A.

HISTORY RADIO CHEMISTRY

A hundred years ago Henri Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity. Seventy years
are passed also from publishing of the pioneer work by George von Hevesy and
Hilde Levi opened using of activation analysis. Chemistry was widely used during the long
history of radioactivity study. Moreover, important regularities of this phenomenon were
discovered due to application of radiochemistry. In the history of radiochemistry it is possible to
distinguish few periods.
The first period of radiochemistry formation as an independent scientific direction, was closely
related with the discovery of new radioactive elements, understanding of the main laws of
radioactive substance behavior. During the second period (4050-th years) the radiochemical
investigations were focused on the practical utilization of nuclear energy, studying of the
chemical properties of artifi-cially obtained elements, development of technology of processing
of the irradiated nuclear fuel, resolving of the problem of radioactive wastes burial. The intensive
development of activation analysis in the 50-th years was also definitely stimulated by needs in
qualitatively new materials for nuclear technology (high pure carbon, beryllium, zirconium and
others ). Comparatively with known at that time analytical methods, only NAA due to its high
sensi-tivity was suitable for impurities control in course of technolo-gy development.
In the 6070-th the serious attention was paid to the analysis of different semi-conductors
(silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, tellurium, cadmium telluride and other substances),
geological materials. Later years the method begins widely to be applied for the analysis of
environmental samples, for investigations in medicine and biology. Therefore, one can trace the
similar tendencies in priorities like in the case of radiochemistry: the exclusive work for purposes
of nuclear technology is replaced by maintenance of diverse needs of the society.
From the 60-th the society step by step began realize the global character of consequences of the
contemporary activity of mankind. The main attention shifted to the problems of maintenance of
the sustainable development, including such aspects as: remediation of the polluted territories,
study of the radionuclides behavior in nature, reduction of the amount of unavoidable (for the
current nuclear technology) radioactive wastes, development of technology of longterm
radioactive wastes storage and many other things. Today radioactive isotopes are less often used
for the elements determination, but they find more and more wide application in medicine,
environmental science, biology for the purposes of diagnostics, elements speciation and
migration, studying of fine biochemical processes. Environmental problems are known to be
among the most important issues of humankind. Solutions to these problems in Russia are
considerably aggravated by heavy nuclear pollution in many regions of the country. A number of
factors have made artificial radionuclides a persistent and very dangerous environmental
problem. Among these are tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere and underground; the
activity of nuclear power plants with nuclear fuel cycles producing and accumulating
weapongrade plutonium (USA: Hanford,Savannah River, and Idaho; Russia: Mayak Production
Association in Ozersk, Siberian Chemical Plant in Seversk, Mining and Chemical Plant in
Krasnoyarsk- 26); the activity of nuclear power stations and, especially, the numerous accidents
that occur at them; and the unsanctioned submersion of nuclear waste and the disposal of active
solutions from ships and submarines with nuclear power units into various regions of the oceans.
Rehabilitation of territories contaminated with radionuclides is an important environmental,
economical, and social problem.

B. DEFENITION RADIOCHEMISTRY
Radiochemistry is the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of
elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes
(often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as
being inactive as the isotopes are stable). Much of radiochemistry deals with the use of
radioactivity to study ordinary . This is very different from radiation chemistry where the
radiation levels are kept too low to influence the chemistry.
Medical Definition of radiochemistry
a branch of chemistry dealing with radioactive substances and phenomena including tracer
studiescalled also nuclear chemistry

C. MAIN DECAY MODES

All radioisotopes are unstable isotopes of elementsundergo nuclear decay and emit some form
of radiation. The radiation emitted can be one of three types, called alpha, beta, or gamma
radiation.
1. (alpha) radiationthe emission of an alpha particle (which contains 2 protons and 2
neutrons) from an atomic nucleus. When this occurs, the atom's atomic mass will decrease by 4
units and atomic number will decrease by 2.
2. (beta) radiationthe transmutation of a neutron into an electron and a proton. After this
happens, the electron is emitted from the nucleus into the electron cloud.
3. (gamma) radiationthe emission of electromagnetic energy (such as gamma rays) from the
nucleus of an atom. This usually occurs during alpha or beta radioactive decay.
These three types of radiation can be distinguished by their difference in penetrating power.
Alpha can be stopped quite easily by a few centimetres in air or a piece of paper and is
equivalent to a helium nucleus. Beta can be cut off by an aluminium sheet just a few millimetres
thick and are electrons. Gamma is the most penetrating of the three and is a massless chargeless
high energy photon. Gamma radiation requires an appreciable amount of heavy metal radiation
shielding (usually lead or barium-based) to reduce its intensity.

Radioactive decay
Is the event of radioactive nuclides emit rays / particles of radioactive until it changes to a stable
core / more stable. Nuclide is an atomic nucleus is marked with the number of protons and
neutrons.
Chemically decay radiosktif a nuclear reaction or nuclear reaction that can be formulated with a
chemical
equation
as
follows:
a
c
e
X Y+ Z
b
d f
In the process applies the law of conservation of energy and charge. The reaction then apply a =
c + e and b = d + f.
1. Pita stability and other types of isotopes
Comparison of protons with neutrons (n / p) is one of the determinants of the stability of the
atom. Stable atomic nucleus has a value of n / p between 1 and 1.6. If the nuclei have the value
of n / p outside the band the stability of the atom is unstable or radioactive, so it decays to
achieve a more stable state.
The decay of unstable isotopes distinguished by:
1. Decay lightweight core
Nuclides decay is its price z (atomic number) of less than 20 (element located below or above the
tape stability.
a. stable isotopes under the tape to achieve stability
- Emitting a positron, a particle whose mass is equal to
1+ electrons and charged with symbols: e + 1
11 11 0
Example: C B + E
6 5 +1
- Catching K electrons, meaning that electrons in the skin K.
90 0 90
Example: Mo + e Nb
42 +1 41
b. Isotopes nuclide is located above the ribbon stability needed to achieve stable nuclides.
- Emit neutrons,
- Emits beta rays,

