CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In the first chapter, the background for the study is given while in this
chapter a brief review of select studies is given according to three points:
NGOs and womens empowerment, NGOs and Education of Women and
status of education, empowerment of women and work of NGOs in Iran
Women are passive powerless victims of patriarchal structure.
Gender studies across the globe have emerged from womens movement and
challenging subordination of women in every sphere of life. Gender studies
not only help in womens empowerment but importantly also create a
suitable base for development of marginalized segments of our society. The
combination of gender studies and NGOs work resulted in raising awareness
to development among deprived groups of our society. It has been realized
that participatory approach to human development at grass root level is
important now a days. The results from it are positive. The success story of
Gramin Bank in Bangladesh is a shining example. Various studies show that
the NGOs have played initial roles in grass root development in general and
womens empowerment in special.
2.1.

NGOs and Development of Women

Fore the research study, the role of NGOs in empowering and

educating women in Hamadan Province, various literature of previous

20

studies have been elaborated. To understand the concept of womens

empowerment, importance of education in development of women,
socioeconomic situation of women in society of Iran and attempts of NGOs
made in this regard are the study points considered while doing the review of
literature. Review of literature is made accordingly giving a brief summary
of research work done in India, Iran and other countries.
The World Banks book outlines the ways in which the World Bank
and NGOs can work together in partnership, it is meant to be a resource
book for NGOs and was conceived as a way for the bank to explain what it
does and what it is seeking to further its cooperation with NGOs 1. It is
widely considered at the world level that role of NGOs is important not only
to highlight issues related to womens development but also to be active
practically to work for empowerment of women by advocating and capacity
building to women and concerned agencies.
Elizabeth M. King and M. Anne Hill (1993) studied the condition of
Womens Education in Developing Countries; and in four chapters
discussed about condition of womens education, returns to womens
education, factors influencing womens educational status factors affecting
primary and secondary education.2

21

Association of Indian Universities carries a variety of articles

covering, different aspects of higher education. A proper appreciation of the
role of Education in national development is facilitated if different views
articulated on a theme are read together in a single volume, education
bringing about consistencies which helps individuals to perceive interpret
criticize and finally transform their environment.3
Talwar Sabanna, (2007), studied gender discrimination in education
and employment intensively.

The study revealed that higher and

professional education is necessary for new emerging jobs but women are
not getting equal opportunity as men in higher education. The situation of
lower income groups and rural areas is worse than urban areas and higher
income groups. 4
In S. K. Bhandaris (1998) study, an attempt has been made by the
author, to compile all factual information and derive selective indicators for
depicting the progress of women education in India during the course of the
last century and to analyze the gap that still remains to be bridged towards
equalization of educational opportunities between boys and girls in the
country.5
M.I. Manvel (1998) considered relation between women and
development and explained human development without paying attention

22

towards womens education is impossible and described if we want to get

development, we must improve women education.6
Frank Elbers (2000) studied the second and updated education of the
human rights education organization resource book. It includes directions of
human rights education organizations world wide a listing of human rights,
training programs and annotated bibliography which is an overview of
human rights, training programmers.7
Ungels (2000) conducted a study on what is now a significant body
of learning on levels that work in favour of positive change in girls
schooling and contribute to the promotion of gender equality in education.8
Shireen Jejeebhoy (2001) reviews the considerable evidence about
womens education and fertility in the developing world that has emerged
over the last twenty years, and the passes beyond the limits of provisions
studies to the address major question, viz.

how does improvement in

education empower women in other areas of life such as improving their

exposure to information decision-making control of resources and
confidence in dealing with family and the out side world?.9
United Nations reported (2002) about women education and role of
NGOs in empowering women and started this question, why girls, are still
held back and highlight policies that can lift barriers and improve learning

