lntroductian

Temperature is a measure of a material's internal mclecular activity. As the level of moiecular

activity rises, the temperature of a suhstance increases. Hof and cotld are sub.iective, qualitative
descriptione of the rise in nrolecular activity. The need for more consistent and accurate ways to
describe ternperature led to the invention of temperature*measuring devices, or sensors.

Sensors use standard, universally recognized temperature scales. Because these scales rely on
fixed points in nature (e.9., freezing point of water), they provide a wayto describetemperature
that is both objective and quantitative. The principles of the four universally recognized
temperature measurement scales and their relationships to one another are presented in this
module.
Many types of sensors are available for applications both in the home and in lndustry. Two
commonly used types are discussed in this rnodule: resistance temperature cletectors (RTDs)
and thermocouples (T/Cs). You will learn about the principles on which RTDs and T/Cs operate
and how they are constructed. You will also learn about additional apparatus needed to protect
sensors and to transrnit their signals to process control systems.
The following five sections are included in this module.
*i
* Why frlleasure Temperature? l-2
* Temperature Measurement Scales2-3 - |
n Ternperature Sensorsg-l[ - g.
n Thermowells l5-lto - ?
. Transmitting the Temperature Sensor Signal lb-2fr -

PE RFORIUAIdCE OBJ ECTIVE

After you have completed this module, you will understand and be able to explain the basls
upon which temperature products are differentiated in the process rneasurement industry.
LEAR}qINS OBJECTIVE
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
a List and briefiy explain the four most common reasons for measuring temperature:
- Product quality and yield
- Efficiency
- Safety
- Custody transfer

Why Measure Temperature?

PRODUCT QUALITY AND YIELD
fu'lany chemical reactions can only create the desired products under specific conditions, which
often requires a specific temperature" Even a few degrees of variation from the optimum
temperature often results in very little production of the desired product-insteaci, waste product
is created. To ensure a quality product, accurate temperature measurement and preclse control
are necessary. Effective separation of products in a distillation column relies upon precise
temperature control, as do catalytic cracking processes.
EFFICIET.dCV

Accurate tenrperature measurements increase process efficiency. For example, consider an air
conditioning supplier that services several large facilities. An accurate measurement of energy
expenditure determines customer billings. The supplier measures the amount of cooling
provided by comparing the temperature of the hot air coming into the air conditioner to the
temperaiure of the cooler air given off by the air conditloner. If one or both of these
temperatures is inaccurately measured, the supplier may expend more energy than is
necessary to cool the air and thus overcharge customers. Accurate temperature measurements
prevent the supplier from overcooling the air, which saves energy and increases efficiency.

SAFETY
Accurate temperature measurements help to ensure safety in process industry environments'
the
Temperatures can increase rapidty in exothermic (giving off heat) chemical reections-if
temperatures are not closely watched and controlled, explosions could result.

CUgTCfiY TruEMSF'FR
is ba*ed
Often, the anlount of material that is bought and sold (referred to as cusfody transfer)
in a
contained
material
of
gas.
amount
The
of
on a measurement of the volumetric flow rate
falfing
with
increases
and
specific volunre of sas decreases with rising ternpcratures
of the gas
temperatur.es. Therefdre, it is extremely irnportant to know the exact temperature
custody
during
when determining volumeti'ic flcw rate. lnaccurate tempenature measurements
gas
custody
transfer cpplications result in over- or undercharging of customers' A netural
transfer application is one example of when temperature measurements are requirec'
Tern parature F-4easu rernent $cales
understood
Temperature mea$urement scales provide an accurate, consistent, and universally
way to measure temPerature.

LEARNII{G OEJECTIVE
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
List and briefly expl*in the three types of temperature scales:
- Fahrenheit
- Celsius
- Absolute (Kelvin and Rankine)

'

The three temperatur.e measurement scales in use today are:

r
o

Celsius (also called Centigrade)

Absolute (Kelvin and Rankine)

though the scales v?ere

Thnee features are cornmon to the developnrent of these scales, even

developed at different tlmes and by different people:

the
Two or more fixed point$ are chosen and assigned to a specific temperature ,on
Celsius
point
both
for
scale. For example, the freezing point of water ii used as a fixed
scales.
(0 "C) and Fahrenheit (32'F)

o
,

phenomenon-usually
Each fixed point ls associated v,rlth an observable or measurable
which
a physical property that changes predictably at the fixed polnt {e.g., the points at
water boils or freezes).

A stanclard method is used to establish numerical values for measurements that fall
hetween the fixed Points.

points) fall on each ot the

Figure 4.1 shows where the boiling and freezing points of water (fixed
four temperature sceles.

