No 7 0

A Eoa r s Wo rth o fC o ndense d I nfo rmati o n

Steam

ng nes

P ri ce 2 5 Cen t s
CON T E N T S
Act i o n of S t e a m E n gi n e s
Ra ti n g

an d

Ge n e r a l P r o po r t ion s of S t eam E n g in e s

11

S t eam E n g i n e D e t a i ls

15

S t e am E n gi n e E conom y

30

T imes o f S t ea m E n g in e s

36
41

The I n du str ia l P r e ss 4 9 5 5 Lafa ye tte S tre e t N e w Yo r k

Publis he rs o f MA C HIN E RY
,

C O P Y R G H T . 1 9 1 1 . TH E

I N D U S T R IA L

PRES S

N EW

YO R K

MAC HI NE RY S

R E FE RE N C E S E RI ES

EACH

N U MBE R
S TE A M

NIT IN A S E R I E S O N E LEC TR I C A L
E N G IN E E R IN G D R A W IN G A N D M AC H IN E
D ES I G N AN D S H O P P RAC TI C E
IS A U

NU

ST

MBE R

AN D

70

IVI E N G N E S

C ON T E N T S

Act i o n o f S tea m E n g i n e s
Ra t in g

an d

Ge n er a l Pr op or t i o n s o f S t e a m E n g i n e s

11

S t ea m E n g i n e D et a i ls

15

S t ea m E n g i n e E conom y

30

T ype s of S t ea m E n g in e s

36

S t ea m E n gi n e Te st in g

41

opyrigh t

I nd u t ri al P r
4 9 55 La fay tt S tr
t

1 9 1 1 , Th e
-

es s,

ee

ub li s h e r s

N ew Y

of

ork C it y

MA C H I N E R Y

C H AP TE R 1

A C TI O N O F S TE A M E N G I N E S

tea m engine is a device by mean s of w h ich h ea t is transforme d

i nto wor k
Work may be dened as the resul t p rod u ced by a forc e
a cting through space and is com monly measured in foot pounds ; a foot
poun d represents the work don e in raising 1 pound 1 foot in height
I t has been found by ex
Th e rate of do ing work is cal led p o we r
p e r i m e n t that there is a den ite relation between heat an d w ork i n
the ratio o f 1 thermal unit to 7 7 8 foot pounds of work T h e number
7 7 8 is co mmonly ca lled the heat equ ivalent of work or the mechan ical
e qu ivalent of heat
H eat m ay be transformed i nto m ech an ical work th rough the med iu m
by conn ing a given amo unt i n a c lose d chamber and then
o f steam
a l low ing i t to expand by m eans of a movable wal l ( p iston ) tted i nto
H eat is given u p in the p rocess o f expans ion
o n e s ide of the ch amber
an d
a s s hown by the lowered pressure and temperature of th e steam
work has been done in movin g the w al l ( p iston ) of the closed chamber
When the expans ion o f stea m
a gainst a re s isting force o r p ressure
takes place w ithout the loss o f heat by radiati on or conduction the
r elation between the pressure an d volume i s practically constant ; that
is if a given quantity of steam expands to tw ice its vo lume i n a closed
c hamber of the kind above descr ibed its n al p ressure w ill be one half
that of the in itial pressure before expansion took place A p oun d o f
s team at an abso lute pressure of 2 0 pound s per square inch has a
volum e of p ractical ly 2 0 cubic feet and a temperature o f 2 2 8 degrees
I f now i t be expanded so that its vo lume is do u bl ed ( 4 0 cub ic feet )
t h e p ressure w ill drop to approx imately 1 0 poun ds per s quare inch an d
t h e temperature w ill be only about 1 9 0 degrees
Th e drop in tempera
ture i s due to the loss of heat whic h has been transformed into work
i n the process of expans ion and in mov ing the wall ( p iston ) o f the
c hamber against a res isting force
as already noted
A

ri n c i p l e

of

the St

eam

ng in e

steam engine makes use o f a closed chamber w ith a movable

w al l in t r ansform ing the heat of steam into mechan ical work in the
m anner j u st d e scribed Fig 1 shows a longi tud inal section thro u g h
a n engine of s imple des ign
and i llus trates the princ ipal parts an d
thei r relation to on e another
T h e cyl inder A is the closed chamber in w h ic h expans ion takes
p lace an d the p iston B the m ovable wal l T h e cyl inder is of cast
i ron accuratel y bored and n ished to a c ircular cross
section Th e
p iston is carefully tted to s lide eas il y in the cyl inder being m ade
T h e work gen e
p ractically steam tight b y means o f packin g rings
r ated in moving the piston i s transferred to the crank p in H by means
Th e

3 47 6 2 4

J j Q
I

o f the pi ston ro d C and the conn ecting rod F Th e p iston rod passes
o ut o f the cyl inder th rough a stuf n g box w h ic h prevents the leakage
o f steam aro und it Th e cros s head D serves to gu id e the p iston rod in
a s traigh t l ine and also contains the w rist p in E wh ich j o ins the p is
ton rod an d connecting rod Th e c ross head sl i des upon the gu ide pl ate
G w h ic h causes i t to move in an accu rate l ine and at the same tim e
takes the downward thrust from the connecting rod
T h e crank p in i s connected w ith the main shaft I by means of a
c rank arm wh ich in th is case i s made in the form of a d isk i n o rder to
give a better balance Th e balance w heel o r ywheel J carries the
crank pas t the dead centers at the en ds of the stroke an d gives a un i
fo rm motion to the shaft Th e various par ts o f th e engine are carried
o n a r igid bed K usuall y of cast iron w h ic h in turn i s bolted to a
-

Fig

ongit ud i l
n a

c tion th ro u gh

the

Am

es

igh p d E ngin
-s

ee

foundatio n of brick or concrete Th e po wer developed is taken off by

means o f a be lted pu lley attached to t h e m ain shaft o r in certai n
c ases in the form o f electrical energy fro m a d irect connected dynamo
When in action a certai n amount o f steam
to
o f the total
cylinder volume i n s impl e engines ) is ad mitted to one en d of the
cyl inder w h ile the other is open to the atmosphere T h e steam force s
the p iston forw ard a certain d istance by its d irect action at the b o i ler
p ressure A fte r the supply i s shut off the forward movement o f th e
p iston i s con ti nued to the end o f the stroke by the expans ion o f th e
steam S team i s now ad m itted to the other en d o f the cylinder and
the operation repeated on the backward o r retu rn stroke
An enlarged section of the cylinder show in g the action of the valve
for adm itting an d exhausting the s team i s shown i n Fi g 2 In th i s
c ase the piston i s show n in i ts extrem e backward posi tion ready for
the forward s troke Th e steam ch est L is l led w ith steam at boile r
pressu re w h ich is bein g ad mitted to the n arrow space back of the
p is ton through t h e valve N as ind icated by the arrows Th e exhaus t
p ort M is i ri commun ication w ith the other end of the cyl inder an d
.

A C TI O N O F S TE A M E NGI N E S

all ows the p iston to move forward w ithou t res istance except that du e
to the p iston rod w h ich transfers the work done by the expand ing
stea m to the crank p in Th e valve N is operated automatically by a
crank o r eccentr ic attached to the main shaft and opens and closes
the s u pply an d exhaust ports at the proper time to secure th e results
described
W o rk D i a g r a m
,

d iscussed br ie y the general pr inc ipl e upon w hich an engine

op erates the next step is to study more carefully the transformation
of heat into work w ithin the cylinder and to become fam il iar w ith th e
graph ical method s o f re p resenting it Work has alread y been dened
H aving
,

Fi g

c tio n of C y lind r
e

sh

o wi n g S l i d

al

ve

as t h e resul t of force acting through space and the un it of work as th e

foot pound wh ich is the wo rk done in rais ing 1 pound 1 foo t in height
For example i t requi res 1 x
foot pound to raise 1 poun d 1 foot
1 0 foot poun ds to raise 1 pound 1 0 feet or 1 0 X 1
or 1 x 1 0
10
foot p ounds to raise 1 0 p ound s 1 foot o r 1 0 X 1 0
1 0 0 foot pounds
to raise 1 0 pounds 1 0 feet etc That is the product of w eight or force
acting times the d istance moved through represents work ; and if the
fo rce is taken i n poun ds and the d istance in fee t the result w ill be
in foot pounds Th is result m ay b e shown graph ically by a g ure
calle d a work d iagram
I n Fig 3 let d istan ces on the line O Y represent the force acting an d
di stances on OK represent the space moved through S uppose the g
ure to be drawn to such a scale that O Y is 5 feet in height an d 0 X 1 0
feet long Le t each d ivis ion on O Y represent 1 pound pressure an d
,

NO

70

S TE A M

E N GIN E S

e ac h d ivis ion on 0 X 1 foot of space moved through I f a press u re o f

10
5 p o un ds acts through a d istance of 1 0 fee t then an am ount o f 5
R eferring to Fig 3 it i s
:2
5 0 foot pound s o f w ork has been done
e viden t th at the height 0 1
( th e pressure acting ) m ul tipl ied by th e
5 0 square
l ength O K ( the d istance moved thro u gh ) gives 5 x 1 0
feet wh ic h is the area of the rectangle Y OK O ; th at is the area o f a
rectangle m ay re p resent work don e if the height re p resents a forc e
.

Ma ch i n cr y

Fig

A S im pl

W or k

N Y
.