23

strategies to remove gender gaps in education as a part of a much broader

reform effort under may in many countries.10
The Global Monitoring Report (2002-2003) shows that social changes
may be slow but it cannot be achieved without directly engaging women and
young girls in the process. This book focuses on Women as active agents for
social transformation.11
Walter Mendoza and John Dsouza (2002), The long and winding
is part of a personal Journey an exploration of what the NGOs have been
attempting to do during the past three to four decades and they have
discussed about contribution of the women and tried to answer this question
viz. what is the role of NGOs in education of women.12
Global Monitoring reported in (2003-2004) in its chapter 4 of this
book emphasizes that good practice NGOs and education provision have
been key instruments in many countries for boosting state offers to achieve
empowering of women.13
Empowerment of women is a process rather than a state to be
achieved. As such, it has been assessed in terms of different categories by
various researchers and gains importance in studies, as it has multifaceted
effect on womens life. Women's education and employment helps towards
fertility reduction, higher contraceptive usage, lowering of age at marriage,

24

higher utilization of reproductive health care, and child's immunization.

Unquestionably, the beginning of womens empowerment process is from
the education of women. Without knowing your rights you may not be in
position to empower yourself. Educated women are more likely to have
autonomy making power, freedom of mobility, and access to resources in
order, thus enabling them to act upon the aspects that may affect their own
health as well as that of their children, thereby leading to increased
contraceptive use and reduced child mortality. Education enables women to
assume more womens autonomy or power both in traditional genderstratified family setting and in more egalitarian ones, giving them greater
control over their own lives and a stronger voice in matters affecting
themselves and their families (Gulati 2002; Jejeebhoy 1995; Dey & Bhavsar
2002)

14

Further a brief review of womens empowerment studies has been

given by Shukla. Basically this paper was concentrated on womens
autonomy. There has been a long-term historical consistency of the
dichotomous regional pattern of demographic performance that contributes
to differences in demographic performances (Dyson and Moore 1983). The
division between the two regimes broadly coincides with the division areas
of northern kinship/low female womens autonomy and southern

25

kinship/high female womens autonomy. The analysis suggests that family

social status is probably the most important element in comprehending
India's demographic situation. Roy and Niranjan, (2002), in their study have
also shown the existence of a regional divide (north-south) in the level of
women's empowerment. Also average women in India are disempowered
absolutely as well as relatively to men and there has been a little change in
her empowerment over time, irrelevant of indicators used for measuring
empowerment (Kishore and Gupta 2004). Also regular exposure to mass
media increases the probability of utilization of maternal care services and
television emerges as the most powerful media impact of women's
empowerment on utilization of maternal care facilities (Gupta, Chitanand &
Yesudian 2002). Women's empowerment had strong correlation and impact
on maternal and child health indicators. Of the selected variable, exposure to
mass media and literacy among ever-married women are more influential
than women's work status (Nangia & Banerjee 2002). Socioeconomic
development, freedom of decision-making, and interactions outside the
home are the main dimensions of women's empowerment (Dey 2002).
Measurement of empowerment has direct relevance to a wide range of health
and development programmes including reproductive health, child health,

26

HIV/AIDS, literacy and education, and income generation initiatives

(Wedeen and Weiss 1993).15
Kishor, Sunita and Gupta Kamla,(2004) studied variation in indicators
of womens empowerment across India. This paper uses data from the
NFHS-2 to document womens empowerment as a whole and in each of 26
states with 1999 boundaries. In general, it finds that the average woman in
India is disempowered absolutely as well as relative to men, and there has
been little change in her empowerment over time. This result is obvious no
matter how empowerment is measured, be it in terms of the indicators of the
evidence, sources or setting for empowerment. However, there is great
variation in the level of womens empowerment across the different states
and across indicators. 16
Vijay Kavshik Belakanisharma (1998) studied the nature and degree
of womens participation in labour force which are likely to change because
of many factors and education status of women. More women workers may
join the labour market to seek white-collar jobs and the rise in the cost of
living as well as the increasing level of aspiration have motivated a sizeable
section of educated women in going for employment.17
R. Sooryamoorthy and K.D. Gangrad (2003) studied and detail
comprehensive treatment of NGOs in India, focusing on NGOs that work in

