Centre for English Language Studies

http://www.cels.bham.ac.uk

Writing Critically and Analytically

What do these terms mean?

Analytical writing: Shows evidence of an ability to put forward ones own ideas,
and to see relationships and contradictions between ideas, break ideas down into their
constituent parts and see how theories can be applied to real situations.

Critical writing: Shows evidence of an ability to see the strengths and weaknesses in
own and other peoples ideas.

Persuasive writing: Manages to convince the reader of ones own viewpoint.

Below are a number of points to consider when presenting your own arguments, and
when evaluating other peoples arguments.

1. Include different types of claim

These can include:

Claims of fact
Claims of value
Claims of policy

Task A: Which of the following is a claim of fact, a claim of value and a claim of policy?

a. Capital punishment reduces crime.

b. Racial integration of the armed forces was achieved with very little conflict in the Korean War.
c. Rock is better than country music.
d. Capital punishment is barbaric.
e. Children should be allowed to vote if they wish to.
f. A course in minority issues ought to be compulsory.
g. Vanilla is the most popular ice cream in the United Kingdom.

Typical language:
To define: is concerned with, deals with, relates to, involves
To confirm the truth of an assertion: indeed,
To throw doubt upon the truth of an assertion: at the same time, however,
nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, despite
To contradict the truth of an assertion: actually, in fact, in reality, conversely,

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however
2. Support your claims with evidence

Different types of evidence include:

Personal experience
Research studies
Statistics
Citing authorities
Analogy
Pointing out consequences
Facts
Logical explanations

Task B: Match each of the following claims with an appropriate piece of evidence:
It is important for the department English to In 1989 5% of the population were
be involved in policy making at the highest living in absolute poverty. That figure
level has now risen to 15%.
Levels of poverty have increased As Rubienskas (2009) study showed.
significantly in Kenya over the last twenty
years.
The recognition that motivation is a key If it is not, then its interests tend not to
factor in learning is no new phenomenon. be considered.
Triple loop learning can be an effective way Like newborn babies, they need
of promoting change. considerable support from the school
if they are to survive the first few
weeks of learning.
Maslows hierarchy of needs does not apply Confucius knew this, and so did Plato.
equally well to all language schools.
New students are relatively helpless to start As I discovered when working for the
with. Information Department of the
Chinese Civil Service.
In power cultures, all of the control is As this would mean that there was no
situated at the centre. reliable way of assessing students
progress.
It is impossible for a university to have a McNulty (2008) likens such language
totally exam-free policy. schools to spiders webs.

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3. Use different patterns of reasoning
Different patterns of reasoning include:

Presenting several reasons jointly in support of a conclusion

Typical language:
Addition: Also, furthermore, further, moreover, what is more, in addition, besides,
above all, too, as well as, not only but
Equation: Equally, likewise, similarly, correspondingly, in the same way

Weighing up pros and cons

Typical language
Weighing up pros and cons: on the one hand on the other hand, conversely, the
good thing about the bad thing about

Hypothetical reasoning (If we do not do this, then)

Typical language
Degrees of certainty: It is fairly certain/likely that, very/quite
probable/possible/likely/unlikely that, rather unlikely that, almost/quite certain that
Result or inference: So, therefore, as a result, consequently, hence, for this reason,
then, this implies, my conclusion is

4. Identify opposing viewpoints and refute them

You might want to consider:

Whether the source has a vested interest

Whether there is corroboration of the claim from independent sources
Whether the source has the relevant expertise/training
The nature of the claim itself (using your common sense)
Whether the source can provide credible reasons for the claim they make

Typical language
Opposing viewpoints and refutations are identified by indicator words and
phrases, such as:
It is said that but,
Some people claim that however,
Conjunctive devices, such as Although despite the fact that even though
Doubting credibility: Somewhat/slightly/questionable/doubtful/uncertain/unclear
has a number of shortcomings

Task C: What kind of claim is being made in the following extract, and how could
you respond to it?
There is nothing we can do about lazy students. If a student cant be bothered to work
then we as teachers are utterly helpless to change the situation.

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5. Avoid fallacies

1. Weak analogies
2. Conflated ideas
3. Circular reasoning
4. Comparative worst/best
5. The genetic fallacy
6. Attacking a straw person
7. Generalisations
8. Assuming that if X precedes Y, then X causes Y
9. Appeals to emotions

Typical language
Generalisations: almost all/every/a majority/the vast majority/most/many/a lot of,
always/usually/normally/generally/on the whole/regularly/often/frequently
certainly/definitely/undoubtedly/clearly/presumably/ will/are/must/should/ought to
Conflated ideas: therefore/thus/so
Comparatives: considerably/a great deal/much/significantly/rather/somewhat/a
little/slightly smaller/bigger/cheaper than

Task D: Each of these texts is an example of a fallacy. Which is which?

A. Advertising makes us aware of the greater choices open to us in disposing of our

incomes and this habit of exercising choice is of crucial importance when we have to
think about politics and elect governments. Advertising is therefore an important
safeguard of democracy, and it should not be interfered with.

B. Inhabitants of Birmingham are always complaining about the level of traffic and
saying that the Council should do something about it, but their situation isnt anything
like as bad as in London, so they should think themselves lucky.

C. In the past, in organizations, it was always resources power which counted. As

time went on and organizations became bigger and more formal, position power was
the one that mattered.

D. Learning a language is like building a house. You have to do it step by step. Its no
use trying to put the roof on before youve built the foundations.

E. Music experts often claim that Beethoven was the best ever composer. However,
other composers have been just as good.

F. We need to support our weak and defenceless colleagues by supporting the strike.
Not to do so would be to let them down immeasurably.