2. The decay of heavy nuclei

Is the decay of nuclides with an atomic number greater than 83 and generally radioactive, to
achieve stability nuclides emitting alpha rays.
238 234 4
Example: U Th + He
92 90 2
238 234 4
Po Pb + He
84 82 2
90 82 2 -1
3. artificial radioactive decay
In 1919, Rutherford managed to shoot nitrogen gas with alpha particles and produce
hydrogen and oxygen. It became the first artificial transmutation, ie changing one element into
another.
In 1934, Irene Joliot-Curie, managed to make the radioactive phosphorus atom by firing
aluminum with alpha rays derived from polonium.
Radioactive element occurs because it is made through nuclear reactions that came to be known
as radioisotopes.

D. RADIOACTIF RAYS
Ionizing radiation takes a few forms: Alpha, beta, and neutron particles, and gamma and X-rays.
All types are caused by unstable atoms, which have either an excess of energy or mass (or both).
In order to reach a stable state, they must release that extra energy or mass in the form of
radiation.

1. Alfa Radiation

Alpha radiation: The emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus of an atom
Alpha radiation occurs when an atom undergoes radioactive decay, giving off a particle (called
an alpha particle) consisting of two protons and two neutrons (essentially the nucleus of a
helium-4 atom), changing the originating atom to one of an element with an atomic number 2
less and atomic weight 4 less than it started with. Due to their charge and mass, alpha particles
interact strongly with matter, and only travel a few centimeters in air. Alpha particles are unable
to penetrate the outer layer of dead skin cells, but are capable, if an alpha emitting substance is
ingested in food or air, of causing serious cell damage. Alexander Litvinenko is a famous
example. He was poisoned by polonium-210, an alpha emitter, in his tea.
2. Beta Radiation

Beta radiation: The emission of a beta particle from the nucleus of an atom
Beta radiation takes the form of either an electron or a positron (a particle with the size and mass
of an electron, but with a positive charge) being emitted from an atom. Due to the smaller mass,
it is able to travel further in air, up to a few meters, and can be stopped by a thick piece of plastic,

or even a stack of paper. It can penetrate skin a few centimeters, posing somewhat of an external
health risk. However, the main threat is still primarily from internal emission from ingested
material.
3. Gamma Radiation

Gamma radiation: The emission of an high-energy wave from the nucleus of an atom
Gamma radiation, unlike alpha or beta, does not consist of any particles, instead consisting of a
photon of energy being emitted from an unstable nucleus. Having no mass or charge, gamma
radiation can travel much farther through air than alpha or beta, losing (on average) half its
energy for every 500 feet. Gamma waves can be stopped by a thick or dense enough layer
material, with high atomic number materials such as lead or depleted uranium being the most
effective form of shielding.
4. X-Rays

X-Rays: The emission of a high energy wave from the electron cloud of an atom
X-rays are similar to gamma radiation, with the primary difference being that they originate
from the electron cloud. This is generally caused by energy changes in an electron, such as
moving from a higher energy level to a lower one, causing the excess energy to be released. XRays are longer-wavelength and (usually) lower energy than gamma radiation, as well.

5. Neutron Radiation

Neutron radiation: The emission of a neutron from the nucleus of an atom

Lastly, Neutron radiation consists of a free neutron, usually emitted as a result of spontaneous or
induced nuclear fission. Able to travel hundreds or even thousands of meters in air, they are
however able to be effectively stopped if blocked by a hydrogen-rich material, such as concrete
or water. Not typically able to ionize an atom directly due to their lack of a charge, neutrons most
commonly are indirectly ionizing, in that they are absorbed into a stable atom, thereby making it
unstable and more likely to emit off ionizing radiation of another type. Neutrons are, in fact, the
only type of radiation that is able to turn other materials radioactive.

E. APPLICATION OF RADIOCHEMISTRY
1.Biology Application
One biological application is the study of DNA using radioactive phosphorus-32. In these
experiments stable phosphorus is replaced by the chemical identical radioactive P-32, and the
resulting radioactivity is used in analysis of the molecules and their behaviour
2.Environtment
Radiochemistry also includes the study of the behaviour of radioisotopes in the environment; for
instance, a forest or grass fire can make radioisotopes become mobile again. In these
experiments, fires were started in the exclusion zone around Chernobyl and the radioactivity in
the air downwind was measured. It is important to note that a vast number of processes are able
to release radioactivity into the environment, for example the action of cosmic rays on the air is
responsible for the formation of radioisotopes dissolve in water and thus enter drinking water and
in addition human activities such as bomb tests, accidents, and normal releases from industry
have resulted in the release of radioactivity

3. Education
Despite the growing use of nuclear medicine, the potential expansion of nuclear power plants,
and worries about protection against nuclear threats and the management of the nuclear waste
generated in past decades, the number of students opting to specialize in nuclear and
radiochemistry has decreased significantly over the past few decades. Now, with many experts in
these fields approaching retirement age, action is needed to avoid a workforce gap in these
critical fields, for example by building student interest in these careers, expanding the
educational capacity of universities and colleges, and providing more specific on-the-job
training.
Nuclear and Radiochemistry (NRC) is mostly being taught at university level, usually first at the
Master- and PhD-degree level. In Europe, as substantial effort is being done to harmonize and
prepare the NRC education for the industry's and society's future needs.