Walct

Boitr

Based on
Ahsolt"rte Zaro

1,{ate{

Fftar*g

l?',

(@)
Fahrenheit

Celsius

Rankina

Kelvin

Figure 4.1: Temperature lVleasurement Scale Comparison

FAHREIJHEIT SCALE
Gabriel Fahrenheit is credited with creating the first universally recognized temperature scale.
The scale originally used three fixed points:
of ice water and salt (assigned 0')
"r Temperature of a mixture (assigned
30")
Temperature ef ice water
n Body temperature of a heatthy person (assigned 96')
On this scale, Fahrenheit measured the boiling point of waterto be 212". Fle lateradjusted the
freezing point of water to 32q so that the interval between the boiling and freezing points of
water could be represented bythe more rational number 180. Temperatures measured on this
scale ar* given in degrees Fahrenheit ('F).
To convert a temperature from Fahrenheit to Celsius, use the following equation:
q.

'C = {"F-321H

LT

cEr$rus sc"4rF
The Ceisius scale, also known as the Centigrade scale, was devised by Anders Celsius. On the
original scale, the freezing poirrt of water was 100' and the boiling point of water was 0'.
Several years later, the two points were reversed. Today, 100" designates the boiling point of
water, and 0' designates the freezing poinrt of water, Tennperatures mea$ured on this scale
are given in degrees Celsius ('C).
To convert a terylperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit, use the following equation;

*F
i'
i*re

11.8

'"C + 32

ABSCILUTE SC,4IFS
The search for more consistency and accuracy than the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales provided
led to the development of the Kelvin and Rankine scales, or absolute scales. Absalute sca/es
are scales that measure temperature relative to absolute zero. Absolute z*ra is the lourest
possible temperature of matter, or the temperature at which molecular activity ceases. Absolute
scales are not often used in process industries.
Kelviar $*aEe
Absolute zero on the Kelvin scale is equal to 0 'K. lncrements on the Kelvin scale are equal to

incrementsontheCelsiusscale_thatis,1.K=1.C'
Rankine $cale
Absolute zero on the Rankine scale is equalto 0 'R. lncrements on the Rankine scale are equal
to increments on the Fahrenheit scale-that is, 1 "R = 1 oF.

Tennperatu!'e Sensors
ln industrial environments, high process temperatures, pressures, and vibration make it
necessary to have a robust temperature sensor. Fast response time, accuracy, and stability are
also needed. While several types of temperature sensors are available, the iwo most comrnonly
used in the process measurement incJustry are resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and
thermocouples (TiCs).
LEARPdING OBJECTIVES

After you have conrpleted this section, you will be able to:

o
n
n

Describe the general construction and identify the materials of temperature sensors:
- RTD element
- TiC element
Explain the operation of RTDs and T/Cs and how a temperature measurement is
obtained
Compare RTDs and TlCs in terms of their overall performance and cost

RTDs and TlCs have severalesnstruction charaeteristics in common

{Figure 4.2):
Sensing element
Sensor sheath
l-ead wires
Threaded adaptor (optional)

.
.
r"

Figure
It e'v 4.2:
Common
vvrrlrlrvrl
Temperature
I ElllHslcl(ulc;
\)
Sensor
Charactoristics
-'a'
'

ttt

SENSI$-{G ELEMENT
The sensing elernent (RTD element or T/C hot junction) is located at the tip of the temperature
sensor, on the end that is exposed to the process temperature. The sensing element, which is
constructed of metal, responds to the process temperature by generating a measurable
resistance (in RTDs) or voltage (in TiCs) signal.

SHEATH

SENSOR
9
The sensor sheath, or cable housing, is constructed of metal and holds most of the component
Barts of the ternperature sensor. The sensor packing, typically magnesium oxide (MgO),
surrounds the sensing element and is contained within the sensor sheaih. The sensor packing
decreases the impact of process vibration on the sensing element and thus ensures'a more
accLirate measurement" The end of the sensor sheath is sealed with a fill (e.g., epoxy) that
keeps moisture out of the sheath and away from the sensing element.

LEAD WIRES
Lead wires are attached to the sensing elernent and then passed thror.lgh the sensor sheath.
The lead wires are insulated before exiting the sensor sheath. Lead wirei connect the sensing*
element either directly to a distributed control system (DCS) or to a temperature transmitter,
connected to a DCS (see lransmrlfers).

lntemal lead wires are the part of the lead wires inside the sen6or sheath. Extemat lead wires
are the part of the lead wires outside the sensor sheath.
THREADED ADAPTOR
The threaded adaptor is welded over the rear housing of the sensor sheath. One end of the
threaded adaptor threads into a thermowell or directly i-nto ttre process piping. The other end is
typically threaded into a temperature transmitter, connection head,'or conduit connection
(Figure 4.3).