27

the areas of rural development, women and children. The authors goal is to
throw light on the contributions of the sector in the spheres of school welfare
empowerment.18
Sushama Sahay (1998) seeks to discuss the approaches and strategies
for empowering women by outlining the strategies, mechanisms and tools
that women are using for their empowerment. It is an important and timely
contribution to a major on going debate on women studies, rural
development and voluntary initiatives at the grassroots level. 19 It is
becoming necessary to study the factors that support empowerment of
women. Therefore, NGOs have an opportunity to play an inevitable role in
empowerment of women by making and implementing strategies.
Further, various attempts of NGOs in development of women by
capacity building are studied in the edited book of Ranjani K. Murthy (2001)
in India. Various NGOs are working in slums and rural and tribal areas for
womens development in India. Active role of women in NGOs and NGOs
role in Self Help Groups, micro-enterprises, education of children especially
of girl children and organizing womens against exploitation were part of
this book.20
B.T. Bawani (1999) provided a comprehensive coverage to the course
content and the requirements of the social work teachers and research

28

scholars, executive officers to guide and work with voluntary organizations

for further development of women.21
S.N. Pawar and J.E. Ambekar and D. Shrikant in this book address
themselves to the political education of NGOs as well as to issues such as
ideology human rights, peoples participation, and good governance
empowerment through concrete experiments.

Case studies of voluntary

organizations functioning in various regions of the country is influencing

working of NGOs and attempts made by NGOs in womens development .22
L Mukhopadhyay (2004) studied the adaptation of inter-disciplinary
approach so very necessary to comprehend the nature, role and the dynamics
of the NGO world. This book brings the perspectives from political science,
public administration, social work, sociology, history, and philosophy,
development economics. It also elaborates the role of NGOs in rural-urban
development emphasizing on womens empowerment and development and
Nation building in India.23 It is certainly being said that womens
empowerment plays an important role in nation building.
Arun A. Goel (2004) has not only engaged our attention with towards
the existing frame work of womens development but analyzes it so that in
the 21st century we can achieve our development goals. It further explains
that a lot has to be done for womens development and empowerment.24

29

M. Razia Parvin (2005) studied women empowerment and suggests

some possible strategies for the real economic empowerment of women in
society and believes that the NGOs have got very wide scope of functions in
uplifting the status of women. In this book it is revealed that the formulated
schemes programs are based on the experience of the projects run
successfully by voluntary agencies.25
V.K. Puki (2005) studied an Encyclopedia for NGOs and voluntary
agencies and tried to answer the question what is an NGO, and definitions of
NGO, characteristics of a NGO.26
Champa Limays (1999) book on womens power and progress
mainly focused on a collection of articles dealing with womens
participation. It has covered Indias various struggles, straggle for equality
in South Africa and Goa liberation movement. Here the author has also
discussed delicate problems pertaining to the other aspects of womens life
like unmarried motherhood, mothers lineage and the tradition of Sati. There
are articles on womens organizations in solving womens problems some
articles throw light on customs of some nomadic tribes and among the
former untouchables. The second part contains sketches of few women who
have contributed in various fields. Women have played a role in the freedom
struggle; some have tried to rehabilitate abducted women during the

30

traumatic period of partition. Some women are working for development of

tribals or trying to educate children of prostitutes. Some articles are about
women artists who have combated to solve different types of problems of
development. The book gives glimpse of various facets of Indian
womanhood.27
The book of Laya, Kothai, (1995), Women and Empowerment,
undertakes a systematic analysis of the position of women in two
modernizing societies, i.e. India and Turkey, which shows many historical
similarities in the position of women to the level of structural modernization.
Education and employment of women bring forth a change in the attitudes
and belief of women in terms of equality, independence and individuality.
The author has also examined the question of multi linearity of the
modernization process of comparative social research.28
The book of Bhatia, Anju, (2000) analyzed the existing status of
females in terms of their rights, and their socio-economic education
development, highlighting the profiles of some rural women and discusses
the strategies of empowerment especially the new roles for education. The
author examines how empowered the highly educated career women are,
having the women professional make a success of their careers. The author

31

has collated information on women professionals the world over and makes
a comparison with that of Indian findings.29
The book of V.M. Kulkarni, (1969) is a comprehensive study on the
functioning of NGOs in one of the most underdeveloped districts of India.
Probably the first of its kind, the study bring out in detail various aspects of
a functioning of NGOs profiles and portrays the psyche of their personnel
and also presents the views and opinions of their beneficiaries. The book ,
besides providing invaluable data to students, researchers, academicians and
planners, will prove to be of immense use for the NGOs and all those
interested in women development and strengthening of the voluntary
sector.30
This book of V.M. Kulkarni examines definitions of a voluntary
action discusses philosophy of voluntary action and identifies some of the
causes of unhappy situation of voluntary action in India.
2.2.

