals of time, e.g., the
oscillations of simple pendulum
Time Period (T) :
It is the time required for one complete cycle or to and fro motion.The unit is
seconds.
Frequency (f or ) :
It is the number of cycles per unit time. The unit are radians/sec. or Hz.
Amplitude (X or A) :
It is the displacement of a vibrating body from its equilibrium position. It has
units of length in general
.
Natural Frequency (fn):
It is the frequency with which a body vibrates when subjected to an initial
external disturbance and allowed to vibrate without external force being applied
subsequently.
Fundamental Mode of Vibration:
A vibrating body may have more than one natural frequency and when it vibrates
with the lowest natural frequency ,it is the Fundamental mode of vibration.
Degrees of Freedom:
It is the minimum number of coordinates required to describe the motion of
system. Typically in our discussions 1DOF system will have one mass, e.g., a spring
attached with one mass , 2 DOF system will have two masses and likewise we have
3DOFsystem. A continuous system like a beam or plate consisting of infinite number of
particles with mass, are systems with infinite number of DOF.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):
It is a periodic motion with acceleration always directed towards the equilibrium
position. It can also be defined as projection of motion of a particle along a circle with
uniform angular velocity on the diameter of circle.
Damping:
It is the resistance offered to the motion of a vibrating body by absorbing the
energy of vibrations. Such vibrations are termed as damped vibrations
.
Forced Vibrations:
It is the vibration of a body when subjected to an external force which is periodic
in nature and vibrations occur as long as external force is present.
Resonance:
It is said to occur in the system when the amplitude of vibrations are excessive
leading to failure. This occurs in forced vibrations when the frequency of externally
applied force is same as that of natural frequency of the body.
Linear and Non Linear Vibrations:
When the vibrations are represented by linear differential equations and laws of
superposition are applicable for the system, we have Linear systems. Non linear
vibrations are experienced when large amplitudes are encountered and laws of
superposition are not applicable.
Longitudinal, Transverse and Torsional Vibrations:
When the motion of mass of the system is parallel to the axis of the system, we
have Longitudinal vibrations. When the motion of mass is perpendicular to the system
axis the vibrations are Transverse vibrations and when the mass twists and untwists
about the axis the vibrations are Torsional vibrations. Up and down motion of mass in a
spring mass system represents Longitudinal vibrations. Vibration of a cantilever beam
represents Transverse vibrations. The twisting and untwisting of a disc attached at the end
of a shaft represents Torsional vibrations.
Vector representation of SHM:
Any SHM can be represented as by the equation , x = A Sint ---(1) , where x is
the displacement , A is the amplitude , is the circular frequency and t is the time.
Analytical method:
We know that, x = x1 + x2 = A Sin (t+ )
Make x1 and x2 to have same Sin terms always , i.e., x2 = 4 cos(t +10 + 90) =
4Sin (t +100 )
Hence, A Sin (t+ )= 3 Sin (t + 30) + 4 Sin (t +100 )
Expanding LHS and RHS
ASin t Cos + A cos t Sin =3 Sin t cos 30 + 3Cos tSin30 + 4 Sin t cos 100
+ 4 Sin t sin 100
A Sin t Cos + A cost Sin = Sin t(1.094) + Cos t (5.44)
Comparing the coefficients of A Cos and A Sin in the above equation
ACos = 1.094, ASin = 5.44 , tan = ASin / ACos = 5.44/1.904
Therefore , = 70.7 and A = 1.094/Cos 70.7 = 5.76 .
Graphical Method.:
Draw ox the reference line. With respect to ox, draw oa equal to 3 units in length at an
angle of 30 to ox and ob equal to 4 units at an angle of 100 to ox. Complete the
vector
polygon by drawing lines parallel to oa and ob to intersect at point c. Measure oc
which should be equal to A and the angle oc makes with ox will be equal to . All
angles measured in anticlockwise direction.
c
b
x
xx
2) Repeat the above problem given , x1 = 2Cos(t + 0.5) and x2 = 5Sin(t + 1.0) .
The angles are in radians.