Threaded Adaptor

Threads into

n
Piprng

)uu i"*

Transrniter,

Ca*nection H+ad. or
Conduit

Figure 4.3: Threaded Adaptor

RiDs operate on the principle that the electrical resistance of a metal increases as temperature
increases, a phenomenon known as thermoresistivity. A temperature measurement can be
inferred by measuring the resistance

o,f

the RTD element.

RT'S SE!{S!NG ELEMENT }-qATERIALS

Thermoresistive characterlstics of RTD sensing elements vary depending on the metal *r alioy
from which they are made. To be useful in an RTD element, the metal or alloy must have the
fol lowin g cha racteristics:
A predictable relationship between temperature and resistance
Relatlvely high resistance that can be measured easily
Physical strength
Stability (will not melt or freeze) over the measuned temperature range
A large, easily measurable change in resistance for a given change in temperature

o
o
e
"*

The three types of resistance metals mCIst cCImmonly used to construC RTDs are platlnurn,
copper, and nrickel.

Flatinum
Platinum RTD elements are the most common type of RTD element used in process industries.
Pfa{inum elements have high accuracy, high repeatability, and a high resistance change per
d*gree of temperature change. ln addition, platinurn RTD elements are highly linear throughout
their tem perature range.

Copper
Copper RTD elcments are highly linear throughout their temperature range, but have limitec{
accuracy and a narrower temperature range than platinum elements. Copper elenients are mcst
often used for measuring temperature in bearings and motor windings-applications !n which
a-ccuracy is not critical.

Nickel
Nickel RTD elements haye a high resistance change per degree of temperature change, but
have poor linearity, limlted accuracy, and a relatively narrow ternperature range, Nickel
elenrents are rrrost commonly used in aoplications in which accuracy is not critical"
Figure 4.4 compares thermoresistive characteristics for platinum, nickel, and copper RTD
elements. (Note the platinum element's wider temperature range and more linear curve).
[*,v

;.1

flicr(ei

l,;

'n
tri
'fi
trr

Pla:in{im

'a

Crrpp,rt

@ll
E

r)

{rr 0
Sull (i00
iu0
30u lllu
(?1?) i3er) ("i??) {T-,"zj (el?i (l ,1?)
Ttm p*rature, "C

t'F

Figure 4.4: Thermoresistive Characteristics of RTD Elements

Table 4,1 compares resistance temperature characteristics for piatinum, nlckel, and copper RTD
elements.

-260 t{} 800'C

Average
temperature
coefficlent of
resistanc8frorn

*{00 to 50il

0.0S385 to
0.0s67
0-003925 fi/{-J "C

"C

dzl$'c

-100 tc 150 "C

0-0042

(ur}'c

0-100'c
Llnearity
tl'lroughout
ternpemture
range
.

. \.'^*\h
.-b

Very good

Table 4.1: Thermoresistive Characteristics of RTD Elements

RTD SENSING ELEMENT DESIGN

RTD elements are available in several designs. The two most cornmon designs are:
Wire wound
Thin film

r
o

Wire-Wound RTD Sensing Elements

Wre-wound RTD sensing elements are constructed by coiling a platinum (or other resistance
metal) wire in or around a ceramic mandrel (spindle). Figure 4.5 shows an externally wound
sensing

element,

'

,,o

A dual-element RTD can be created by coiling a second set of wires inside (internally wound) or
outside the ceramic rnandrel. lf connected to a second transmitter, a transmitter with dualsensor capabilities, or to another DCS card, a dual-elemenf sensor increases the reliability of
the temperature measurement.

Figure 4.5: Externally Wound RTD Sensing Element

Wire-wound RTD elements are very sturdy and reliable. Compared to thin-film RTD elements,
their accuracy tends to be higher, but their time response (how quickly the electronic output
reflects temperature change) tends to he slightly slower" Wire-wound RTD elements work well
for a wide variety of applications, although they may fail in high-vibration areas"

Thin-Film RTD Sensing Elernents

Thin-film RTD sensing elements (Figure 4.6) are constructed by depositing a thin film of
resistance metal onto a mramic substrate (base piece) and trimming the metalto specifications.
Sensing elements of thin-film construction are typically less expensive than those of wire-wound
construction because less resistance metal is required for construction. Thin-film RTD elernents
have a response rate that is 1-2 seconds faster than wire-wound RTD elements.

Resistance ,fuIetal

k.!
i

r
tur

i,
u@

Figure 4.6: Thin-Film RTD Element

i6$

" RTD sENslNG ELEMTENT REstsrANcE

MEAsuREtvlENT
To get an accurate temperature reading from an RTD, the resistance of the RTD sensing
element must be measured.