NGOs and Development of Women in Iran

Before proceeding ahead, a brief review of education system in Iran is

necessary to be understood because it is different from Indian education

system which comes under a ministry of education in India.
2.2.1.

Education Structure in Iran

32

Islamic Republic of Iran had promised to pay attention toward

educational development of people with changes in curriculum to cope up
with the challenges of the new millennium in the EFA world conference
(Jomtien, Thailand, 1990). Accordingly Iran has paid attention and stated in
the report that it had achieved its goals. 31

The report has portrayed the

existing educational structure, budget, equity and justice in education and

undergoing changes.
Education has always had a special significance in Iranian theology
and culture since ancient times. Following the Islamic Revolution, the
philosophy, policies, strategies and objectives of the previous education
system have been re-examined. The Council for Fundamental Change in
Education, established in 1986 as an organization affiliated to the Higher
Council of Cultural Revolution, is responsible for reforming the upper
secondary education system, studying some alternatives and proposing a
system of education based on Islamic doctrine as well as the new social,
economic and political needs. Headed by the Minister of Education, the
Council, which consists of educators, university professors and a number of
deputy ministers, established as its priorities the provision of the conditions
and facilities necessary to promote and develop, both qualitatively and
quantitatively, upper secondary education (theoretical and technical and

33

vocational) based on the social, economic, and cultural needs of the various
regions of the country and also on the basis of the gender and age of the
students.
The budget of the Ministry of Education in 1996 was 6,130 billion
rial (Rl), which is 3.8% of the gross national product. The approved budget
was 5l5, 455.6 billion, but in order to provide for the financial shortages of
the Ministry of Education, some additional funding was allocated and the
budget increased to 5l6, 130 billion. In addition to the approved budget,
some Acts were approved during the last two years to provide the Ministry
of Education with new financial resources.32
The Ministry of Education administers and finances schools at the
primary and secondary levels. The Supreme Council of Education, as the
highest legislative body, approves all policies and regulations related to nonuniversity education.
The Ministry of Science, Research and Technology (formerly the
Ministry of Culture and Higher Education) is responsible for universities of
science, art and technology. The Ministry of Health and Medical Education
deals with medical schools and the training of medical assistants.
The Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs is responsible for nonformal training; non-formal vocational courses are conducted by the

34

Technical and Vocational Training Organization (TVTO) under this

ministry.
Specialized higher education institutions are under the control of
various ministries, such as Agriculture, Petroleum, Industry, etc. They
organize courses and award diplomas in various specializations in agreement
with the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology. The Applied
Scientific University is responsible for co-ordination between these
ministries to train manpower as required.
1. Pre-school Education

Pre-primary education lasts one year and caters to children aged 5.

Pre-primary education is not compulsory. The school year at pre-primary,
primary and lower secondary levels generally lasts ten months. It consists of
thirty-five working weeks. At the upper secondary and other levels the
academic year is divided into terms and its length is also ten months;
however, the starting date of the academic year is subject to change.
2.

Primary Education
Primary education is the first stage of formal education and it is

compulsory. It lasts five years and the admission age is 6 years. After the
final examination at the end of Grade V, successful pupils are awarded the
certificate of completed primary level studies.

