Orientation Program: Monday, 1st August, 2016

Time: 5 pm
Venue: LHC

ES3101: Advanced Structural Geology

ES3101: Advanced Structural Geology

Broad Objectives of this course

Manifestation of Deformation
Quantification of Deformation
Kinematics & Mechanics of Deformation
Tectonic Settings

Course Outline

General Introduction
Primary structures in rocks & their role in deciphering rock deformation
Unconformity
Deformation
Strain & strain analyses in deformed rocks
Stress
Material properties of deformed rocks
Mohr Diagram
Fracture criteria, Faulting & Paleostress analysis
Joints, Veins
3D structure of faults
Structures in Convergent Boundaries
Structures in Divergent Boundaries
Strike-Slip structures
Foliations & Lineations
Mechanics of folding, Superposed folding
Fold thrust belt Structural Geology
Introduction to Mechanics & Concepts of Balanced Cross sections

Microstructures & deformation mechanisms

Shear zones

Module 1

Module 2

Module 3

Module 4

Course Outline
Textbooks:
Structural

Geology : Twiss & Moores

Earth Structure: Van der Pluijm & Marshak
Structural Geology: Haakon Fossen
Basic Methods of Structural Geology: Marshak & Mitra
Structural Geology: Billings
Structural Geology Fundamentals & Modern Developments: S. K. Ghosh
Folding & Fracturing of Rocks: J.G. Ramsay

Please revise ES2202 thoroughly

Grading

Classroom Participation + Attendance

Assignments
Class tests & Quizzes
Presentations
Midsem & Endsem Exams

Office Hours: Thursdays, 2-3 pm, Room # A18, Prefab 1

Email address: kathakali@iiserkol.ac.in
Of course, you can always stop by my office & check !

Teaching Assistant
for ES3102
Pritam Ghosh
2nd Year, PhD Student
DES, IISER Kolkata
Email: pg14rs039@iiserkol.ac.in

Course Outline

General Introduction
Primary structures in rocks & their role in deciphering rock deformation
Unconformity
Deformation
Strain & strain analyses in deformed rocks
Stress
Material properties of deformed rocks
Mohr Diagram
Fracture criteria & Faulting & Paleostress analysis
Joints, Veins
3D structure of faults
Structures in Convergent Boundaries
Structures in Divergent Boundaries
Strike-Slip structures
Foliations & Lineations
Mechanics of folding, Superposed folding
Fold thrust belt Structural Geology
Introduction to Mechanics & Concepts of Balanced Cross sections

Microstructures & deformation mechanisms

Shear zones

Module 1

Module 2

Module 3

Module 4

Layers that are not presently horizontal must have been some way deformed !

Principle of Original Horizontality

Nicholas Steno (17th Century)

Deformation?

Total Displacement field: 1. Bulk Translation

2. General Deformation

Rigid Body Rotation

Strain

All of these quantities are independent of each other

Deformation
Components of Deformation
Translation

Rotation

Strain

Structural Geology

What?
How?
Why?

What is Structural Geology?

The study of the architecture of rocks

from submicroscopic to regional
scales, resulting from deformation.

Tectonics
Same as Structural Geology but at

a larger scale
(e.g., regional to global scale)

Forces?!

(1-61; Turcotte & Schubert)

Mechanics of Structures
How Rocks Deform Depend on:
Temperature
Pressure (rock or lithostatic pressure)
Pore fluid pressure
Composition of rocks (e.g. quartzite vs. limestone)
Force applied
Rate of deformation

Forces:

Push or Pull.
Vector quantity (SI Unit = Newton = kgm/s2)

Body force
Surface force

Body Force: They act on each particle of rock in a volume, and its
magnitude is proportional to the mass within that volume.

Gravitational Forces

Electromagnetic Forces

Surface Force: Forces that result from the action of one body / part of a

body on another across a shared surface. They act on a specific surface of

a body.

Traction: Intensity of Force

= F/A

But

Traction at a point,

= dF/dA
Magnitude & direction of traction can vary from point to point across a surface.

Traction

Force

(-ve)
(+ve)
Opposing Forces

Surface Stress
(pairs of equal & opposite traction
acting on any surface of specific
orientation)

Stress ellipse:
State of Stress at a point () :
Defined by n, s that act on planes of all possible orientations
passing through the point.

Plotting surface stresses on all possible orientations through a

point ends of all arrows fall on an ellipse (2D; arrows are radii of
ellipse) stress ellipse state of stress at that point
shape & orientation of ellipsecomplete state of stress at that point

(Twiss & Moores)

Stress Matrix

Mean Stress

Deviatoric Stress

sm

sm = (s11 + s22+ s33)/3

sd

Mean Stress

Deviatoric Stress

sm

sd

stotal = sm + sd
Deviatoric stress is generally lesser than mean stress but
more important as leads to shape change (strain)

Rock Deformation
Geometric analysis:
Characterization of shape & appearance of geologic structures
Developments of methods for uniquely describing the orientation of structures
in 3D space

How did the structures form?