Each copper lead wire that connects the RTD sensing element to the resistance measuring
device adds a small amount of resistance into the measurement. lf this added resistance is
ignored, an error is introduced and an inaccurate temperature measurement results. The error is
referred to as a lead wire effect. The longer the wire run, the greater the error, or lead wire
effect, reflected in the temperature measurement.
ii'
l

iM,

To compensate for lead wire effect, three-wire and four-wire. RTDs are used ifistead of two-wire
RTDs. Three-wire RTDs are created by soldering one additional copper wire onto one of the
Iead wires. Four-wire RTDs are created by soldering one additional copper lead wire to each of
the existing lead wires (Figure 4.7).

l}ird

3"wir|RTD

2.xire RTD
tgs

qiar

f,r.drr r .,t
itl *16"1
-

qnanr' *
*L *rt

Figure 4.7: Two-, Three-, and Four-Wire RTDs

Two'WEre RTSs
Two-wire RTDs do not compnsate for lead wire effects" Resistance of the two lead wires is
added into the resistance'of the RTD element, which results in an inaccurate ternperature
reading.

Three-Wire RTDs
Three-wire RTDs allow for compensation of lead wire effects" There are several rnethods for
pedorming lead wire compensation and finding the resistance of the RTD element. One
common method uses Ohm's law (Voltage [V] = Current fll * Resistance [R]):
1. A srnall, known current is sent through LW1 and LW2 (Figure 4.8), and the valtage drop
across
LW1 and LW2 is measured. The resulting value is used later !n the calculation.

Voltage Drop
l,,q*esured {1 -+ 2}

Voltaoe Dron
M+asilred ({ -r 3}

Figure 4.8: Three-Wire RTD Lead Wire Compensation

2. Next, the voltage drop acro'ss LVUI and LW3 is measured. The resulting value includes the
effects of the lead wires:

+3 = VnrO elernent + Vlead wires 1&3 = lRt*tn

From Ohm's law, the resistance of the RTD element plus the leacl wires is equal to the
Vrneasured i

measured voltage drop divided by the known current (R = V/l).

3. To find the voltage of the RTD elernent alone, the lead wire voltage of LWt and LW3 must be
subtracted frorn the measured voltage across LW1 and LW3. The voltage of LW1 and LWZ
found in Step 1 can be used as a close approximation to the voltage of LW1 and LW3.

VRrn

Vt*ra wires 1&2

4. Caiculate the resisiance of the RTD element using Ohm's law" (Some error may still be
present since Vlead v,rires 1&3 will ne\rer exactly equal Vlead wires 1&2)"
Rnrn'element = VRTD element * I
elenrent = Vi'neasured I

Three-wire RTDs are less accurate than four-wire RTDs because of the assurnption that the
resistance of LW2 and LW3 is equal.

Four-Wire RTDs
Four-wire RTDs provide the best lead wire compensation. The following steps are used to finrl
the resistance of a four-wire RTD element:
1" A small, known current is sent through LW1 and LW4 (Figure 4.9), and the voltage drop is
measured across LW2 and LW3.

-+---!

Vohaae Drop
lvleas"ured

(2 -+ 3l
I

Figure 4.9: Four-Wire RTD Lead Wire Compensation

2. Because no current runs along LW2 and LW3, the measured voltage drop is due only to the
RTD element:

Rnru

ele:nrenl

= Vrneasur*ci

4
ks
t'

[tu

u6r.+i=nnNc

RESTsTANC E

to

re r*pr

Once the resistance measurement

RATU RE

is determined, it is converted to a

temperature

measurement. one of two conversion methods is used by the transmitter:

RTD standard (e.9., IEC 751 standard)
Callendar-Van Dusen equation

."

Thermocouples
TiCs, like RTDs, use electricity to measure temperature. lnstead of using electrical resistance,
however, T/Cs determine temperature by measuring voltage.

i'
i

A T/C consists of two wires of dissimilar metals (e.g., iron and constantan) that are joined at one
end to form a hot junction (or sensing element). The temperature measurement is- made at the
hot junction of the T/C, which is exposed to the process. The other end of the TIC lead wires,
when attached to a transmitter or volt meter, form a cold or referencejunction (Figure 4.13),

f*u

lnsulatodT/C Lesd

ll/ires

l'lot
Junction

Figure 4.13: T lC Construction

M
ff:"
I

$i@

f"

lsi

THERMOCOUPLE TYFES
Several types of T/Cs are available, each differing by the metals used to construc.t the element.
The T/C categories are:
Type E-Chromeland constantan
Type J-lron and constantan
Type K-Chromel and alumel
Types R and S-Platinum (Pt) and rhodium (Rh) (differing in the % of platinum)
Type T-Copper and constantan

*
e
"
o
.

i'
t{rs

Figure 4.14 compares five types of T/Cs.

EO

t,

s0

yK

/'

n!

tt

/?,

.l'..J...-/

#!o

'

'i:lfill

a0

---,*r**

f00

1080

'

ts@

76r$n+raiurE "C

Figure 4.14: Comparison of T/C Types

Type E
Type E TiCs (chromel-constanan) are gaining popularity because they have the highest output
(most sensitive) and can be us6d over a wide range of temperatures.