35

3. Secondary Education
Secondary education consists of two cycles. Lower secondary
education lasts three years (age group 11-13). The three-year upper
secondary education programme is for students graduating from junior high
schools. The courses offered in secondary schools are organized in three
branches: theoretical, vocational or technical, and Kar-Danesh (knowledge
skill). A one-year pre-university course is available for those who have
successfully

completed

secondary

education.

five-year

technical/vocational course is also offered after lower secondary to train

technicians.
4. Higher Education
Higher education institutions include universities, junior colleges,
colleges and higher education centres. They require a high school diploma
and success in the entrance examination. Universities include general and
specialized universities, the Comprehensive Technology University, the
Paym-e-nour University (Distance University), Azad Islamic University, and
medical universities. Bachelors degree programmes normally last four
years. Masters degree programmes generally take two years after the
bachelors

degree.

Professional

doctorate

programmes lead to the highest degree.33

36

and

specialist

doctorate

It is clear that the Iranian Education is under command of various

ministries rather than under one roof of the education ministry like in India.
The report highlighted a few issues of educational development like coeducational classes in some areas which hinders the enrollment of some
female pupils, economic poverty preventing parents from supporting
incidendental expenses of education for their children and its effects on
registering for primary education, lack of obligation for parents to send their
6-10 year-old children to school due to weak regulations regarding child
labour and inadequacy and lack of flexibility in the contents and methods of
teaching resulting in absence of creativity, order, responsibility, respect for
others, and group activity. To tackle these issues, the role of NGOs in
making awareness among poor families is needed, which is not discussed in
this report. There is not much literature available on NGOs and their active
role in the process of womens empowerment and education in Iran.
2.2.2.

Womens Development in Iran

Issues related to Iranian women are different in reference to Indian

women. Educational level is high among Iranian women than Indian women.
Since in the world development report 2007 Iran has rank of 94 while India
is stagnant at 128th position.34 However, Indian women are rapidly
improving higher capabilities to grab new job opportunities created by free

37

economy. Iranian women lack a little behind in this reference, but the
overall level of education is better among Iranian women. In India, disparity
among deprived women and women from upper and middle class families is
higher than Iranian society. Iranian society is more homogeneous than India.
Therefore the social hurdles like casteism, internal social disparities and
other problems are not seen in the ways of educational or other development
policies.
Nonetheless, the gender study is more flourished in India than Iran.
Women writers and scholars have been acknowledged worldwide. Since our
study is related to Iranian womens empowerment so a brief overview of
earlier studies on Iranian women is given here.
Ghasnavi (2000) studied Education of women in Iran and considered
some of the main obstacles that women cannot have equal educational
chance.35
Namazi (2002) studied about conditions and status of volunteer public
organizations in Islamic Republic of Iran and explained why work of NGOs
in Iran is important.36
F.D. Ansari (2003) studied to investigate ways in which women,
religion and culture have interacted with each other. In the context of 19 th
and 29th century Iran the study considers the effect of literacy on womens

38

lives during the 20th century, and the longer term consequences of
development since 1979 on the position of women in contemporary Iran.37
Atapour (2004) investigated into the progress and problems of women
education in Hamadan province, Iran. The study was conducted on women
education in Hamadan Province.38
Behnaz Ashtari (2004) studied in Irans civil society, however, the
situation for women in much better,

the number of womens non-

governmental organizations has risen from 130 to 450, showing a 4 fold

increase during the past eight years.39
Elaheh Rostami Pvey (2005) she has demonstrated by comparing
statistic education and employment between the 1960 and 2005, particular
emphasis on womens working private enterprises, self employment and
NGOs.40
Hasan Mirzaie Ahragi and

Seyed Mohammad Moqimi (2005) have

studied the role of NGOs in the process of sustainable development and the
necessity of their institutionalization as well as the necessity of giving a
greater role to them. Empowerment and strengthening of their internal
capacities seems to be an urgent need in the present paper which is based on
the findings of a research applied study in the field of organization features
of the NGOs in Iran. In order to design an organizational entrepreneurship