D i a gra m

cting and the length the d istance moved th rough I f the d iagram
were drawn to a s maller scale so that the d ivi sion s w ere 1 in ch i n
l ength instead of 1 foot the area Y C X O woul d stil l rep resent the :
work
done except eac h square inch w oul d eq u al 1 foot pound instead of eac h
square foot as in the p resent il lu stration
I n Fig 4 the d i agram instead o f bein g rectangu lar in form takes a
d ifferent shape on accoun t of d ifferent fo rces actin g at d ifferent p eriod s
o ve r the d istance moved through I n the rst case ( Fig
a uni form

Ma chi n e r y

Fig

.
,N . Y

Anoth r Fo rm of W ork D i a gr am
e

pounds acts through a d i stance o f 1 0 feet an d prod u ces 5 X

In the second case ( Fig
forces of 5
10
5 0 foot pounds of work
pounds 4 pounds 3 po u n ds 2 poun ds and 1 po u nd act thro u gh dis
tances o f 2 feet each and produce ( 5 X 2 )
(3 X 2)
(4 X 2)
T
foot
po
u
nds
h
is
is
al
so
the
area
in
squ
are
1
2
3
0
2
2
X
)
(
X
)
(
feet of the gur e Y5 43 2 1 X O wh ich i s made up of the areas of t h e
ve s mal l rectangles shown by the do r ted l in es A nother w ay o f nd in g
k
4
total
area
of
the
gure
shown
i
n
Fig
and
dete
rm
in
ing
the
wor
the

force of

A C TI O N O F S TE A M E NG I N E S

don e i s to multiply the length by the averag e of the heights of the

sm all rectangles Th e average height i s foun d by add ing the several
heights and divid ing the sum by thei r number as fo llows :
,

and

3,

X 10

square feet as before

30

then m eans that the average force acting througho u t the strok e
3 0 foo t pounds
i s 3 p ounds and the total work done is 3 X 1 0
In Fig 5 the p ressure drops u n iformly from 5 p ounds at the b e
ginn ing to O at the end o f the stroke I n th is case al so the area an d
work done are found by mu ltiplying the length o f the d iagram by t h e
average height as fo llow s :
Th is ,

X 10

sq u are feet

25

or

foot p ounds of work done

25

\l

10

Fig

ork D i a gra m

Whe

n Pr

ess

u re

Mach i n er y
drOp s U

X
,

N Y.
.

niform ly

obj ect of Figs 3 4 and 5 is to show how foot p ounds of work

m ay be represented graphically by the areas o f d iagrams and also t o
make it clear that th is remains true whatever the form o f the d i agram
It is also evident that kn ow ing the area the average heigh t or pressur e
may be foun d by d ividing by the length and vi ce v er s a
Fig 6 shows the form o f work d iagram w h ich w oul d be produced b y
the action of the s team in an en g in e cyl inder i f no heat were lost by
conduction an d rad iation S tarting w ith the p iston in the position
shown in Fig 2 steam is adm itted at a pressu re represented by the
height of the l ine O Y As the piston moves forward sufcient steam
is adm i tted to maintain the sam e pressure At the point B the valve
closes an d steam is cut off Th e work done up to th is ti me is shown
by the rectangle YB b O From the p oin t B to the en d of t h e s t r ok e 0
the p iston is moved forward b y the expansion of the steam the pres
sure fall ing in proportion to th e d istance mo ved through unti l at th e
en d of the stroke i t is represented b y th e vertical line OX At the
point 0 the exhaust valve o p ens an d the p ressure drops to 0 ( atmo s
p h e r i c p ressure in this case )
A s it i s always des irable to n d the work done by a complete strok e
of the en gi ne i t i s n ecessary to nd the average or mean pressure act
Th e

7o

TE AM E

N GIN E S

ing throughou t the stroke T h i s can onl y be do n e by determ in i ng the

area o f the d iagram an d d ivid in g by the le n gth o f the stroke T hi s
gives what i s called th e m ean ord inate w h ich m u ltipl ied by the scale
o f the d raw ing w ill give the mean o r average pressure Fo r examp le
if the area of the diagram i s found to be 6 square inches and its
3
2 inches
length is 3 inches the m ean ordin ate w ill b e 6
I f the
d iagram is drawn to such a scale that 1 inch on O Y represents 1 0
2 0 poun ds
pounds then t h e average o r mean pressure w i ll be 2 X 1 0
and th is mul tipl i ed by the actual len gth of t h e p iston stroke w il l give
the wo rk done i n foo t pounds T h e practical application of the above
together w ith the metho d o f obtain in g steam engine ind icator d iagram s
an d measur in g the areas o f th e same w il l be taken u p in detail und er
the h eading of S team E ngine T estin g
.

iti o n s R e l a ti n g t o E n g i n e D i a g r a m s
Before tak ing up the construction o f an ac tual engine diagram i t i s
rst n ecessar y to become fam il iar w i th certain terms w h ich are used in
connectio n w ith i t
D

en

Mach i n e r u N
,

Th

Fig

Th e I

d al W ork D i a gr a m of
e

t am E ngin
e

cut o ff i s the poin t i n the stroke at w hi ch the ad m iss io n

valve closes an d the expans ion of steam begins
R a t i o of E xp a n s i o n This is the reciprocal of the cu t off that is i f
the cu t off i s
the ratio o f ex p ans ion i s 4 I n other words it is
the ratio of the nal volu me o f the steam at the en d o f the stroke to i t s
vo lu me at the po int o f c ut o For example a cylinder takes steam
a t boi le r p ressu re un til th e p iston has moved one fou rth the length o f
i t s stroke ; the val ve now c loses and expans ion takes pl ace unti l the
s troke is completed Th e one fou rth cy li n d er fu l o f steam h as becom e
a cy li n d e r fu l that is i t has exp anded to four times its original vol
u me and the ratio of expans ion is sai d to be 4

a
P o i n t of R e le s e This i s the po int in the stroke at w h ich the ex
h aus t valve open s and rel ieves the press ure acting on the p iston This
takes pl ace j ust be fore the en d of the stroke in o r d er to red uce the
s hock w hen the p iston changes its d irection of travel

i
Co m p r es s o n Thi s acts in connection w ith the premature re leas e i n
o rde r to reduce the s hock at the end o f the stroke D uring the for
ward s troke of an engi ne the exhaust valve in front of the p iston r e
mains O p en as show n in Fi g 2 S hortl y be fore the end o f the s troke
Cu t

A C TI O N O F S TE A M E NG IN E S

th is closes leaving a certain amo unt of steam in the cyl inder Th e

continuation of the stroke compresses thi s steam and by rais ing its
p ressure forms a cush ion w hich in connection w ith the removal of
the pressure b ack of the p iston by rel ease b rings the p isto n to a sto p
an d causes it to reverse its di rection w ithou t shock H igh speed e u
gines requ ire a greater amount of compression than those runn ing a t
lo w speed
C lea r a n ce T h is is the space between the cyl inder head and the p is
ton when the l atter is at the end of its stroke ; i t also inclu d es that
p o rtion of the steam port between th e valve an d the cylinder C lear
anc e is usuall y expressed as a percentage o f the p iston d isplacemen t
of the cylinder and varies in different types of eng i nes Th e fol lowin g
table gives approx imate values for engines of d ifferent desi gn
,

AB LE
E ng i n
T

Ty p e

of

C LE A R A N C E O F

S TE

A M E N G I NE S
P er Ce

Corliss
Moderate speed

nt

C lea

ranc

to
3
to 8
4
H i g h s p ee d
to 1 0
A large clearance is evidentl y obj ection able because it represents a
space which must be lled w ith steam at bo iler p ressure at the begin
n ing of each stroke and from wh ich but a comparati vel y small amount
of w ork is obtained A s compression increases the amount o f steam
re q uire d so l l th e c learanc e s p ac e d imin i sh es but on the other h an d
increasing th e compression red uces the mean effective pre ssure
I n i t i a l P r es s u r e T his is the pressu re in the cylinder up to the point
of cu t off I t is usual ly s lightl y less than boi ler pressu re ow ing to

w ire draw ing i n the steam p ipe an d ports

Ter m i n a l P r es s u r e T h is is the pressure in the cyl inder at the tim e
release occurs and depends upon the initial p ressure the ratio of ex
p a n s i on and the amount of cylinder condensation

r
r
Th is i s the pressure in t he cyl inder when th e
B a ck P ess u e
exhaust port is open and is that against w hich the p iston is force d
during the working stroke For example in Fig 2 the small space a t
the left of the p iston is lled w ith steam at initial pressure w h ile t h e
space at the right of the p iston is exposed to the back pressure Th e
wo rkin g p ressure varies throughou t the stroke du e to t h e expans ion
of the steam w h ile the back press u re remains constant excep t fo r th e
effect of compression at the end of the stroke Th e theoretical back
pressure in a non condensing engine ( one exhausting into the atmos
poun ds per square inch abov e
p h e r e ) is that of th e atmosphere or
a vacuum but in actual practice i t is abou t 2 pounds above atmos
p h e r i c pressure or 1 7 pounds absolute due to the resistance of exhaust
p o rts and connecting p ipes I n the case o f a con d ens ing engine ( one
exhausting into a con denser ) the back p ressure depends upon the e f
averagin g about 3 p ounds abso lute pressur e
ci e n cy of the condenser
in the best practice
E ffe c t i ve P r es s u r e T h is is the d ifference between the p ressu re on
the steam s ide o f the p iston an d that on the exhaus t s ide or in othe r
words the d ifference between the working p ressure and the bac k
-

"

NO

10

70

S TE A M

E N G IN E S

p ress u re T h is value varies th roughout the stroke w ith th e expans ion

o f the steam
M ea n E e ct i v e P r e s s u r e I t h as j u st b een stated that the effective
p ressure var ies throughou t the stroke Th e m ean effecti ve press ure
is th e average of al l th e effective press u res and this averag e
multipl ied by the len gth o f stroke gives the w ork done per stroke
L i n e of A b s o lu t e V a c u u m I n the d iagram shown in Fig 6 the l ine
0 X i s the l ine o f absolute vacuum ; that is i t is assumed that there
i s n o p ressure on the exh aust s ide of the p iston I n other w ords th e
engine i s exhausting into a perfect vacuum
.