Type J

Type

T/Cs (iron-constanan) are among the first thermocouples to be widely used. The
materials are rugged, but iron wre is susceptible to oxidation, especially at high lempe,'atures.
The corrosive effects of oxidation (porseining) reduee the accurecy of the T/C. Type J T/Cs
r*main one of the rnost common T/C types in use today.
Fype K
Type K T/Cs (chromel-alumel) are commonly used for high{emperature applications. Because
they are refatlvely inexpensive and offer a wide measurement range. Type K TlCs are the n'lost
popular T/C type in industrial environments.

Fyp

sIer*dS

Types R (Pt/13%Rh, Rh) and S (PV1O%Rh, Rh) T/Cs are useful for extremely high temperature
measurements. Because they are constructed from a platinum alloy, types R and S T/Cs are
expenoive and are used only when the process temperatures are toe high for other TlCs to
function pnoperly.
Type T

T T/Cs (copper-constanan) are generally used in very low temperature (cryogenic)

applications. Type T T/C elements are robust in high-humidity environments.
Type

CI?fiAT!$G A F!*T JUE\{CT]ON

Several difflerent methods ane used to join the T/C lead wires at the hot junction, such as
twisting, clannping, soldering, brazing, and various types of welding (e.9., bead and buff welding)
(Figure 4.15).

For good performance, the hot junction rnust be constructeC to be meqhanicelly sound,
electrically continuous, and not poisoned hy the chernical ingredients of welding or hrazing
ntaterials.
Ty/isted

ButtWeld

Figure 4.'15: Hot Junction Styles

unction Conflg u nations

Junctions can be grounded or ungrounded to the sensor sheath. With dual-elenrent T/Cs (t;ro
T/Cs in one eheath), the elements can be isolated or connected (unisolated) (Figure 4.16). Each
configuration offers benefits and limitations:
Graunded-Grounding creates improved thermal conduclivity, which in turn gives the
quickest response time. However, grounding also makes T/C circuits more susceptible
to electrical noise (which can corrupt the T/C voltage signal) and may cause more
susceptibility to poisoning over time.
Ungraunded-Ungrounded junctions have
slightly slower response time than
grounded lunctions, but are not susceptible to electrical noise"
Unisolated-Unisolated junctions are at the same temperature, but both junctions will
typically fail at the same time.
lsolated-lsolated junctions may or may not be at the same temperature. Reliability of
each junction is increased, however, because failure of one junction does nct cause a
failure in the second junction.
FNot J

"

Durl, Grounded,
Uni

r"S\

5olitrd

Figure 4.16: T/C Junction Configurations

VSLTAGE r{'XEASUREMENT AND T!.{E $EEBECK EFFHCT

T/Cs use a phenomenon known as the Seebeck effect to determine process temperature.
Acccrding to the Seebeck effect, a voltage measured at the cold junc{ion of a T/C is proportional
to the difference in temperature between the hot junction and the cold junction.
The voltage measured at the cold junction is commonly referred to as the Seebeck volfage, the
thermoelectric voltage, or the thermoelsctric EMF. As the temperature of the hot juncticn, or
process fluid, increases, the observed voltage at the cold junction also increases by an amoilnt
nearly linear to the temperature increase.

lf the hot iunction temperature is held constant, an increasing cold junction temperature will
produce a decreasing voltage, because the temperature difference between the het and cclld
junctibn is decreasing. When the c+ld and hot junctions reach the sanre temperature, the
observed voltaEe will be 0 V.
The nragnitude of the voitage signal produced at the cold junction also d*pends on the type of
metals used to torm the T/C. Dltferent metals, or different type of TlCs, have different
thermoelectric voltages at the same temperatures.
FXTEi*S!OB{ WIRE
TiC extension wires are often used to wire the TIC backto a control system or to a remote
transmitter, which may be anywhere lrom 2-2,000 ft away.

T/C extension wire, with a few rare exceptions, must be of the sarne type of metal as the T/C
lead rsires. lf the rnetals do not match, the cold junction witrl be created prematurely. For
example, in Figure 4.17, copper wires are used to connect aTlC to the measuring instrument.
The temperature
measurement is made with the assumption that the cold junction is at Junction 1, rather than at
Junction 2. The temperature measurement will be off by a factor of 23 .F
"

T/C Exten*ion Wire

ot Junction: 200 "F

Copper Eftension l{,!r+s

Figure 4.17: Multiple Junctions

'i

The measured voltage from ihe T/C with copper extension wires does not equal ihe rneasured
voltage of the TIC with correct extension wires, ln fac;t, if copper extension wires are used, it is
nearly irnpossible to find the process temperature from the measured voltage.
Copper extension wires can be used in rare instances. lf the two additional hot junciions (1 and
2 in Figure 4.17) are kept at the same temperature, no temperature gradient exists, and the net
voltage drop is zero, Thus, the temperature measurement is not affeCted. Flowever, keeping the
hot junctions at identical temperatures is generally too difficult to be practical.