39

plan, attempts have been made to explain the significance of the problem.
The objectives of the research and also the review of the related literature
and then after enumerating the hypotheses of the study and explaining the
methodology of research the collected data is analyzed through application
of pertinent research tools to the findings of the research are study and
statistical samples. At the end the some suggestions have been forwarded for
the establishment of a desirable organizational model for the NGOs in Iran
Shaditalab, Jaleh, (2005), has studied womens social participation.
Development experts have distinguished citizenship control as the highest
form and degree of participation. In such participation people have decision
making power in issues that affect their daily lives. The identification of
variables that ensure women and men ability to control societys affairs is
important for the realization of participation. This article aims to identify the
different forms of womens social participation and its related factors. It is
based on a study that was conducted in the city of Tehran. The analytical
from work was assisted by theory application and previous empirical
studies. Six forms of participation were identified of which civil social
support cultural entertainment, local charity religious and participation was
the most wide spread in general at the level of social participation in Tehran
which was lower than expected . 41

40

Mirzaie, Hossein (2004), studied factors that have impact on Iranian

womens

economic

participation

Womens

social

and

economic

participation is considered to be an important development indicator in

developing countries. However social and cultural factors have limited the
opportunity for womens participation in social and economic structures.
This paper examines the factors which promote the rate of participation by
women in the labor market within the provinces of Iran. The methodology
applied is a regression model utilizing panel data. The results indicate
factors that include rural urban migration (the rate of urbanization), rate of
womens unemployment and the birth rate. The trend of womens
participation in the labor market of Iran is U shaped which has experienced
and upward nature in recent years.42
Yassaman Saadatmad, (1995), demonstrates that reforms since 1979
Islamic Revolution in Iran, such as women parliamentary representatives,
women in the labour sector, and the 1992 Personal Status Law ( concerning
remuneration for housework, women advisors to judges, divorce, etc.) have
not had significant effects on the lives of majority of Iranian women.43
The majority of NGOS that have emerged in the last 100 years
clearly served their governments interests abroad though the various cultural
and relief activities they performed. Nevertheless this fact does not

41

necessarily compromise the quality of NGOs activities at least on the

surface. By 1980 over 2200 NGOs received donation and grants from
industrialized countries and transmitted them to counterpart private non
profit institutions in the third world

Twenty thousand organizations in

developing countries now receive this assistance and attempt to work for the
poor. NGOs in the United States Canada and Europe have gained reputation
for their efficient and cost effective activities in disaster situations. During
disasters such as famines floods, earthquakes and refuse crises they are seen
as having the capacity to react more quickly and efficiently than government
agencies in bringing aid to the victims of such miseries.44
The term NGOs may be used to include any institution or organization
outside government. The terminology includes all those organizations which
are involved in various development NGOs to differentiate them from other
private organization. NGOs are defined as a group of persons organized on
the basis of voluntary membership without state control for the furtherance
of some common interest of its members.
The

key

characteristics

of

voluntary

agencies

are:

formal

organizations, involved with public interest issues and concern, independent

from government and state institutions, non profit and non partisan
organizations, conventional organizations,

42

Korten classified NGOs into three generations on the basis of their

distinctive orientations in programming strategy these are: 1) Generation of
relief and welfare, 2) Generation of community development, and 3)
Sustainable systems development.
Likewise, the major development roles ascribed to NGOs are: planner
and implementer of development, mobilizers of local resource and initiative,
catalyst enabler and innovator, builder of self reliant sustainable society,
mediator of people and government, supporter and partner of government
progress in activating delivery system, implementing rural development
programmers etc., agent of demystifying technology and disseminate
information, factor of transformation consciousness to improvement of the
poor and facilitator of development education training professionalisation
etc.45
NGOs have strategic roles in catalyzing transformation, checking
abuses of power, facilitating reconciliation and providing essential
community services. New roles demand new competencies from NGOs to
act as advocates educators catalysts, monitors mediators implementations
etc.
NGOs, however, small in area function to what ever extent they are
innovative effective and catalytic in contributing to the well being of the

43

society. As such one cannot undermine their positive role. NGOs is one of
the alternatives available among various development organizations and one
of the inputs among technical financial and other resources
A few studies on NGOs and women development in Iran are done.
These studies are concentrated on womens work and political participation.
Shahnaz T Y Abadi, (2005) has studied womens empowerment issue of
Iranian women by promoting awareness and developing entrepreneurship. It
showed the effects on individual and occupational awareness and
entrepreneurship training programs on self-esteem and entrepreneurial trends
of head house holder women in Tehran.46