(Hint: In the above problem the angles are to be converted to degrees. Ans. A = 6.195,
= 73.49 )
Beats Phenomenon:
Consider two harmonics x1 and x2 of slightly different frequencies and the A cos
resulting motion will not be a SHM. Due to existence of different frequencies the
phase difference of the two vectors keeps on changing and shifting w.r.t time. The two
harmonics when in phase have their resultant amplitude to be sum of individual
amplitudes and when they are out of phase the resultant amplitude is difference of
individual amplitudes. This phenomenon of varying of resultant amplitude is called as
Beats and this occurs at a frequency given by the difference of the individual
frequencies of the two vectors.
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
time
****************
a0=(/2) x(t)dt
0
0.2
a0= (10/2) (-20t +2 ) dt = 0
0
0.2
an = (/) x(t)cos(nt)dt
0
=0
0.2
bn = (/) x(t)sin(nt)dt
0
= (4/n)
Thus, the harmonic series is , x(t) = 4/ (1/n) sin10nt , for n =1,2,..
5) A periodic motion is represented by a saw tooth wave form, the amplitude is 0 at t=0
and rises to 10 cm, at t=0.3, it then drops down to zero at t = 0.3 ,and remains
zero for next 0.2 seconds and one cycle is completed. The next cycle again starts at t=0.5
secs. Represent the above cycle in form of a harmonic series.
X,
c
m
s
10
Sec.
0.3
0.2
mx
m
mg
Displ. x
This consists of a single spring attached with a single mass. The Various ways in
which the equation of motion is obtained are :
a) Newtons Method b) Energy Method and c) Rayleigh Method
Newtons Method
When a mass m is attached to a spring it deflects by and the system is under
equilibrium as mg = weight = k, where k is the spring stiffness, defined as force per unit
length. If now the mass m is given a displacement x in the downward direction and the
system is allowed to vibrate, we have the following forces acting on the system: the
spring force, k(x+) acting in the upward direction, inertia force
mxacting in the upward direction and force mg acting in the direction of displacement x
downwards. The equation of motion is written taking equilibrium of forces as:
mx = - k(x+) + mg
= -kx-k+mg
= -kx-k+k
Or mx + kx = 0, which is the governing differential equation for a single degrr of
freedom system. Rewriting the equation of motion as
x+ (k/m) x = 0, we have the quantity (k/m) 1/2 as the natural frequency of the system
n .
Energy Method:
In this method the concept of total energy of the system, which is the
sumof Kinetic energy (T) and Potential energy(V) , is made use of which remains
constant always for any configuration of system while it is vibrating
For a single DOF system of spring and mass, the kinetic energy is givenby (1/2)mx and
the potential energy stored in the system is (1/2)kx 2 . As the total energy of the system
remains constant, we have T+V = 0 or d(T+V)/dt = 0. Differentiating we have the
governing differential equation as mx + kx = 0, and the natural frequency is given by
n = (k/m)1/2.
Rayleighs Method:
In this method the max kinetic energy of the system is equated to the
maximum potential energy. For SHM the max. kinetic energy is at the mean position
which is equated to the potential energy. If A is the amplitude of vibration and n is the
natural frequency the max. kinetic energy is given by (1/2)m( n A)2 and max. potential
energy is (1/2)kA2 . Equating the two equations and simplifying we have again n =
(k/m)1/2.
SPRINGS IN SERIES AND SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
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Consider figure (b) where the springs are in series. When the mass is subjected to a force
F, the displacement of mass m is equal to deflections of sprimgs 1 & 2. Hence we can
write, the displacement of the equivalent spring as,
= 1 + 2
Where 1 deflection of spring 1.and 2 deflection of spring 2.
Hence we can write
F/Ke = F/K1 + F/K2
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Problem:
1) Obtain an equivalent spring mass system and expression for n. for 3 springs in series
and in parallel configuration
K1
K2
K3
m
Ke= K1 + K2 + K3
Ke
Natural frequency
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n = (K e / m) , Therefore n =
Therefore n =
K1 K 2 K 3
m
(1 / K 1 1 / K 2 1 / K 3)
m
Solution:
Given
m = 109 N
K1 = 10N/mm
K2 = 10N/mm
K3 = 5N/mm
The spring equivalent when parallel springs are added, we have
13
Ke1 = K1 + K2
= 20 N/mm
Ke = Ke1 + K3
Ke1 + K3
= 20 (5)
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= 4 N/mm
= 4000 N/m
n = (Ke / m)
Therefore n = 18.97 rad/s
Frequency = fn = n /2
= 3.012 Hz
***********
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y
L
k
dy
Consider a spring mass system as shown in the figure where the mass is displaced
by x. dy is a small elemental spring length at a distance of y from the fixed end.