T/C wire is relatively costly, particularly for platinum T/C Types R and S. Often, it is not
economically feasible to make continuous runs of T/C wir^e from the hot to the cotd junctions
(often hundreds of feet long). To compensate for this pnoblem, special lead wire is used that
closely approxirr"rates the thermoelectric properlies of T/C wire. The special wire allows the user

to nninimize cost without sacrificing performance.

KVHY USE AI{ RTO RATHER T$.!AN ATIC?

The main reasons for selecting RTDs rather than T/cs are as follows:
I

.
.
o
'
"a
-.
e

RTDs have better accuracy and repeatability.

RTD siEnals ane less susceptible to noise-they have a higher signal-to-noise ratio.
RTDs have better linearity over temperature ranges.
RTDs can use the Callendar-Van Dusen equation to eliminate sensor interchangeability
error
CJC and related errors are not associated with RTDs.
RTD drift is predictable, while T/C drift is erratic and unpredictable. ln addition, T/C dritt
errors can be large as a result of element poisoning and element oxidation at high
temperatures (Figure 4. 1 B).
The changes that affec{ the output of an RTD or T/C occur over time due to mechanical
shock, poisoning, and' temperature cycling. These changes can be elirninated by
performing another RTD charac{erization, an option not available for a T/C.
RTDs do not need special extension wire.

'14

U .5It
6la
il...1'ir
.-r6

c}
.008x
!

*.!0 1EA0 1:.00

!00 7g,I t,5E

.nto

1160

l0

T'tE

A:S05.G"m8.6'ii0.06'rt,0Oj.t.00't6.,t"irE.0C?0.0Ct!.S82.{.00!E.n0!e ,J03! ['!]!.o0ir

1tT

Figure 4.18. Drift-RTDs Versus T/Cs

WFIY USE A TIC RAT$"IER TF.{AN AN RTD?
The main reasons for selecting Tlcs rather than RTDs are as follows:
T/cs function at highertemperatures (above 1,100 "F [593 "c]) than RTDs.
T/Cs are approximately 20olo less expensive than RTDs.
T/Cs have a faster response time than RTDs.

,
o
a

ks

f'
i

Thermowell
A thermoweli is a closed-end, metal tube that encapsutates and protects a sensor from process
flow, pressure, vibration, and con,osion" Thermowells also allaw for sensor removal without
process shutdown, Thermowells are mounted in various ways onto the process pipe or tank.
The temperature sensor is then threaded into the thermowell.
LE,qRNING OBJECTIVES
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
Describe the following design options available for thermowells:
- Materials
- Mounting methods
- Stern designs
ldentify causes of and preventions for thermowell failure
Explain the irnportance of the effect of thermowells on temperature polnt response time

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Thermowells are available in several different materials, mounting methods, and stem types.
The variety of design features renders thermowells suitable f6r various applications'and
environmental conditions (Fig ure 4. 1 9).
MATERIALS
Thermowells are constructed of one of several materials, some of which are:
316 and 304 stainless steel
Carbon steel
Monel@
Jnconel600
Hastelloy@

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lhree factors affect the choice of material:

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Type of corrosive environment to which the thermowell will be exposed

Temperature and pressure limits of the material
Compatibility with the process piping materialto ensure sofid, noncorroding welds and
junctions

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Figure 4.19: Typical Thermowell lnstallation

MOUNTING METHODS
Thermowells can be mounted in one of three methods, which results in three different
construction designs (Figure 4.ZA). Thermowells can be threaded, welded, or bolted (flanged
style) onto the process pipe.

Threeded
Thermouells are most commonly threaded onto the process piping or tank, which enables them
b be easily installed and removed. Threaded thermowells ere the weekest type of thermowell
and may leak.
Welded
Welded thermowells are permanently welded onto the process pipe or tank. Thus, removal is
very difficult and requires cutting the thermowell out of the system. Welded thermowells are the
stmngest type of thermowell and are used with fluids of high velocity, high temperature, or high
pressures. Welded thermowells are necessary for applications that require a leak-proof seal.
Flanged
Flanged thermowells ere bolted onto a pipe or tank and can be easily removed or installed"
Flanged thermowells are used in corrosive environments as well as in high-velocity, hightemperature, or high-pressure applications. Flanged thermowells are the most expensive type of
thermowall.