There is an ongoing motion

among Iranian women which is based on the common concepts in the social
movements. New definitions can be identified as a movement. It is
characterized by womens challenges against gender inequalities in different
aspects of their lives. According to the findings of a survey, designed to
understand the principles and objectives of the movement this paper presents
the attitudes of the women activists towards these inequalities. Data
demonstrate that an organized movement is in the process of formation
among Iranian women. It aims at the improvement of living conditions and
attempts to reduce inequalities. Moreover, it provides a felsitic assessment of
the nature of gender relations without feminist prejudices. The research

44

findings highlight the legal inequalities as the basic problems of Iranian

women, which are rooted in the cultural values misconceptions and
inferiority of women in the society. Introduction of a desirable
organizational model for Iranian (NGOs) through an entrepreneurship
approach is needed 47
Power cultural and media structure in Iran is man oriented therefore
decision making and management posts are mainly in the hands of men.
This is the basic origin of discrimination between men and women. Like
other developing countries, women are facing numerous challenges in search
of equal chances in Iran. Some of these barriers include their inability to
achieve management and decision making positions, their absence for active
and useful cooperation in political economic and social events. According to
national statistics, there is a vast gap between men and women concerning
economic activities. In 1986, 59 % of active men were busy in economic
working while 6 % of active women were busy working. In other words the
cooperation rate of active women in economic affairs has been 11.20 %
although the figures show an improvement in women's employment. The
rate is slow and still there is a wide gap. Although women's future prospects
regarding literacy and education is hopeful it is not so satisfactory in case of
employment and job vacancies. Because of religious and cultural structure

45

and ruling of a religious government women's status not so pleasant. As an

example, Shirin Abadis winner of the Noble Peace Prize was not welcomed
by the clerics who are the ruling front in Iran. They are more inclined not to
be open to such organizations.
There are womens NGOs in Iran but the, like other NGOs, the
working area is very limited. So far, 480 nongovernmental women
organizations have been identified. These organizations are involved in
benefactor affairs, antipoverty groups, green peace groups, giving service to
graduate women, women sports, family control, womens rights, human
right, supporting and raising orphans, supporting unemployed women etc.
Everyday the number of such organizations is growing and especially they
are more active in state centers. Today, the elite and bright minded people,
especially women with feminist inclinations are attracted by the NGOs as far
as the NGOs have managed to represent themselves as United Nations
consultant affiliates in Iran. These include: (1) nongovernmental women's
network of Islamic Republic of Iran, (2) women's unity organization, (3)
cruelty stricken defense organization and (4) Kahrizak benefactory
organization.
In spite of special attention to women's affairs and the challenges in
the way of national improvement, the date and information on the

46

improvement criteria are scanty and insufficient. The growth of literacy from
8 % in 1958 to 36 % in 1977 to 52 % in 1987 and finally to74% in1997 is a
really good improvement. The number of university girls from17% in 1977
has grown to 30% in 1987 and flourished to 54 in 2003%.
At the present time both girls and boys benefit an equal chance to
attend schools and universities. Girls can almost study in all university
majors. Of course this doesn't mean that both groups are provided with equal
possibilities. And furthermore, girls can not get appropriate jobs that match
their studies and degrees.
The role of NGOs is gaining place to solve contemporary
development problems of women in Iran. Development is the sum of
cooperation between people and government to increase and improve
development criteria in any country. Therefore the role of NGOs in real
development can not be overlooked. NGOs, out of governmental official
realm of training, can take advantage of vast public initiations and
capabilities to teach people in different domains. In this way they can be
very effective in knowledge and culture of public.
Enhancing public knowledge and awareness, trying to use creative
and practical new ideas from people increasing the ability and capability of
different social layers, creating capacities proportionate to social conditions