'

BO I LE R P R E S S U R E

f
/

I
l
I

A BS O LU TE V AC U U M LI N E
M hi
y N Y
Fig 7 Con tru c ting a S t am E ngin W ork D i a gra m
A t m o s p h e r i c L i n a T his i s a l ine d rawn parallel to th e l ine of a b s o
pound
s
l t e vacuu m at such a d istance above i t as to represen t
n
p ressure per squ are inch according to the scale u sed
P

n er

ac

o n s t r u c ti o n o f I d e a l D i a g r a m
O n e of th e rs t s teps in the des ign of a steam engine i s the constru o
tion o f an i deal d i agram an d the engine is planned to produce this as
n early as poss ible when in operation First assume the in itial pressure
the ratio o f expans ion and the percentage of clearance for the type
o f engine un der con sideration D raw lines 0 X an d OY at r ight angles
a s in Fig
7
Make O R the same percentage of the stroke that the
clearance is o f the p iston d isplacement ; make R X eq u al to th e len gth
of the stroke ( on a reduced scale ) E rect the perpendicular R A of
s uch a height that it shall represent to scale an absolute pressu re per
square inch equal to
of the bo iler p ressure D raw i n the d otted
l in es A K and E X an d the atmospher ic l ine LH at a height abo ve OK
to represent
pounds pe r square inch Locate the po in t o f cut o
B according to the as sumed r atio of expans ion
P o ints on the e xp a n
s ion curve B 0 are foun d as fol low s : D ivid e the d i stanc e BK i nto an y
C

"

P R O P O R TI O N S

O F S TE A M E N GIN E S

11

number of equal spaces as s how n by a b c d etc and connect the m

w ith the poin t 0 Th rough the po ints of intersection w ith B P as a
etc draw ho rizontal l ines and through a b c d etc draw
b
c
vertical l ines T h e intersection of correspon ding hor izontal and ver
tical lines w il l h e points on the theoretical expansion l ine I f the eu
g ine is to be non condens in g the theoretical work or ind icator d ia
gr am as it is cal led w il l be bo unded b y the l ines A B C H G
as
T h e actual d iagram w il l vary somew hat from the theoretical
shown by the shaded l ines T h e adm iss ion line between A and B
w ill s lant downward slightly an d the po int o f cut o w ill be rounded
o w ing to the slow closin g of the valve Th e rs t half of the expansion
l ine w ill fall below the theoretical o w ing to a drop in pressure caused
by cyl inder condensation bu t the actual l ine w il l rise above the t h e or e
tical in the latter part of the stroke on account o f r e evaporation d ue
to heat given o u t b y the hot cyl inder w alls to the low press u re steam
Ins tead of t h e pressure dropp ing abruptl y at
rel ease takes place
j ust before the en d of the stroke an d the d iagram is rounded at OF
instead of havin g s harp corners Th e back pressure l ine FD i s drawn
sl ightly above the atm ospheric l i ne a d istance to represent about 2
pounds per square i nch A t D the exhaus t valve closes an d comp res
s ion begins roun d ing the bottom of the d iagr am up to E
Th e are a of the actual d iagram as shown b y the shaded l ines in Fi g
7 w ill be smal ler than the theoretical i n about the follow ing ratio :
L arge medium s p eed engines
o f theoretical area
of theoretical area
S mall medium speed engines
of theo retical area
H igh speed engines
,

'

CH AP T E R I I
R A TIN G A N D

G E N E R AL P R O P

O R TI O N S

OF

S TE A M E N G I N E S

capac ity or power of a steam engine is rated in horsep ower one

horsepower ( H P ) being the equ ivalent of
foot pounds of work
done per m inute Th e horsepower o f a given engine may be com p uted
by the formula :
Th e

AP LN

i n wh ich
A = a r ea of piston i n square inches
P = m e a n e ffective pressure pe r square inch
L = len g t h of stroke in feet
N = n umber of strokes per m inute
numbe r of revo lutions X 2
Th e derivation of the above formul a is eas i ly explained as follows :
T h e area of the p iston in square inches multip lied by the m ean e ffec
,

12

S TE A M

70

E N G IN E S

ti ve p ressu re in pounds per squ are inch gi ves the total force acting on
Th e length o f stroke in feet times the numbe r
t h e pi ston in pounds
o f s trokes per m inu te gives the d istance the pis ton moves through
in feet per m inute I t has alread y been shown that the pressure in
pounds multi p l ied by the d istance moved through in feet g i ves th e
foo t pounds o f work done H en ce A X P X L X N gives the foot
p oun ds of work done p er m inute by a steam engine I f one horsepowe r
is rep resented by
foot pounds per m inute the power or rating
of the engine w i ll b e obtained by d ivid ing the total foo t
pounds of work
d one p er m inute by
Fo r ease in remembering the formu la
given it is commonl y w ritten
P LAN
,

2 :

i n w h ich the symbol s in th e num erato r of the secon d member spell t h e

wo rd P lan
E x a m p le F in d the horsepower of the foll ow ing engine working u n
d er the cond itions stated below
D iameter of cyl in der 1 2 inches
L en gth o f stroke 1 8 inches
R evoluti ons per m inute 3 0 0
M ean e ffective pressure ( M E
4 0 poun d s
I n th is probl em then A
1 1 3 square in ches ; P
4 0 p ounds ; L
feet ; an d N
6 0 0 strok es
S ubstituting i n th e form ul a
,

40

X 1 1 3 X 6 00

mean e e ct i ve p ressure may be found app roxi matel y fo r di f

fe r e n t con d itions by means of the factors in the fol low ing tabl e of r a
tios co vering ord inary p ractice Th e rule u sed is as fo llows : M u ltiply
the absolute in iti al p ressure by the facto r correspond ing to the clear
and subtract the abso lute back
a n Ee and cu t o ff as foun d fro m T abl e I I
p ressure from the result assum in g th is to be 1 7 pounds fo r non con
d en s i n g engines and 3 poun ds for conden sing
E x a m p le 1 :A non condens in g engine h aving 3 per cent clearance
cuts off at
stroke ; the in itial pressure i s 9 0 pounds gage What i s
th e M E P ?
1 0 5 pounds
T h e absolute i n iti al pressure is 9 0
15
Th e fac
Ap
tor fo r 3 per cent cl earance and
c u t o ff from Tabl e I I is
17
p lying the rule w e h ave : ( 1 0 5 X
poun ds per square
inch
A condensing engin e h as a clearan ce of 5 pe r cent
I t is
E xa m p le 2 :
suppl ied w ith steam at 1 4 0 pounds gage pressure and has a ratio of
exp ans ion of 6 Wh at i s the M E P ?
T h e facto r for a
15
155
Th e absolute i n itial pressure is 1 4 0
rati o of ex pans ion of 6
cut o ff ) an d 5 per cen t clearance is
poun ds pe r sq u are inch
3
w h ich gives ( 1 5 5 X
Th e power of an engin e com puted by th e meth od j ust explained i s
Th e

P R O P O R TI
'

O N S O F S TE A M E NG I N E S

13

called the ind icated horsepower ( I H

an d gives the total power
developed incl u d ing that required to overcome the fr iction of the e n
gine itself Th e del ivered o r brake hors epower ( B H P ) is that
deli vered by the engine after deducting from the ind icated horsepower
the power requ ired to operate the moving parts Th e brake horse
power common ly varies from 8 0 to 9 0 per cent o f the in d icated horse
power at full load depending upo n th e type and s i ze of engine
In proportioning an en gine cyl inder fo r any given hors epower the
designer usually has the fol low ing data e ither given or assumed for
the spec ial type o f engine u nder consideration : I n itial p ressure back
p ressure clearance cut off and p iston speed
T hese quantities vary in di fferent types of engines b ut in the a b
w il l be foun d use
s ence of more spec ic data the val u es in T ab le I I I
ful Th e back pressure may be taken as 1 7 pounds per square inch
abso lute for non condens ing engines and as 3 pound s fo r condens ing
engines as previo u sly stated
.

ABL E II F A CTOR S

FO R

F IN D IN G

ME

AN E FFE C TI VE P R E S S U R E

rs t step in pro portioning the cyl in der is to compute the a p

p rox imate mean effective pressu re from the assumed initial pressure
clearance and cut off by the metho d already explained N ex t assume
the piston speed for the type of engine to b e des i g ned and determin e
the p iston area by the follow ing formula :
H P
A =
M E P X p iston speed
Th is formul a usuall y gives the d iameter of the piston in inches an d
fractions of an inch w h ile it i s des irable to make th is d imension an
even number of inches T his m ay b e done by taking as the d iameter
the nearest whole number and changing the p iston speed to correspond
T his is done by the use o f the following equation
First p iston speed X rs t p iston are a
new p iston speed
new p iston area
I n calculating the effective p iston area the area o f the p iston ro d upon
o n e s ide must be allowed for
Th e effective or average piston area w ill
Th e

2 A

t hen

'

be

in wh ich

area of p iston

a :

area o f p iston rod

Th is

l atter area must be assu med

A fter

assum ing a new p iston d iam

NO

14

70

S TE A M

E N GIN E S

te r o f even inches i ts effect i ve or average area m ust be used in d e

t e r m i n i n g the new piston speed
T h e length o f stroke i s comm onl y
p roportioned to the d iameter o f cyl inder and the p iston s p ee d d ivi ded
b y this w i ll give the number of strokes p e r m inute
E ma m p le :Fin d the d iameter of cylinder length of stroke an d revo
lutions per m inute for a s imple h igh speed non c ondens ing engine of
200 I H
P
w ith the follow ing assumptions : I n itial pressure 9 0
pounds gage ; clearance 7 p er cen t ; cu t off 14 ; p i ston speed 7 0 0 fee t
p er m inute ; length o f stroke
ti mes cylinder d iamete r
P R E S S U R E C LE AR AN C E C U T O FF A N D P I S TO N S PE E D
TAB LE III
O F S TE AM E N G INE S
e

yp

e Of

I niti al
P
E
IC g g

E n mn e

SS

l ar n c
nt

C e a
P e r ce

S i m p l e hi g h s p e e d
S i m p le m e d iu m s p ee d
S i m p le C orl iss
Com poun d h i g h s p ee d
Co m po u n d m e d i um s p eed
Com po un d Corliss
-

By

80 to 90
8 0 to 9 0
80 to 9 0
1 30 t o 1 40
1 30 to 1 40
1 3 0 to 1 4 0

e,

to 1 0
to 8
to
to 1 0
to 8
to

4
3

4
3

i ton S p d
Mi n u t
p

C u t - o ff,

EI Sggkg
O

l
i
:
l
:

1
3 6
1
1 5
1
1 6

to
to
to
to
to
to

ee

er

6 00
5 00
400
600
5 00
40 0

}
1
}
}
a

to
to
to
to
to
to

8 00
7 00
6 00
8 00
7 00
6 00

u sing the rules an d form u las in the forego ing we h ave :

15 ) X
M E P
p ounds
( 90
,

X 2 00

square inches

A
49

X 7 00

neares t piston d iameter of even inches is 1 6 w h ich correspo n d s

to an area o f 2 0 1 square inches A ssum e a p iston rod d iamete r of
i nc hes corres p ond ing to an area of
square inches from w hi ch the
Th e

average or effective p iston area is found to be

( 2 X 201 )
2

quare i nches

D et e r m i n i n g

now the n ew p iston s p ee d we have :

,

7 00 X

A ssum ing

the length of stroke to be

times the d i ameter of th e
cyl inde r i t w il l be 2 4 in ches or 2 feet
2
3 4 0 strokes per m i nu te a pp roximatel y
T h i s w il l cal l for
1 7 0 revolutions pe r minute
o r 340
2
,

C H AP T E R I I I
S TE A M E N G I N E

D E TA I L S

S om e

of the most impo rtant detail s of a steam engine are those o f its
valve gear Th e s implest form o f valve i s that know n as the plain
s l id e valve an d as near ly all others are a mod ication of this i t i s
essential that the designer shou ld rst fam il iari ze h imself w ith this
particu lar type of valve in all i ts d etails of operation A fter this has
been done a study o f o ther forms of valves w ill be found a com
T h e so called Corl i ss valve d iffers radically
p a r a t i v e ly easy m atter
from the s l ide valve bu t the results to be obtained an d the ter m s used
in its des ign are practically the same Th e valve gear of a steam
en g ine is made u p of the valve or valve s w h ic h admit s team to a nd
exhaust it from the cyl inder and of the mechan ism w hic h governs the
.

Fig

ongitu di nal

c tio n of S l i d

al v

it

w h P

o rt

valve movem ents the latter usuall y cons isting of one o r more
t r i cs attached to the m ain shaft
,

e cce n

li d e V a lv e
Fig 8 show s a longitud inal section of a s lide valve w ith the p orts
br idges etc Th e valve is shown in m i d pos ition i n o r der that certain
po ints relating to it may be more eas ily un derstood Th e valve V con
s ists of a hollow casting w ith ends proj ecting beyond the ports as
s hown ; the lower face i s s mooth ly n is hed and tted to the valve seat
AB
In operation i t slides b ack an d forth o p en ing an d clos ing the
ports w hich connect the steam ch es t w ith the cyli nder S team is a d
m i t t e d to the cyl inder w hen e ither port C D o r D C is opened and i s r e
leased when the ports are brought into com mun ication w ith the ex
haus t port MN Th i s is accomp lished by the movement of the valve
w hich brings one o f the cylin der p orts an d the exhaust port both under
t he hollow arch K
Th e portions D M an d N D o f the valve seat are
called the br idges
Th e S

10

S TE A M

E N GI N E S

7o

I t w ill be seen b y reference to Fi g 8 that the portions O I and 1 0

are w ide r than the ports which they cover T h is extra w idth is called
the la p 0 0 be ing the outs ide lap and D I th e inside o r exhaust lap
T h e objec t of outs ide lap is that the s team m ay b e shu t off after th e
p iston has moved forward a certain d istance an d be expanded during
the rem ain d er of the stroke I f there were no outs i d e la p steam wou ld
.

Mach i n er y

N.Y
.

Fig 9 I l l u tra ti on h o w ing L ad of S li d V al v

be adm itted thro u ghout the entire s troke an d there woul d be no ex
I f there were no i n s i d e la p exhaust would take p lace through
p a n s i on
o ut the w hole stroke and the advantages of premature release and
compress ion w ould be lost H ence o uts ide lap affects the cut off and
ins ide lap a ffec ts rel ease an d compress ion A val ve has lea d w hen it
begin s 0 uncover the steam por t before the en d of the return strok e
.

A LV E

Ma ch i n er y N Y
.

Fig 1 0 Di a gr am m a ti c al Vi w of E cc n tric
of the p iston T hi s is shown in Fig 9 where the p iston P is j ust read y
to start on its forward stroke as i nd icated by th e arrow Th e valve has
already opened a d istance equal to the l ead an d the steam h as h ad an
opportun ity to enter and ll the clearance space befo re th e beginn in g
of the stroke T h e l ead var ies i n d ifferen t engines bein g greater in
h igh speed than in low speed types
.

S TE A M E NG I

N E D E TA IL S

17

ri c
Th e s lide valve is usually d riven by an eccentric attached to the
main shaft A d iagram of an eccentric is sho wn in Fig 1 0 An e ccen
tri c is in real ity a short crank w ith a cr ank p in of such s ize that it
surrounds th e s haft Th e arm o f a crank is th e d istance between the
center o f the shaft an d the center o f the crank p in Th e throw of an
eccentric corresponds to this and is the distance between the cente r of
the shaft and the center of th e eccentri c d isk as sho wn at a i n Fi g 1 0
Th e d isk is keyed to th e shaft an d as the shaft revolves the center of
the d isk rotates about i t as shown by the dotted l ine and gives a fo r
ward an d backward movement
to the valve r od equal to tw ice
the throw a
In Fi g 1 1 let A rep resen t the
center of the m ain shaft B the
crank p in to w hich the connect
ing ro d is attached ( see H Fig
and the dotted circle through
B the path of the crank p in
aroun d the s haft For s imp li
city let the eccentr ic be r e p r e
sented in a s i milar m anner by
the crank A b an d its p ath by
the dotted c ircle through b Fi g
12
shows a s im i lar diagram
w ith the p is ton P and the valve
i n the positi o ns correspond ing
to the p os itions of the crank an d
eccentr ic i n Fi g 1 1 an d in th e
d iagram at the r ight in F ig 1 2
Th e p iston is at the extreme left
ready to start on its forward
h
stroke
toward
the
r
ight
T
e
I M hi m N Y
crank p in B i s at its extreme i n
Fig 1 1 R lation of Cra n k a n d E cc ntri c
When the valve i s
D e r pos iti on
at i ts mi d pos ition as in Fig 8 the eccentric arm A b w i ll coinc ide w ith
the l ine A C Fi g 1 1 I f the eccentr ic is turned on the shaft su fci ently
to br ing the left han d edge 0 Fig 8 of the valve in l in e w ith the edge
0 of the port the ar m of the eccentr ic w ill h ave moved from i ts
vertical posi tion to th at show n by the l ine A b in Fi g 1 1 Th e angl e
through wh i ch the eccentr ic has been turned fro m the verti cal to bring
about th is result i s called the a n g u la r a d va n ce an d is shown by angl e
C A b in Fi g
Th e angular advance evidently depends upon t h e
11
amount o f la p
I f the valve is to be given a lead as ind icated in Fig 1 2 the ecce n
tric must b e turned still further on the shaft to open the valve slightl y
before the p iston starts on its forward movement Th is brings the
eccentric to the pos ition A b shown i n Fig 1 1 Th e angle through
w h ich the eccentric i s t u rned to g i ve t h e n ecessary lead open ing to the
Th e E

ccen

ac

ne

'

'

'

18

70

S TE A I I
.

E NGI

NE S

val ve i s cal le d th e a n g le of lea d an d i s shown by angle b A b By refer

ence to Fig 1 1 it i s seen that that the total an gle between the c rank
an d th e eccentri c i s 9 0 degrees pl u s th e angul ar advance p lu s the
a n gle of lead Thi s i s the total angle o f advance

CRANK
Fig

12

Pi ton ju t
s

Ma ch m e r y N Y

ginning Forw a r d S tro k

re lative p ositions of the p i ston and valve at d ifferen t periods o f

Fig 1 2 shows th e p iston
t h e stroke are i llustrated in Figs 1 2 to 1 6
j ust beginn in g the fo rward stroke the valve having uncovered the a d
m iss ion p ort a n amount eq u al to th e lead Th e crank is in a horizon
Th e

EC

Fig

Ma ch i n e r y

13

t a m P ort fully O p n d

S e

CE

N Y
.

tal position an d th e eccentr i c h as m oved fro m the vertical an amount

s u fcien t to m ove the valve toward th e r ight a d istance eq u al to the
ou ts ide l ap plus t h e lead Th e arrows show that steam i s entering
the left h an d port a n d i s be ing exha u sted through the ri ght han d
port
,

S TE A M E NGIN E

D E TA IL S

19

In Fig 1 3 i t is seen that the val ve has traveled forw ard s u i ci e n t ly

t o open the steam port to its ful lest extent and the piston has moved
Th e exhaust port i s stil l w ide open and th e
t o the po int ind icated
r elative pos itions of the crank and eccentric are shown i n the diagra m
E CC E N T R I C
.

CR ANK
Fig 1 4 V al v h
t a rt d on B a ckw a r d S tro k
a t the r ight
I n Fig 1 4 the eccentr ic has passed the horizontal p os i
tion an d the valve has started on i ts backward stroke w hi le the p isto n
is still moving forward Th e adm iss ion port i s closed cut off h avin g
taken p lace an d the steam is expand ing Th e exh aust p ort is stil l
p arti ally open
E CC E N T R I C
.

as

C R AN K

Ma ch i n er y N
,

Y.

Fig 1 5 B oth S t a m P ort C l o d

In Fig 1 5 both ports are c losed an d compress ion is tak ing place in
front of the p iston whi le expans ion contin ues back of it R elease oc
c urs in Fig 1 6 j ust before the p iston reaches the en d of i t s stroke
T h e eccen tr ic crank i s now in a vertical position po inting dow nward
a n d ex haust is j u st beginn in g to take place through the left
hand por t
.

se

20

7o

TE A M E N G IN E S

T h is

completes the d i fferent stages o f a single stroke the same featu res
being repeated upon the return o f the p iston to its or i ginal position
,

Fig

Ma ch i n er y

16

Exh

a u t B gin
e

N Y
.

cond itions of lap lead ang u lar advance etc p ertain to p ractical ly
al l valves w hateve r thei r design

Th e

i e r e n t Ty p e s o f V a l v e s
I n the follow ing are shown some of the valves in common use being
w ith the exception of the Corl iss mod ications of the p lain s lide valve
and s im ilar i n their action
D ff

Fig

D o u b le P o r t e d
s

hown i n Fig

Mach i n er y N Y
,

ngin w ith Pi ton Val v

B a la n ce d V a lv e A valve o f this type has al rea d y been
T h is valve is a t in form w i th two n ished su rfaces
.