A. Kinematic analysis

Motions that produced the structures

Determination of movement paths of rocks during transformation from

undeformed deformed state

B. Mechanical analysis
Forces applied
Processes at grain scale that allow structures to develop

Microstructures & Deformation Mechanisms

Kinematics

Why is it important to study tectonic foliations?

Tracks XY/
shortening
plane

Mechanical changes
Flattening (Plastic deformation)

Original Grain Boundaries preserved

ES3101: Advanced Structural Geology

Lecture 2: Primary Structures as Keys to decipher Rock Deformation

Reference: Chapter 2; Earth Structure

Course Outline

General Introduction
Primary structures in rocks & their role in deciphering rock deformation
Unconformity
Deformation
Strain & strain analyses in deformed rocks
Stress
Material properties of deformed rocks
Mohr Diagram
Fracture criteria & Faulting & Paleostress analysis
Joints, Veins
3D structure of faults
Structures in Convergent Boundaries
Structures in Divergent Boundaries
Strike-Slip structures
Foliations & Lineations
Mechanics of folding, Superposed folding
Fold thrust belt Structural Geology
Introduction to Mechanics & Concepts of Balanced Cross sections

Microstructures & deformation mechanisms

Shear zones

Module 1

Module 2

Module 3

Module 4

Geologic Structure: Any definable shape/fabric

in a rock body
(a) Primary structures
Form during or shortly after deposition
of sediments/formation of rocks
(b) Secondary structures
- Tectonic structures: Form in response
to forces generated by plate
interactions.

Why do we study primary structures?

To interpret the geometry of secondary structures

Primary structure
A. Marker

(a) Serves as markers to determine tectonic (large-scale) structure

Primary structure
B. Indicators of stratigraphic top

Road-cut

Primary structure
C. Tectonic or Sedimentary environment

(Progressive deepening)

Initial sedimentary history or overall early tectonic history

Why do we study primary structures?

To interpret the geometry of secondary structures

(a) Serves as markers to determine tectonic (large-scale) structure

(b) Indicators of stratigraphic top (Younging Criteria)
(c) Tectonic environment

Primary structures of sedimentary rocks

Reference: Earth Structure by Van der Pluijm & Marshak

Primary structures of sedimentary rocks

Strata / Beds

Bedding Planes

Bedding: Primary layering in sedimentary rocks formed during

deposition. Generally, defined by parallel lamination and
orientation of grains.
Smallest subdivision of a sedimentary unit
Defined top and bottom
Distinguished from adjacent beds by:

Color
Grain size
Texture
Composition

Differential weathering

(Modified after Pettijohn, Potter &

Siever 1972, Griffiths 1961)

 Differential weathering

Why is it necessary to recognize bedding in structural analysis?!

Law of Original Horizontality

Why is it necessary to recognize bedding in structural analysis?!

Reference for describing deformation in sedimentary rocks

Some exceptions!
Alluvial - Fan Systems

volcanic sediments

Bedding Parallel Parting :

Tendency of sedimentary layers to split/fracture along planes parallel to bedding
Unroofing of beds decrease in overlying load fracture parallel to bedding
(weaker bonds between beds of different composition/ bedding parallel orientation
of platy minerals)
Rocks with close-spaced parting fissile

1. Internal Structure of sedimentary rocks

A. Cross-bedding:

1. Internal Structure of sedimentary rocks

Cross-bedding: Internal layers within one bedded unit that are oblique to the overall
bounding surfaces of the master bed.

1. Internal Structure of sedimentary rocks

Cross-bedding: Internal layers within one bedded unit that are oblique to the overall
bounding surfaces of the master bed.
Sediment movement from upstream /windward direction to downstream/ leeward
direction (lower current velocity)

Topset
(thin beds parallel to
upper bounding surface)

Top
Penecontemporaneous
erosion
Foreset
(Inclined layers)

Bottom set

Direction of top: Truncate at top and asymptotic at bottom

1. Internal Structure of sedimentary rocks

Cross-bedding: Internal layers within one bedded unit that are oblique to the overall
bounding surfaces of the master bed.
Sediment movement from upstream /windward direction to downstream/ leeward
direction (lower current velocity)

Topset beds

Top
Foreset beds
(concave up)

Direction of top: Truncate at top and asymptotic at bottom

Cross Bedding
Truncate at top and asymptotic at bottom
Topset
Foreset
(Concave down)

Foreset
(Concave up)

Bottom set
Trough

(Commonly by water-laid sediments)

Commonly by wind deposit

Which one is more useful to structural geologists?

Normal cross-bedding
(can determine top)

Planar cross-bedding
(Cant determine top)

Use of normal cross-bedding to determine top of beds