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Figure 4.20: Thermowell Mounting Methods

STEM DESIGNS

The sfem of a thermowell is the part that is inserted into the process piping. Stems can be
tapered, straight, or stepped. .The performanoe of a thermowell varies with its stem design.
Figure 4.21 examines the following performance factors in relation to tapered, straight, and
stepped stem designs:

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Process pressure
Time response
Wake frequency-Frequency of alternating sideto-side movement of a fluid, generated
by properties of the fluid
Drag force--Resistance of motion of a solid shape through a body of fluid
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Figure 4.21: Performance Rating of Thermowell Stem Designs

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All stem designs perform equally well at equal proce$s pressures, as long as the thicknesses of
the thermowell walls are identical.
Thermowells with straight stems have the slowest tirne response because they possess the
mo$t material at the tip (largest diameter). Thermowells with stepped stems have the fastest
time response because they possess the least material at the tip (smallest diameter). A small
diameter also results in the least amount of drag force. Thermowells with stepped sterns also
cause the highest wake frequency and have the lowest natural frequency (oscillation rate
determined by the properties of the thermowell itself;.

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Generally, thermowells with tapered stems are slightly more expensive as a result of a more
cbmplicated manufactu ring process.
THERMOWELL FAILURE
Thermowells can fail for many reasons, such as high drag forces, static pressure, and corrosion.
The von Karman effect can also cauge thermowellfailure.
Fluid flowing around a thermowell forms a turbulent wake called the yon Karman trail (Figure
4"22). The wake alternates frorn side to side at a specific frequency, called the wake frequency"
The wake frequency is dependent on many process variables. lf the wake frequency coincides
with the thermowell's natural frequency, the therrnowell can break. This phenomenon is known
as the von Karman effect.

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Figure 4.22:The von Kaman Trail

Preventing Thernnowell Failure

Thermowell failure can be prevented by selecting the appropriate thermowell for the process
conditions" To ensure safe and successfuloperation, the following information should be known
about the thermowell:

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Material
Mounting method
Stem design
Dimensions (e.9., diameter, length)

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Transmitting the Temperature Sensor Signal

To be usefui for control, safety, or monitoring purposes, a temperature-measurement signal
must be relayed from the point of measurement to the DCS of the process. The signal is relayed
back to the DCS in one of many ways" The two most common ways, which will be discussed in
this sedion, are:
Transmdfers-The sensor is wired a short distance to the transmitter, where its signal is
converted to a digital or 4-20 mA signal. The transrnitter is wired back and the converted
signal is relayed to the DCS"
Wiing dt'recf-The sensofs lead wires are wired the entire distance to the DCS. No
signal conversion takes place along the route.

LEARNING OB*IECT'IVE$
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
ldentify and explain four transmitter mounting styles:
- Field mount
- Head mount
- Rail mount
- Rack mount
List and explain three benefits of using a temperature transrnitter
List and expla!n two potential drawbacks of using wiring direct
Explain how input/output (l/O) cards work both with transmitters and with wiring dlrecl

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Wb,F{AT DOES A TRAT{SMITTER DO?

A transmitter converts a temperature sensois signal from resistance or voltage into a common
digital or analog 4-20 rnA signal. Typically, the analog signal is linear with the processtemperature measurement. As an example, consider a transmitter with a range o'f 32-212 "F
(0-100 'C). With this transmitter, a 4 mA output corresponds to a 32 "F (O "C) process
temperature. 12 mA corresponds to 122 'F (50 "C), and 20 mA to 212 "F (100 'C) (Figure 4"24).

Temperature transmltters can accept sen$or inputs from a wide variety of temperature sensor
types (including many types of RTDs and TiCs).

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Figure 4.24: Temperature Transmitter

SF,T/\RT TRAtr{TM ITTE RS

technology that has emerged and gained popularity within the last decade is smarf
communications. Smart transmitters have the ability to transmit digital information
simultaneously with the standard 4-20 mA analog signal. Smart transmitters offer many benefits
over transmitters that only communicate a 4-20 mA signal, such as reduced plant inventory,
inrproved measurement accuracy and stability, reduced maintenance, and remote diagnostics.

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TRANSMITTER MOUNTING STYLES

There are four common styles of transmitters" Transmitter styles are named according to their
mounting method:
Field mount (most common)
Head mount
Rail mount
Rack mount (least common)

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Field-Mount Transmitters
Field-mount transmitters are the most rugEed of all transmitter styles. Their robust housings
protect against corrosion and humidity" Some field-mount transmitters house the electronics in
dual-compartment housings, which completely isolates them from the effects of humidity. Dualcompartment transmitters are the best design for use in hazardous locations where
explosion-proof standards are being used"

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Field-mount transmitters can be integrally or remotely mounted (Figure 4.zs):

lntegral mount-The transmitter is threaded onto the sensor direclly (mounts directly to
U.S. style [1/2 NPT] sensor).