17

S TE A M E N GIN E

D E TA IL S

21

and works between the valve seat and a p late the latter be ing p re
vented from press ing against the valve b y spec ial bearing s u rfaces
wh ic h hold i t about
inch away Th e construction of the valve is
-

Fig

18

c tio n th r o u gh C y lind r of E n gin of t h Fo u r al

e

-v

ve

Ty p e

such that when open the steam reaches the port through two open ings
as ind icated by the arrows at the left Th e obj ect of this is to reduce
the motion of the valve an d qu icken its actio n in adm itting an d c ut
ting off steam
.

Ma ch i n er y N Y
.

Fig
P i s t o n V a lv e

Th

19

D i e r e n t T

yp

es

of Corli

s s

Val v

es

p iston valve shown in Fig 1 7 i s identical in its

action w i th the pl ain sl ide valve shown in Fig 8 except that i t is
c ircular in section instead of being a t or rectangular Th e advantage
cl aimed fo r this type of valve is the greater ease in tting cyl indrical
s urfaces as compared w ith a t ones
Th e valve sl ides in spec ial b u sh
e

22

S TE A M E N GIN E S

7o

ings which m ay be renewe d w hen worn P iston valves are al so m ad e

w ith doubl e ports
F o u r V a lv e Typ e
Fig 1 8 shows a ho rizontal section th rough the
cylinder an d valves o f an engin e of the four valve type Th e adm iss ion
S TE A M
.

E XH U S T

Ma ch i n e r y
Fi g

2 0

ongitu din al

c ti on th ro u gh Corli

ss

N Y
.

ngin

ri diron V al v
v alves are shown at the top of the i ll ustration and the exhau st valves at
the bottom al though in real ity they are at the sides of the cyl inde r
T h e advantage of an arrangem en t of this kind is that the valves ma y
be set independentl y o f ach other and the work done by the two en d s
e
Fi g

2 1

Th e G

S TE A M E NGIN E

D E TA I L S

23

of the cylinder equal ized T h e var ious events s u ch as cut off co mpres
sion etc may be adj usted w itho u t rega r d to eac h other an d i n s u ch
a manner as to give the best resu lts a con d ition wh ic h i s not poss ib le
with a s ingle valve
O n e of the p r incipal obj ects sought in th e des i gn of
G r i d i r o n V a lv e
a valve is qu ick action at the po ints of adm iss ion and cut o ff Th is
requ ires the uncovering of a large port open ing w ith a comp a r a tivel y
smal l trav el of the valve Th e grid iron valve sho w n in Fi g 2 1 is
constructed especially fo r th is purpose Th is valve is o f the fou r val ve
type on e steam valve and one exhaust valve being s hown i n the sec
-

A R d to E cc n t ri c ; B G
n gin w ith Corli V al v S a
ad al A m ; E S t am V al v I R c ra nk ; G W t Plat ;
; C R a ch R
; D
H E h a u t V al v ; K
D a p ot
tion Both the valve and its seat con tain a n u mber of narrow o p en ings
o r po rts so that a short movemen t of the valve w i ll open o r clo s e a
comparativel y large openin g Fo r example the steam valve i n the
illustration has 1 2 openings so that if they are
inch i n w idt h each
3
a movement of 14 inch of the valve w il l open a space 1 2 X
inches in l ength
Co r li s s V a lv e A section through an engine cylinder equ ipped w i t h
Corliss valves i s shown in Fi g 2 0 There are four cy lind rical valves i n
th is type of engine two steam valves at th e top and t wo exhaust valves
at the bottom T his arrangement is used to secure prope r d rain age
Th e action of the admiss ion and exha u st valves is indicated by the ar
rows the u pper left h and an d the lower r ight hand valve being op e n
an d the other tw o closed

Fig

er n o r
,

2 2

M on arch

E
R
,
sh-

od

Th e

s s

"

ri s

ov
e

24

S TE A M

E N GIN E S

7o

S i de

an d sectional views o f d ifferen t form s of th is type of valve are

shown in Fi g 1 9 T hey are operated by means of short crank arms
w h ic h are attached to a wrist pl ate b y m eans of rad ial arm s or rods
as s hown in Fi g 2 2 Th e w rist pl ate i n turn is give n a partial back
w ard and forward rotation by means of an eccentric attached to the
m ain shaft an d connected to the u pper p art o f the w rist p late by a rod
as ind icate d Th e exhaust val ves a r e both opened and closed by the
-

T P LATE

O
T

Fig
O

Ma ch i n er y

2 4

N Y
.

Fig

2 3

Ma ch i n er y

A
D

N Y
.

O
T

Ma ch i n e r y

Fig
Fig

2 5
.

2 3

to

2 6

A c ti on of Corli

s s

V al v

Ge

Fig
ar

N Y
.

2 6

action of th e wrist plate an d connecting rods Th e steam valves are

opened in thi s manner but are c losed by the suction of das h pots a t
t a ch e d to the d rop levers on the valve stems by means of vertical rod s
a s shown
T h e action o f the steam or adm i ss ion valves i s bes t expl ained by ref
erence to Figs 2 3 to 2 6 R eferr ing to F ig 2 3 A is a bell crank w hich
turns loosely upon the val ve stem V Th e l ower left h and extens ion
o f A carries the grab hook H while the u pper extension is connected
w ith the w rist plate as ind icated O rd inari ly the hook H i s presse d
-

S TE A M E NGIN E

D E TA IL S

25

inward by the spring S so that t h e lo n g e r arm of the hook is always

p ressed against the knock off cam C Th e cam 0 also turns upon th e
valve stem V and is connected w ith the governor by means of a reach
rod as ind icated in Fig 2 3 an d s how n in Fig 2 2 Th e dro p lever B i s
keyed to the valve ste m V an d is connected w ith the dash pot by a ro d
as ind icated by the dotted l ine Th is is also shown in Fig 2 2 Th e
end of the dro p lever carries a steel block ( shown sh aded in Fig
w hich engages w ith the grab hook H
Wh en in operation the bell crank is rotated in the d i rection of the
arrow by the action of the wr ist p late an d connecting rod A s the bel l
crank rotates the
grab hoo k engages
the s teel block at
the en d of the drop
lever B an d l ifts it
thus caus ing the
valve to open an d
to remain so until
bell crank has
t he
a d vanced so far that
the longer arm of
the grab hook H i s
p ressed outwar d by
the projection on the
kn ock off cam
as
s hown in Fi g 2 4
Th e d rop lever n ow
being release d the
valve
is
quickly
c losed by the suction
of the dash pot
wh ich
pu lls
the
lever d own to its
original pos ition by
means of the r od
p r e v i o u s l y men
Fig 2 7 G ov rnor fb Corli E gin

s s

t i on e d

governor operates by changing the po int o f cut off through the

action of t he cam C With the cam i n the pos i tion shown in Fi g 2 5
c u t off occurs earl ier than in Fig 2 4 S hou ld the cam be turned i n
the oppos ite d irection ( cloc k w ise ) cu t off wou ld take p lace later A
detai led view of the complete valve mechan is m described is shown as
sembled in Fig 2 6 w ith each part properly n amed A detail of th e
governor is shown in Fi g 2 7 A n increase in speed causes the r evo lv
ing bal ls BB to sw ing outward thus rais ing the weight W and the
sleeve S Th is in turn operates t h e l ever L through rod R and a bel l
crank attachment as shown in the right hand view An u pward an d
d ownward movement o f the balls due to a change in speed o f th e
engine sw ings the lever L backward and forward as shown by t h e
Th e

26

S TE A M E N GIN E S

7o

full and dotted l ines Th e ends o f th is lever are attached by m ean s

of reach rods to the knock off cams th is being shown mo re clearly in
Th e connection s between the l ever L and cam C are such that
Fi g 2 2
a rais ing of the balls due to increased speed w ill reduce the cu t O E
and thus slo w down
P0 r
the en gine
the
On
other hand a fall ing o f
th e balls w il l lengthen
the c u t off thro u gh t h e
sam e mechan ism
Mention has alread y
been made o f the dash
pot wh ich i s u se d to
close the valve sudden
ly after be ing released
from the grab b ook
Th e
dash po t rod i s
shown i n Fig 2 6 and
ind icated by dotted
O U TLE
o 25
lines
i
n
F
igs
2
3
t
,N LE T
A detailed vie w o f one
.

'

Ma ch i n e r y
Fi g

2 8

Da

s h -p o t

for m

N Y.

fo r Co rli

s s

ngin

daS h

hown in

Fi g 2 8
.

Dot
.

I S

W he n

Fig 2 9 a n d 3 0 P la n a n d L on g itu d in al S c t i on of A dj u tab l P i ton

the valve is open ed the rod attached to lever B Figs 2 3 and 2 4
raises th e p i ston P Fig 2 8 and a par ti al vacuu m is formed beneat h
it w h ich draws the p iston and connecting rod do wn b y s u ction as soon
as the lever B is rel e ased, an d th u s closes the valve s uddenl y an d with
s

S TE A I VI E N GIN E

D E TA IL S

27

o u t shock Th e strength of the s u ction an d the ai r c u shion fo r this

p iston are reg u lated by the inlet and o u tlet valves shown on the s ides :
o f the dash pot
E n g i n e D e t a i ls
Figs 2 9 to 3 7 s how var io u s engin e details and i ll u strate in a simple
way some o f the more i mportan t pr inc iples involved in steam engine
d es i gn
.