47

and trying to involve people in government decisions are some of the basic
responsibilities of the NGOs. They can share their experiences or take
advantage of the experiences of NGOs in developing countries to improve
people knowledge level and their role in the development trend. Through
enabling women and fortifying their self-esteem, it is possible to employ the
women's hidden capacities in social and economic development.
Today women's demands and ambitions in any country due to
information technology and globalization are not separate from those of the
women around the world. Women are not just seeking for equal education
chances; they are seeking for a better and more effective role in government
they work against sexual discrimination and many other limitations and
barriers made by the religious government. Women though using internet
and TV and other media besides the classroom instruction are trying to
enhance the skills that are necessary for life.
Preparing and putting into practice guidelines for the improvement of
women's economic status, removing poverty, granting education, enhancing
women's heath condition, providing them with jobs involving women in
power structures and implementation of women development in the future
are some concerns.
Thanks to electronic media, the role of community leader to womens

48

development was not so far positive which is changing now days. In the
introduction to constitution law, equality of men and women is clearly
mentioned. This equality is identified in all the articles of the law. The right
of free education for all, the political, economical and cultural equal rights
are mentioned as equal for both men women. The past leader Imam
Khomeini grand Ayatollah Khomeini and president Khatami all emphasized
the important and outstanding role of women in society. They know no
difference between men and women as far as social, economic and political
affairs are considered.
Nonetheless, equity in womens education and empowerment is not
achieved despite of the programs and publicized strategies of the
government. All emphasize preparing equal chances and mechanisms to
enhance women's status in gaining social, cultural, political and economic
spheres.
According to Islam, men and women are given equal rights in social,
scientific, educational, economic and political interactions. However Islam
defines different roles for each that matches their sexual dignity and
abilities. For example, a woman heirs as half as a man because she is not
supposed to be the bread winner of a family. Testimony of two women
valued as testimony of one man and finally a women can not sit at a judge's

49

position or she can't be president or leader of a country. At the present time

none of the members of the Majles Khobregan or Shouraye Neghban which
monitors and checks parliament decisions is not a woman. In fact this means
that no female can attend high levels of decision making and polities. The
government does its best to educate women according to Islamic principles.
This means although it is providing both sexes with equal educational
chance, to surpass Islamic values segregated classes self services and
scientific trips at university level and segregated schools are examples of
these efforts. There are various problems in the way of NGOs working for
womens development: (1) people are not aware of NGOs and their role in
education, (2) there is no good access to adequate information on work of
NGOs (Official or unofficial), (3) lack of self-esteem in women to their own
development which dollops their ambitions, (4) media and specially
broadcasting services and all T.V channels are in the hands of government,
because it is believed that they are strategic organizations and their freedom
may harm the government, (5) since there is no financial support or
sponsorship, these organizations have no real motivation and are confronted
with a lot of problems in funding their activities, as many of them dependent
to get finance from government, (6) the presence of hard conditions and
regulations for the activities of NGOs and redundancy of decision making

50

centers make it difficult to obtain permission or warrant for an NGOs, (7)

the government (Islamic foundation lists) especially after occupying most of
the parliament seats is trying to monitor and observe NGOs, (8) NGOs have
no place in decision making and even are not consulted. There is no
significant motivation among people to join such organizations and (10) the
lack of active interaction between NGOs.
Summarizing, NGOs have been very successfully playing a role in
development of women in India while this trend is not so far seen in Iran.
There are NGOs with problems of their own let alone the concentration on
womens development by NGOs. However, a few NGOs are working since
long for womens development but much data is not available on them. With
increase in empowerment ambitions of women because of education and
electronic media, at one side struggles of women for equality in
development are increasing while on the other side work areas and a number
of NGOs is increasing. Not much data is available on womens development
and role of NGOs in Iran. Hence this study is devoted to fill this gap by
studying the role of NGOs in the process of womens development,
especially in educating and empowering women. Further this research is an
attempt to study functioning and problems of NGOs.
Regional, social and qualitative disparities are not only in men and

51

women but these are also within such groups of women in Iran. Therefore,
this study has chosen the Hamadan Province as universe for the research
which is not well off like other development provinces of Iran. The detail
profile of Hamadan is given in the next chapter.

52

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