G. He wrote the novel to make money, so it cant be any good.

H. Students tend to be interested in courses when the subject matter and method of
presentation are interesting.

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I. He went to college and became a boozer. Thus college corrupted him.
6. Recognise and evaluate assumptions
Assumptions are fundamental to your evaluation of the conclusions drawn. Sometimes they are
easy to spot; sometimes they are very deep and difficult to spot. It is also important to be aware of
the types of assumptions (religious or political), which you are likely to make.

Task E: What assumptions are made in the piece of reasoning below?

When I first moved to Japan I found it easy to learn Japanese just by listening to
people around me. I didnt need to write anything down. Theres an over-emphasis on
the written language in most EFL classrooms.

7. Clarify expressions and ideas

You may occasionally use terms whose meaning is unclear, vague or ambiguous. When you notice
these, you should clarify what you mean by:

Giving clear examples

Explaining in general terms how the term is normally used
Stating clearly what the term means in this context (stating criteria used)
Giving a dictionary definition, or referring to another authority

Typical language
Defining: I adopt a broad/narrow/working definition, this is concerned with, deals
with, relates to, involvesby this I mean,
Exemplification: for example, for instance, say, such as, including, included,
especially, particularly, in particular, notably, chiefly, mainly, mostly
Defining by negation: By this/in this definition, I do not mean/include, I do not use
this term to include, the study is limited to,

Task F: How many ways can you think of in which you could clarify the following
assertion?

Different people learn in different ways.

8. Compare and contrast theories and ideas

Opposing theories and findings can be attributed to a number of factors:
Theoretical standpoint (research paradigm)
Moral standpoint
Politics
Interpretation techniques
Data studied
Methodology used

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Typical language:
Similarity: exactly/precisely/just/virtually/practically/almost/nearly/approximately the
same as
Difference: not exactly/entirely/quite the same as, totally/completely/somewhat/quite
different from, different/dissimilar in many ways/respects.

Task G: How might you account for the following opposing theories?

1. Noam Chomsky believes that we have a special Language Acquisition Device that is
responsible for language learning and processing whereas Michael Tomasello believes that
language learning is the same as any other type of learning that we do.

2. Michael Swan believes that it is important to focus on grammar in the language classroom
whereas Henry Widdowson thinks the focus should be more on communication.

3. Guy Cook argues that there should be room for language play in the classroom whereas
proponents of task-based learning, such as Martin Bygate and Peter Skehan, believe there
should always be a real reason for communicating and that playing with the language is a
waste of time.

4. Proponents of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), such as Barbara Seidlhofer believe that no
one has the right to judge the quality of another persons English. International English is a
language variety in its own right. Many language teachers would disagree with this idea.

5. Feminist researchers, such as Deborah Cameron say that there is absolutely no reason to
believe that men are from Mars and that women are from Venus. Others would disagree.

9. Apply the knowledge or theory to real situations

Remember to consider both the possible applications, and the limitations of the theory.

Typical language
Applicability: entirely applicable/relevant to
Limited applicability: is applicable to some extent/in some ways/is suitable to/lends
itself to/could be adapted to/has some bearing on/may be a useful tool
Inapplicability: not entirely applicable/relevant to

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Task H: Look at Zoltan Dornyeis five strategies for increasing motivation in the language
classroom. Identify situations in which they might and might not work

1. Commitment control strategies, to help the learner maintain or increase their commitment to
their own goals (e.g. reminding them of favourable expectations or positive incentives;
focussing on what would happen if the original intention failed)
2. Metacognitive control strategies, for monitoring and controlling concentration (e.g.
identifying recurring distractions; focussing on the first steps to take in a course of action)
3. Satiation control strategies, for reducing boredom (e.g. adding a twist to the task; using
imagination to liven it up)
4. Emotion control strategies, to manage disruptive emotional states (e.g. self-encouragement,
relaxation)
5. Environmental control strategies, for eliminating negative environmental influences and
promoting positive ones (e.g. eliminating distractions, asking friends for help)

10. Write coherently, using signposts

Typical language
Changing the subject: With reference/respect/regard to, regarding, let us now turn to,
as for, as to
Making a digression: incidentally
Summing up: in conclusion, to conclude, to sum up briefly, in brief, to summarise,
overall
Drawing a conclusion impersonally: It appears that/it would appear that/it seems
that/it would seem that/ there is a tendency to/some of the evidence shows that/it is
very doubtful whether

Task I: Add appropriate signposts to the following paragraph

This paper is intended to demonstrate that as metaphor and metonymy are central to language and
language use, foreign language learners really do need to engage with them. I explore how learners
might usefully engage with them, in order to understand, produce and learn a foreign language. As
there is much less systematic empirical research into learning figurative language than learning
other aspects of a foreign language, the aim is to identify what teachers, textbook writers and
researchers need to focus on in the coming years.

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11. Get the reader on your side
Writing is a social act, and a successful essay must engage appropriately with its reader.

Soliciting reader solidarity:

Personal pronouns: We would expect Government involvement to be beneficial.
Personal asides: It is worth noting in passing that

Crafting reader agreement:

Directives: Consider now the effect of the World Banks policies on poverty levels.
Appeals to shared knowledge: This definition is different from the more familiar
Direct questions: So how can these findings be reconciled?

Task J: Consider how each of the following statements is being used by the writer
to get the reader on side:
It is essential to examine
The standard view is that
Why do people behave in this way?
One can imagine using debt reduction policies in this situation
Richards was of course wrong to suggest

12. Think about whether to use the idea then author structure or the author
then idea structure

Task K: Which of the following is better in what circumstances, and why?

It has been demonstrated that classroom-based teaching does not always result in the
most effective learning (Jones, 2009)

Jones (2009) has demonstrated that classroom-based teaching does not always result
in the most effective learning