Fig 3 1 A Ty p i c al Cro h ad
A parti al cross section o f an adj ustable p iston is shown in Fi g 2 9
and a longit u d inal section of the same p iston i n Fig 3 0 Th e princ ipal
featu re to be emphas ized is the method of autom atic expans ion em
ployed to take up any wear an d keep the p iston tight In settin g u p
the p iston a han d adjustmen t is made of the oute r s leeve o r ring R
by m eans of th e set screws AA R ing R is m ade i n several sections so
.

s s

Ma c h i n e r y

N Y
.

Ma ch i n e r y

Fig

N Y
.

Co m m only U d for Tak ing U p W ar

in a Conn c t ng ro d
that i t may be expanded in the form of a true circle F u rther tight
ness is sec u red w ithout un due friction by means of the packing r ing
P which ts in a groove in R and is forced l ightl y against the walls
of the cyl inder by a number of co il spr ings on e of w
hich is shown at
S
A s the cylinder an d piston become worn screws A are adj u sted
from time to ti me and the ne adj u stment for tightness is cared for
by the packin g ring P and the coi l s prings S
s

3 2

an d

3 3

Mem o d s

s e

28

70

S TE A M

E N GIN E S

poin ts to be brough t o u t i n conn ection w ith the cross head are

th e methods o f alignm en t an d adj ustment A typ ical cross head is
s hown in cross and longitud inal sections in Fig 3 1 A l ignm ent in a
straight l ine l ongit u d in al ly is secu red by the cylind ri cal form o f the
bearin g s u rfaces or shoes shown at S These are sometimes made V
s h aped i n order to secu re th e sam e result Th e wear on a cross head
Th e

'

Ma ch i n er y

Fig

8 4

O u tb o a r d B a ring for Corli

e

s s

Ty

ngi n

N Y
.

comes on the s u rfaces S an d is taken up by the use of s c rew wedges

W shown in the longitud inal se ction A s the sl iding surfaces become
w orn the w edges are forced in sl ightly by screw ing in the set screws
and clamp ing them in place by means o f the check nuts
Th e method com monly em ployed in tak ing up the wear i n a connect
ing ro d is shown in Figs 3 2 and 3 3 Th e wear at th e w r is t p in is
taken by the so called brasses shown at B i n the il lustrations Th e
,

Fig

3 5

nn r B a ring a n d
e

of Corl i

Be d

ss

ngin

inner brass in both cases ts in a s u itabl e groove a n d is he ld sta

T h e outer b rass is adj ustable being forced
t i on a r y when once i n place
toward the w rist pin by a sl id ing w edge wh ic h i s operated by one or
more set screws I n Fig 3 2 the w edge is hel d in a vertical pos ition
and i s adj usted by two sc rews as shown Th e arrangement m a d e use
o f in Fig 3 3 has the wedge pass ing through the rod in a ho rizontal
pos ition and adj u sted b y m eans of a s ingle screw as shown in the

S TE A M E N G I

N E D E TA IL S

29

lower View W ith the arrangements shown tighten ing up the brasses
s hortens the length o f the rod I n practice the wedges at each end o f
the rod are s o p laced that tighten ing one shortens the rod an d tighten
ing the other lengthens it the total effect be ing to keep th e conn ecting
rod at its or iginal len g th
A com mon form of outboard bearing for an engine o f the slow speed
or Corliss typ e i s illustrated i n Fig 3 4 Th e var ious adj ustments for
alignmen t and for taking up wear are the i mportant po ints cons idered
in th is case T h e p late B is fas tened to the stone foundation by ancho r
bolts no t shown S idew ise m ovemen t is secured by l oosen in g the bolts
w h ich p ass through slots in the bear ing and adj usting by means of
the s crews S V ertical adj ust
ment is obtained by use of the
wedge W w h ich is forced in by
the screw A as requ ired Th e
inner bearing and bed p iece of
a heavy duty Co rl iss engine is
shown in Fig 3 5 T h e bearing
i n th i s case is made up o f fo u r
s ections
so arranged that
e ither hor iz o ntal or vertical a d
j u stmen t may be sec u red b y
the use of adj u sting screw s
an d check nu t s
of the sl ide valve
E ngines
type are usual ly provide d
either w ith a y ball thro ttl ing
governor or a shaft governor
A common for m of throttl ing
govern o r i s show n in F ig 3 6
A s the speed increases t h e
balls W are thrown o u tward
by the action o f the centri fugal
force and being attached t o
arms h inged abov e them any
M hi
outward
movement
causes
y N Y
Fig 3 6 Co m m on Fo rm f Th t t li g
Th i s operate s
them
to
u se
G ov rnor
which in turn
t h e sp indle S
partially closes the balanced valve in body B th u s cutting d o wn t h e
steam supply del i vere d to the engine T h e action of a throttling gov
e r n or u pon the work d iagram of an engine is shown in Fig
L et
38
the ful l l ine represent the form of th e d iagram w ith the engine work
ing at full load N ow if a part of the load be thrown off the engin e
wi ll speed up sl ightly ca u s ing the governor to act as described th u s
bringing the admiss ion an d expans ion l ines i nto the lower positions
as sho wn in dotted l ines
The shaft governor i s u sed almost u n iversally on h igh speed engines
and is shown in one form in Fig 3 7 I t cons ists in this case o f tw o
weights W h inged to the spokes of the whee l n ear the circ u mferenc e
.

'

ac

n er

r o

5 TE A M

N O 7o

30

E N GIN E S

by means of s u itable arms A ttached to the arms as shown are co i l

sp rings C Th e en d s of the arms beyond the weights are connected by
means of levers L to th e eccentric disk W hen the engine speeds up
the weights ten d to swing outward toward the ri m of the w heel the
am oun t of the movem ent be ing regulated by the tensio n of the spr ings
A s the arms move outward the levers at the en ds turn the e ccen
C
.

Fi g

37

S ha

ft G o rn o r f
ve

or

igh

-s

p e e d E n g ln e

tr ic d isk on the shaft th e effec t of w h ich is to change the angle of

advance and s horten the c u t off W hen the speed falls belo w the nor
mal the we ights move toward the center an d the cut off is lengthened
T e effect of th is form of governor on the d iagram is shown in Fig 3 9
h
T h e f u ll l ine represents the d iagram at f u ll load and the dotted l in e
w hen the engine i s under loaded
,

C H AP T E R I V

S TE

AM E N G I N E

E C ON

O MY

nde r the general head ing of steam engine economy such items as
c ylinder c ondensation steam consum ption e fciency ratio o f expans ion
under an d over load ing condensing etc are treated
T h e princ ipal w aste o f steam i n the o peration of an engine is due to
Th is condensation i s
c on densation during the rs t part of the stroke
d ue to the fact that d u ring expans ion and exha u s t the cyl inder walls
U

S TE A M E N G IN E E C O N O M Y

31

head and the p iston are in con tact w ith comparativel y c ool steam
and therefore giv e up a cons iderable amount of heat W hen fresh
i t i mmediately gi ves up suf
s team is adm itted at a h igh temperature
ci e n t heat to raise the cyl inder walls to a temperature approx imating
that o f the entering steam T h is resu lts in the con densation of a ce n
tain amount of s team the quantity depending upon the time allowed
for th e transfer of heat the area of exposed surfa ce an d the temperature
D uring the per iod of expansion the tempera
o f the cy linder wal ls
ture falls rapidly an d the steam being w et absorbs a la rge amount o f
h eat A fter the exhaust valve open s the drop in p ressure allows the
m oisture that has collected on the cylinder walls to evaporate into
s team so that d ur ing the exhaust period but l ittle heat is transferred
With the adm iss ion of fresh steam at bo iler pressu re a m i st is con
d e n s e d on the cyl inder walls w h ich greatly increases the rapid ity w ith
which heat is absorbed
Th e amount of heat lost through cylinder con densation is best shown
foot
b y a p ractical il lustration
O n e horsepower i s equal to
p ounds of work per m inute o r
foot pounds
X 60
p er hour Th is is equ ivalen t to
heat un i t s
778
T h e latent heat o f steam at 90 pounds gage pressu re is 8 8 1 heat u n its
pounds of steam at 9 0 pound s p ressure i s
881
p rovided there i s no loss of steam and al l
r equ ired p er horsepower
As a matter of
o f the contained heat is changed into useful work
fact from 3 0 to 35 pounds o f steam are requ ired in th e average s impl e
n o n condens ing high speed engine
There are three remed ies w hich are u se d to reduce the amount of
Th e rs t to b e used was cal led steam j acket
c yl inder condens ation
i n g and con sisted in surroun d ing the cyl inder w ith a layer of high
p ressure steam the idea being to keep the i nner w a lls up to a tem
This arra n ge
p e r a t u r e nearly equal to that of the incom ing s team
ment is but l ittle used at the p resent time ow ing both to the expense
o f operation an d to its ineffectiveness as com p ared w ith other m ethods
I t has been
T h e secon d remedy i s the use of superh e ated steam
s tated that the transfer o f heat takes place m uch more rap idl y when
the in ter io r su rfaces are covered with a coati ng of mo isture or mist
S uperheated steam has a tempe r ature considerably abo ve the po int of
s aturation at the given pressure ; hence it is poss ible to coo l it a cer
T his has the effect of redue
t ain amo u nt before condens ation begins
ing the transfer of heat for a short period follow ing admiss ion and
t his is the time that con densation takes place most rapidly un der
o rd in ar y cond ition s wi t h s a t u r a t e d steam
T h is i n fact is the p ri n
c i p a l advantage der ived from the us e of superheated steam
although i t
is also l ighter for a given volume an d therefore a less w eigh t o f
steam is requ ired to ll the cyl inder up to the po int of cut o ff Th e
e conom ical degree of superheating is cons idered to be that wh ich w il l
prevent the con densation o f any steam on the walls of the cyl inder up
to the point of cut off thus keep ing them at all ti mes free from mo is
ture Th e obj ections to superheated steam are its cuttin g effect in the
passages thro u gh w h ich it ows an d the d ifc u lty experienced in lu
an d

'

'