Remota mount-The transmitter is mounted on a pipe stand or other support near the
sensor. Remote mount'is preferred when the measurement point is inaccessible or when
the process environment is too harsh for the transmitter to be installed directly on top of
the sensor"

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Figure 4.25: Field-Mount Transmitter

Head-Mount Transrnitrers
Head-mount transmitters are small, puck-shaped transmitters. Head-mount transmitters are
typically housed in a protective enclosure-a cannection head for direct mounting or a junction
box lor remote mounting.
Head-mount transmitters can be mounted in one of three ways (Figure 4.26):
lntegral mount-The transmitter is housed in a connection head that is threaded directly
onto the sensor.
Remote mount-The transmitter is housed in a junction box that is mounted on a pipe
stand or other support near the sensor.
Rail mount-The transmitter is used in lieu of a rail-mount style and is mounted to a Grail or top-hat rail,

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Figure 4.26: Head-Mount Transmitter

Rail-Mou nt Transmitters
Rail-mount transrnitters are designed to be attached to a DIN-rail (G-rail or top-hat rail) or
directly screwed onto a wall. Rail-mount transrnitters are also designed for compact mou.nting,
which allows for a number of transmitters to be mounted very closely together (Figure 4.27).

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Figure 4.27: Rail-Mount and Rack-Mount Transmitters

Rail-mount transrnitters are usually mounted in a control room or other mild or controlled
environment, which makes them boih convenient for maintenance and less susceptible to harsh
environmental conditions.

limitation of rail-mount transmitters is their susceptibility to noise. When rail-mount

transmitters are installed near the DCS, the sensols lead wires have to run the entire distance
to the DCS. ln addition, there is no standard accessory that would allow a rail-mount transmitter

to be used in an explosion-proof area"

Rack-Mount Transnnltters
Rack-mount transmitters are very similar to rail-mount transmitters, except that rack-mount
transmitters use a mounting chassis. The common backplane of the mounting chassis, rather
than the loop wires, often provides power to the transrnitter (Figure 4.27).
WHY USE A TEIL'IPERATURE TRANSMIfiER?
Three benefite of using a temperature transmitter over wiring direct are:
A more robusi signal is detivered-The 4-20 mA signal output frorn the transmitter is
much more robust than a sensods signal. Noise interference has less impact on 4-20
mA signals"
Measurement accuracy is optimal-Transmitters offer improved measurernent accuracy
over wiring direct. Foi example, sensors can be matched to transmitters (transmitter
sensor matching), which improves the accuraey of the temperature measurement.

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Time and money are save*Transmitter installation is often less expensive than wiring
a sensor direct because of savings from cabling costs and installation (sensor wire,
especially T/C wire, is relatively expensive)" Also, a robust signal and accurate
measurements produce time and money savings through increased functionality and
diagnostic capabillties of the transmitter,

Wing direct refers to wiring the sensor's lead wires back to the DCS (Figure 4.28).
Because the sensor's lead wire (and original signal) is traveling the entire distance from the
point of measurement to the DCS, care must be taken to avoid two key problems:
Noise-T/Cs are especially sensitive to noise interference and must be routed around
such sources as turbines and motors.
Heat sources-A large change in the ambient temperature can effec't the sensofs signal
as it travels to the control system.

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Figure 4.28: A Sensor Wired Direcl to the DCS

Although transmitters offer mafly benefits over wiring direct, many temperature measurement
points are stillwired directly to the DCS.
lnput card$, usually located near the DCS or control room, collect measurement signals (inputs)
or 16 inputs,
depending on its design. Output cards send the signal back to the field for process control.

from sensors or transmitters in the field. An input card typically accepts

lnputioutput (l/O) cards can be either digital or analog. Analog input cards can accept inputs of
only voltage (mV), resistance (L), or current (mA). Each type of signal requires a specific type of
input card. For example, transmitters are wired into input cards that accept 4-20 mA inputs.
Type K T/Cs are wired into Type K TiC input cards, and Type J T/Cs are wired into Type J T/C
input cards. RTDs also have their own input card types"
Figure 4.29 shows sensors connected to l/O cards via transmitter and via wiring direct.

Figure 4.29: Sensor l/O Card Connections

TRANSMITTERS AND INPUT CARDS

Transmitters allow for a standard, 4-2A mA analog input card to be used" lf a transmitter is
used, the 4-20 mA analog input cards accept any type of measurement (temperature, flow,
pressure, level, etc.). lf smart transmitters are used, digital cards may be used.
Standardizing the type of input card used reduces costs and ensures full use of each card.
Changing the sensor type does nof necessitate switching the input card. The transmitter is
simply reconfigured for the new sensor type.

WRING DIRECT AND UO CARDS

When a sensor is wired directly to the DCS, specific types of input cards are used that
correspond to the sensor type. Each type of TIC must be used with a specific type of mV analog
input card. RTDs must be used with special analog input cards that measure resistance signals.
One of the limitations of wiring direct is the need for specific types of input cards for specific
$ensor types.