L be the length of the spring. Let x and x be the velocity and acceleration of mass.
The total K.E of the system is the sum of K.E of the mass m and K.E
considering the mass of the spring.
The velocity of the spring element at a distance of y from the fixed end is xy/L
We can write the K.E of the spring element dy as ( )(Rho)(dy)(xy/L) 2
Where Rho is the mass density
Above expression is of the form KE = mv2.
The K.E for the entire spring considering the mass of the spring becomes
L
( )(Rho)(dy)(xy/L) 2
0
L
= (Rho) x2 / 2l2 (y3/3)
0
2
= 1/6 (Rho)x L
= 1/6 Ms.x2
Problems
3 ) Determine the equation of motion and natural frequency of the system shown
k
x1
M
O
16
Solution:
It is assumed that:
17
m
r
m
Answer: + ((m +(mr /2))/((m+(mr /3))(g/L) = 0
fn = (((m +(mr /2))/((m+(mr /3))(g/L))/2, Hz
*************
3) A circular cylinder of mass m and mass moment of inertia I is connected by a
spring of stiffness k as shown. If it is free to roll without slipping, determine the
natural frequency.
18
a
k
m
**
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Forced Vibrations
Forced vibrations are those whose amplitudes are maintained by application of
external forces.Ringing of electric bell or machine tool vibrations are examples of forced
vibrations.The external force maintaining the vibrations are called external excitation and
are random, periodic or impulsive in nature.
Basic sources of excitation are external or inherent to the system. Machine
subsystems are heated unevenly during operation and give rise to uneven deformation
leading to generation of unbalanced force,Resonance of system produces large
amplitudes leading to unbalanced forces.Similarly, defective assembly , bending and
distortion of components, bearing defects leading to misalignment, uneven distribution of
mass in rotating components lead to creation of unbalanced forces causing a system to
vibrate forcibly.
Forced vibration of damped single degree of freedom system
kx
Cx
Fsint
mx
kx is the spring force, cx is the damping force and mx is the inertia force and
Fsint is the external excitation . x is the displacement of mass in the direction shown.
The equation of motion is written as
mx+cx+ kx = Fsint ----(i)
The solution of above equation is in 2 parts, i) Complimentary function (cf) and ii)
particular integral(pi). The total solution x = x(cf) + x(pi). The x(cf) is the solution of
equation mx+cx+ kx = 0, which is written as Ae-nt sin(d t + ). The particular integral
x(pi) is assumed to be in the form x = X sin(t - ), thus we have dx/dt = x as
Xsin( t-+/2) and (dx/dt)2 = x = 2 Xsin( t-+), substituting the values of x amd
x in eqn. (i), we have,
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kx
F
x
reference
cX
m2 X
From the geometry of diagram, we have,
F2 = (kx m2 X) 2 + (cX)2, simplifying
X = F/((k m2 ) 2 + (c)2)
Therefore, the total solution can be written as,
x = x(cf) + x(pi)
= Ae-nt sin(d t + ) + F sin(t-) (/((k m2 ) 2 + (c)2) ----(ii)
The eqn(ii) is total response which consists of two parts, first being the transient
part, the first term in RHS , which dies out with time and the second part the x(pi), is the
steady state vibration which does not die with time.
The expressions for amplitude X in dimensionless form and phase angle are as follows:
X = (F/k)/(1-( 2/n 2 )2 + (2/ n )2 , (F/k) is called the Zero frequency deflection which
is the deflection of spring mass under a steady force.
The phase angle, = tan-1 ((2/ n )/ 1-( 2/n 2))
Magnification Factor:
In a vibrating system the transient vibrations die out after passage of time and the
steady state vibration continues with constant amplitude as long as the external
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excitations exsist, and this makes the study of steady state vibrations to be important for
study and analysis.