NO

32

70

S TE A M

E NG IN E S

th e valves an d cyl inder at such a h igh temperature Th e

th i rd and m ost effective remedy fo r cond ensation losses i s that known
as compound in g w h ich w il l be treated under a separate head ing in
the fo llow ing
M u lt ip l e E x p a n s i o n E n g in e s
b r i ca t i n g

I t has been explain ed that cyl inder condensation is due princ ipall y
to th e change in temperature of the interior su rfaces o f the cyl inder
ca u sed by the variation in tempe rature o f the steam at in itial and ex
haust press u res Therefore i f the temperatu re range be d ivi ded b e
t ween two cyl inders wh ich are operated i n series the steam con
d e n s e d in the rst o r h igh pressure cyl ind er w ill be r e evaporated and
passed into the low pressu re cylin de r as steam where it w i ll again be

e
r
condensed an d
evaporated as i t passes into the exhaust p ipe T h e
o r e t i ca l ly
th is shou ld reduce the condensation loss by one half and i f
three cyl inders are u sed the loss shoul d be on l y one t h i r d o f that in a
s i mple engine In actual practic e the s aving is n ot as great as th is
b u t w ith the proper relation between the cyl inders these results are a p
,

p r ox i m a t e d

E ngines

in w h ic h expans ion takes p lace i n two stages are called

co mpound engines When th ree stages are emp loyed they are cal led
triple expans ion engines Com pound ing adds to th e rs t cos t o f an
engine an d also to the fr i ct i on s o that i n d eterm ini ng the most eco
n o m i ca l n umbe r of cy linders to employ
the actual relation between
the con densation los s an d th e inc reased cost o f the engine an d the
friction loss must be cons idered I n the case o f power pl an t work it

is now th e p i a ct i ce to use compound engines for the large s izes w h ile

triple expansion engines are m o re comm only employed in p ump ing sta
tions Man y des i gns of m ultiple expansion en gin es are p rovid ed w ith
chambers between the cyl inders cal led receivers I n engines of th i s
type the exhaust is frequently r eheated in the receivers by means of
b rass co i ls containing l ive steam In the case of a cross compo und
engin e a receive r is alw ays used I n the t andem des ign it is often
o m itted the p ip i ng between the two cylin ders bein g made to answe r
t he purpose
T h e ratio of cyl inde r volum es i n compoun d engines vari es w ith d if
T h e usual p ractice is to make the vol u me o f the low
fe r e n t m akers
pressure cyl in der fro m
to 3 ti mes that of the h igh p ressure Th e
total ratio of expans ion in a mul tipl e expans ion engin e is the produc t
of the ratios in each cyl inder Fo r example if the rati o of expansion
i s 4 in eac h cyl in der in a compound engine the total ratio w il l be 4 X 4
Th e effect o f a tr ip le expans i on engin e is sometimes obtained
16
in a measure by making the vol um e of the low pres sure cyl inder o f a
c ompoun d engine 6 o r 7 times that of the h igh pressu re This arrange
men t produces a cons iderable d ro p in pressure at the en d o f the h igh
p ressure s troke w ith the resu l t o f th row ing a considerable increase
o f wo rk on the high pressure cylinder w itho u t increasing its ratio o f
expansion an d at the same tim e securing a l arge total ratio o f e x p a n
s ion in the engi ne
I n th e case of vertical engin es the low press u re cyl inder is sometime s
.

S TE A M E N GIN E E C O N O M Y

33

d ivided

into two parts in order to reduce the size of cyl inde r and p is
ton In this arr angement a receiver of larger s ize than usual is em
p loyed and the low pressure cranks are often set at an angle w ith each
other
A nother advantage gained by compound ing is the poss ibil ity to ex
p an d the stea m to a greater extent than can be done in a s ingle cy li n
der engine thus uti lizing as useful work a greater proportion of the
T h is also makes i t possible to emp loy
h eat contained in the steam
h ighe r in itial pressures in w hich there i s a still further s aving b e
cause of the comparativel y sm al l amount of fuel requ ired to rais e the
p ressure from that of the common practi ce of 8 0 or 9 0 pounds for
s impl e e ngines to 1 2 0 to 1 4 0 pounds w h ich is entirely practical in the
case o f compoun d engines W ith triple exp ans ion in itial pressure s of
Th e gai n from com
1 8 0 pounds or more may be use d to advantage
pound ing m ay amoun t to about 1 5 pe r cent ove r s imple condens ing
tak ing steam at the same in itial pressur e W hen compoun d
e ngines
.

AB LE

I V

S TE

AM C O N S U M PT I O N O F

EN GI NE S

onden sing engines are compared w ith s impl e n on condens in g engines

t h e gain i n economy may run from 3 0 to 4 0 per cent
c

St

eam

o n s u m p ti o n

an

d Rat

io

of

xpan s

ion

steam consump tion is commonly called the wa t er r a t e an d i s

expressed in pounds of dry steam requi red per in d icated horsepower
T his quantity varies w idely in d iffere nt types of engines
p e r hour
and als o in engines of the s ame kin d working under d ifferent con ditions

T h e water rate depend s upon the cyl inder losses

wh ich are due prin
ci p a lly
to condensation altho u gh the effects of c learance radiation
fro m cylinder and s team chest an d leakage aro un d valves and p iston
form a part of the total loss Table I V gives the average wate r rate
of d ifferent types of engines working at ful l l oad
Th e most econom ical ratio of expansion depen ds largel y upon the
t ype of the engine
I n the case of s imple engines the ratio is l im ited
to 4 or 5 on accoun t o f excess ive cyl inde r con densation in case of l arger
ratios This lim its the in itial pressure to an average of about 9 0
pounds for engines of th is type I n the case of compoun d engines a
ratio of fro m 8 to 1 0 i s com mon ly employed to advantage w hile w ith
triple expans ion engines ratios o f 1 2 to 1 5 are found to give g oo d t e
Th e

"

s u lt s

NO

70

S TE A M

E N GIN E S

2
.

2
5

s a

o
a

d
U

Q
H

d
o

g
o
b
o

"

]
O

t
e

o
u

o
o

k
4

tn
m

m
m
.

m
n

c
o

o
n
o

k
n

m
"

>
o

o
.

9
m
m

2
.

og

5w

c
o
u

a
m

n
a

m
m
.

m
.

d
u

S TE A M E N GIN E E C O N O M Y
Th e t h er m a l

35

mci en cy of an engine i s the ratio o f the heat trans

formed into w ork to the total heat s u pplied to the engine I n order t o
determ ine this the a b s o lu t e temperature of the steam at adm issio n
and exhaust press u res m u st be known T hese pressures can be meas
u r e d by a gage
and the correspon din g temperat u res taken fro m a
steam tab le o r better the temperat u res c an be measured d irect b y
a thermometer Th e absolute temperat u re is obtained by ad ding 4 6 1
to the read ing in degrees Fahrenheit
Th e formula for therma l
.

e i c i e n cy

18

'

T2

TI

T1

in w hich
T = a b s o lu t e temperat u re o f steam at in itial pressure
T = a b s o lu t e temperatu r e of steam at exhaus t p ressure
E x a m p le :
T h e temperature of the steam admi tted to the cyl inde r
of an engine is 3 4 0 degrees F an d that of the exha u st steam 2 2 0 d e
grees F What is the therm al e f c iency o f the engine ?
1

( 340

( 220

4 61 )

3 40

4 61 )

461

i s the ratio of the del ivered or brake hors e

power to the ind icated horse power and is represented by the equation :
B H P
M echan ical e fc iency
Th e m ech a n i ca l

i ci e n cy

i n wh ich

horsepower
I H P = i n d i ca t e d horsepower
A ll engines are des igned to give the bes t econom y at a certain devel
oped in d icated horsepower called ful l load Th ere m ust o f cou rs e
be more o r less u ctu ation in the load under practical working cond i
tions espec i ally in certain cases s u ch as electric rail way a nd rollin g
m ill work Th e losses however w ith in a certai n range on e ither s i d e
of the n ormal load are not great in a w ell des igned engine Th e effec t
of increasin g the loa d i s to raise the initial pressure or lengthen t h e
cut off depending upon the typ e of governor This in tu r n raises t h e
term in al p ressure a t t h e end of expans ion and allows the exhaus t to
escape at a h igher temperature than before thus lowering the t h e r m a l
e fc iency
Th e e ect of reduc ing the load i s to lower the mean effecti ve pres
sur e ( S e e Figs 3 8 and
T his i n thro t tl ing engines is due t o a
reduction of in iti al pressure and i n the autom atic engine to a s h orten
i n g of the cut o Th e result i n each case is an increase in cyl inder
condensation and as the l oad becomes l ight e r the friction of the
engine itself becomes a more impo rtant part o f the total ind icated
horsepower ; that is as the load becomes l ighter the mec hanical e f
ci e n cy is reduced
E ffe c t o f C o n d e n s i n g
S o far as the design o f the engine itse lf it concerned there is no
difference be t ween a condens ing and a non condensing engine Th e
B

b r ak e

'

'

36

70

S TE A M EN GINE S

onl y d ifferenc e is that i n the rs t cas e the e x h aust p ipe from the
gin e is connected w ith a condenser in stead of d ischargin g into the
m os p h e r e

en
at

con denser is a device for con dens in g th e exhaus t s team as fast as

i t comes from th e engine thus form in g a p artial vacuum and reducing
the bac k p ressure Th e attach ing o f a condenser to an engin e may be
m ade to produce two results as sho wn b y the wor k d iagram s i ll u s
t r a t e d in F igs 4 0 an d 4 1
I n the rst case th e ful l l ine represents the
d iagram o f th e engine w hen runn in g n on condensing and the area of
t h e d iagram gives a measu re o f the wor k done
The effect o f add ing a
c ondenser i s to reduce the bac k p ressure on an average o f 1 0 to 1 2
pounds per square inch wh ich i s equ i valen t to add ing th e sam e amount
to the m ean effective p ressure The e e ct o f th i s on th e d iagram w hen
the cut off remain s the sam e is show n b y th e d otted l ine in F ig 4 0
The power o f the engine per stro k e is i ncreased b y an amo u nt r e p r e
s ented by th e area enclosed by the dotted l in e and the botto m o f the
o riginal d iagram A ssum ing the reduction i n bac k pressure to b e 1 0
p oun ds w h ich is o ften exceeded in the best p r actice the gain in power
b y runn in g condensing w il l b e p roportion al to th e increase i n m ean
For exampl e i f th e m ean
e e ct i v e pressu r e under thes e con d itions
e ffective pressure is 4 0 po unds w hen runn ing non con dens ing i t w ill
be inc reased to 4 0
10
5 0 pounds w hen runn ing condens in g that
A

50

is it is

times as great as before

40

Th erefore i f the engin e

,

d evelops 1 00 I

under the rst cond ition i ts nal power w i l l b e

i ncreased to 1 0 0 x
1 2 5 I H P u nder th e secon d cond ition
F ig 4 1 shows the e e ct of add ing a con denser and shorten in g the c ut
T he resu lt in
o ff to keep t h e area o f the d iagram the same as before
t his case is a reduction i n the quantity o f s team requ ired to develop
the sam e in d icated horsepower Th e theoretical gain i n economy under
these cond itions w ill run fro m abou t 2 8 to 3 0 per cen t fo r s imple and
from 2 0 to 2 2 per cent fo r co mpoun d engines Th e act u al gain w ill
depend u pon th e cost and op eration o f the condenser w h ich var ies
greatly i n d i e r en t local ities
.