Magnification factor M.F. is one parameter in study of forced vibrations which is defined
as the ratio of amplitude of steady state response X to Xst the zero frequency deflection or
the static response under steady load F.
The M.F . is given by, M.F. = X/Xst = 1/((1-( 2/n 2 )2 + (2/ n )2 )
This M.F. depends upon the frequency ratio /n and the damping factor . From
the plots of M.F. versus frequency ratio and phase angle, versus frequency ratio also
called frequency response curves following observations can be made: (Refer any
standard text for detailed curves)
MF
/n
/n
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
22
mx+cx+kx = Feit
the response of which is x = X ei(t ) . substituting the expressions for x and x into the
equation of motion and simplifying , we have (-m2 +ic +k) X ei(t ) = Feit , from
which ,
Xe -i =(F/(k - m2 ) + ic), from which using x = X ei(t ) , the real part of x is given by
Re(Feit /(k - m2 ) +ic).
Introducing the complexfrquency response H() as ratio of output Xe i to input F
i.e, H() = Xe i / F = (1/(k - m2 ) +ic)
= X/Xst = 1/((k - m2 ) 2 +(c) 2 )
The phase angle, = tan -1 (c/(k m2 ))
Rotating and Reciprocating unbalance
a = esint
e = eccentricity
m o 2 e
x
a
mo
x
m
23
The equation of motion for this system can be written considering the effective
mass m-mo and the unbalanced mass mo.
Referring figure as shown below, we have the effective displacement of mo is sum
of x and esint. Hence we can write the equation of motion in the vertical direction as
(m-mo)x + (mo)d2(x + esint) /dt2 = - Kx Cx
mo2e/K
(1 ( w/w n ) 2 ) 2 ( 2lyw / wn ) 2
Therefore
__X__ =
(moe/m)
(w/wn)2
(1 ( w/w n ) 2 ) 2 ( 2lyw / wn ) 2
24
25
26
Frame
Figure shows a basic sesmic instrument used for measuring vibrations. When the system
is excited by the vibrations of the base, the mass m is subjected to a displacement x. If
we consider y be the motion of the base, then the absolute amplitude of mass m is the
displacement x. If Z is considered as the displacement of mass m w.r.t the frame,
then we have a relative motion of m w.r.t the frame.
Absolute amplitude: (neglect z)
Let the displacement of base be y viz: a sinusoidal motion, given by
y = Ysint
For such a system the equation for motion can be written as
27
x
mx
K(x-y)
C(x-y)
mx + K(x-y) + C(x-y) = 0
i.e, mx + Cx + Kx Ky - Cy = 0
Substituting for y and y, we get
mx + Cx + Kx Kysint Cycost = 0
mx + Cx + Kx = y {Kysint + Ccost = 0}
= y(K2 + (c)2 ).sin(t + )
(1)
y (K2 + (c)2 )
((K - (c2)2 + (c)2)
Therefore X/y =
(b)
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If the displacement of the mass is considered relative to the frame and if this
relative displacement is called z , then we have,
z=xy
or,
x=y+z
substituting this value of x in the equation of motion,
m(y + z)+c(y+z)+K(y+z-y) = 0
my+mz+cz+kz = - my
mz + cz + kz = -m(-2 y sint)
i.e., mz + cz + kz = m2 y sint
similar to eqn b, we have
z/y = (/n)2 / ((1 (/n)2)2 + (2/n)2 )
The expressions for is same as given above for absolute amplitude.
Energy dissipated by Damping.
When a syatem undergoes steady state forced vibration swith viscous damping, energy
gets absorbed by the dashpot . The energy dissipated or workdone per cycle is given by,
Energy dissipated/ cycle = cx2 , where x is the amplitude of steady state vibrations.
The power required for vibrating the system can be obtained by the relation
Power = Energy dissipated/ cycle / Sec. , Watts.
Sharpness of Resonance:
In forced vibration, quantity Q is related to damping which becomes a measure of the
sharpness of resonance. It also gives the side band of frequencies 1 and 2 on either side
of the resonance by which resonance can be avoided during operation. The expression of
Q is given as follows:
Q = n / (2 - 1) = 1/2
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