C H AP TE R V
TY P E S

O F S TE A M E N G I N E S

There are vario u s w ays of class i fying s team engines accord ing to the i r
th e m os t co mmon perhaps be ing accord ing to speed I f
c onstruction
th is class ication is em ployed they may be grouped unde r three gen
eral head ings : H igh speed fro m 3 0 0 to 4 0 0 revolutions per m i nute ;
m oderate speed from 1 0 0 to 2 0 0 revo lutions ; and slow speed from 6 0
t o 9 0 revo lutions ; all depend ing howeve r u pon the length o f stroke
T h is classi c ation i s again s u b d ivided accord in g to val ve m echan ism
.

TYP E S O F E N GI N E S

"

37

horizontal and vertical s impl e an d compound etc The d ifferent form s

of engines shown in the follow ing illustrations show representative
types in common us e for d ifferen t p u rposes
The B al l engine as shown in Fi g 4 2 i s a typ ical horizontal s ingle
valve h igh speed engine w ith a d irect connected dynamo It is very
rigid in des ign and especially compact for the power deve loped The
valve is of the double po rted type shown in F ig 2 having a cover p late
for removing th e s team pressure from th e back o f the valve The p iston
is hollow w ith internal r ibs s im ilar to that shown in Fi g 2 9 and is
provided w ith spring packing r ings carefully tted in place The gov
having only one we ight instea d of two as
e r n o r is o f th e shaft type
shown in F ig 3 7
,

Fi g

42

lE

Th e B a l

g in

The S turtevan t engine s hown in F ig 4 3 is a vertical h igh speed e u

gine of a form espec iall y adapted to electr ical work E ngines of th is
general design are made in a variety o f s izes an d are often used on
account o f the smal l oor space re q u i red I n the m atte r of detail such
as valves governors etc they do n o t d iffer mater ial ly from the h igh
speed horizontal engine
F ig 4 4 i ll u strates a moderate speed engin e of the fo u r valve type
Thes e engines are bu ilt e ither w ith a t valves o r w ith positivel y driven
rotary o r C orl iss valves the latter bein g used in th e engine shown
I t w ill b e noticed that th e d r op d e ve r and d ash pot arrangement i s
o mitted the valves being both opened an d closed by means o f the
wrist plate an d its connecting rods This ar rangement is used on a c
co u nt of the h i g h e r s p ee d at w hic h th e engin e is run th e regular C or
l iss valve gear being l im ited to compara t i vely low speeds All engin e s
of th is make are p rovi ded w ith an a u tomati c system o f lubr ication
-

33

S TE AM EN GINE S

7o

oil i s p umped through a lter to a central reservoir s een above

the cen ter of the engine and fro m here del ivered to al l bear ings b y
The pum p is attached to the rocker arm an d therefore eas il y
g ravity
a ccessibl e for repairs
The s tandard H arr is C orliss engine show n i n F ig 4 5 is typ ical o f
i t s clas s
I t is p rovided w ith the girder type of fram e and w ith an
o u tbo ard bear ing m ounted upo n a stone foundation
The valve gea r
i s of th e reg u lar C orl iss type d riven b y a s ingle eccentric and wrist
p late Th e dash pots are mounted on cast iron p lates s et in the oor
w here they may b e eas ily inspected Th e
a t th e s ide of the engin e
Th e

Fi g

43

Th e S t u r t e v a n t V

ert

ic l E g i
a

ne

governor is s i mi lar in construction to the one alread y described and

Th e fou r engines so far descr ibed are s i mpl e e n
s how n i n F i g
27
Figs 4 6 to 4 8
g ines th e expans ion ta k ing p lace in a single cyl in der
s ho w three d ifferen t types of the compound engine
Th e engine shown i n F ig 4 6 is of a type k nown as th e tan dem co m
p ound I n th i s des ign the cylin de r s are in l ine the low pressure cyl
Th e re i s only on e
i nder in fron t of the h igh pressur e as shown
p iston ro d th e h igh pressure and low pressure p iston s be in g mounted
Th e g en er a l appearance of an engine o f th is des ign
o n the same rod
i s th e s ame as a si mple engine excep t fo r the add ition o f the h igh
p ressure cyl inde r Th e governor is of the shaft type and o pe rates b y
ch anging the c ut o i n th e h igh pressure cyl inder The cut off in the
l o w pressu re c yl inder is ad jus ted by h and to d ivide the load equ al ly
,

T YP E S

OF

EN GINE S

39

between the tw o cyl inders for the normal load wh ich the engine is to
carry
The engine s hown in Fi g 4 7 is known as a duplex compo u n d I n
th is des ign the high pressure cyl inder is pl aced d irectly below the low
pressure cyl inder as indicated an d both p iston rods are attached to
.

l
E gi
F u
Ty p
f th
the s ame cross head Th e remainder of the engine is p ractically the
sam e as a simple engine of the same type
F ig 4 8 shows a cross compoun d eng i ne o f heavy des ign bu ilt es
I n this arrangement two complete e n
p e ci a lly for roll ing mi ll wor k
gines are used except for the main s haft and ywheel wh ich are com

Fi g

44

Mo d e r a t e

S peed

ne

va v e

li E g i
mon to b oth The engine is so pi ped that the h igh pressure cyl inde r
exhausts into the low pressure th rough a receiver the connection being
u nder the oor and not s hown in the i llustration O n e of the a d va n
tages of the cross compound engine over other forms is that the crank s
may be set 9 0 degrees apart so that whe n one is on a dead center the
o ther is app rox imatel y at its position of greatest e ffort
Fi g

45

Th e H a r r i

C or

s s

ne

'

40

5 TE A M

7o

EN GINE S

l i o n o f a n E n g in e
The selection o f an engine depen ds upon a number o f cond ition s
w h ich vary to a cons id erable extent in di fferen t cases A mong these
may be m entioned rst cost s ize and ch aracter of plant availab le
space steam economy and util ization of the exhaust steam Th e
q uestion o f rst cos t is usuall y considere d in conn ectio n w ith that of
S

e e ct

d m E gi
i
T
operation an d item s such as interes t an d deprec iation are compared
w ith the s aving m ade through the saving in steam w ith h igh pr iced
engines
Th e pri nc ipal use of the stationary engine is conned to the dri vin g
of elect r i c generators and the fu rn ishing o f motive power in shops

Fi g

46

Th e S k

nn er

an

ne

i c B ll D up l C m p u d E g i
and facto ries F or the rst of these u ses in cases where oo r space is
l im ited as in o f ce bu ild ings an d where the pow er does no t exceed
abo u t 1 0 0 I H P the s imple n on conden sing h igh speed engin e i s
probably employed more than an y oth er type For larger installation s
a savin g m ay us u all y be m ade by the substit u tion of th e mod erate
Fi g

47

Am

er

an

ex

ne

S TE A M EN GINE

TE S TI N G

41

speed fo u r valve engine T he q uestion of s imple an d compoun d e n

gines in this class of work depends largely u pon the use m ade of th e
e x h aust steam In w inter time the exhaust is nearl y always uti lized
i n the heating system hence steam econo my i s not of great importance
and the simple engine answers al l p u rposes at a smal ler rst cost
In localities where the heatin g season is comparativel y short an d
fue l h igh there is a dec ided advantage in us ing compoun d engines on
ac count o f their greater steam econom y w hen operated w ith in thei r
econ omic a l range as regards load
-

Fi g

48

Th e M o n a r c h C o r l

s s

g in

In large central p lants where lo w cos t of operation is always of

rst importance i t is comm on practice to use the best class of com
po u nd condens ing engines of moderate o r low speed Those equ ipped
w ith some form o f C orliss valve gear are frequently found in th is class
of work I n the generation of power for shops and factor ies where
there is plenty o f oor space low speed e ngines of the C orl iss type are
most commonly used When sp ace is l im ited very satisfactory results
may b e obtained by using the moderate speed fou r valve engine In
dec iding upon an engine for an y particul ar case the problem m ust be
studied from all s ides and one be chosen w h ich best ans wers the great
est numbe r of re q u irements
,

CH AP TE R V I
S TE A M

E N G I N E TE S TI N G

The pr inc ipal information so u gh t in the us u al test o f a steam en gin e

is :
1

The ind icated horsepower developed u nder certain standard con

d i t i on s

The friction of the engine from w h ich is determ ined the

cal e fci ency
2

m ech a n i

42

70

S TE A M EN GINE S

The steam consumption per ind icated horsepowe r

4
T he general action of the val ves
5
The pressu re cond itions in the cyl inder at d i fferen t period s o f
th e stroke
The u lti mate ob ject o f an e f cienc y test is to determ in e the foot
pounds of work del ive red by the engin e per pound of coal burn ed in th e
bo iler furnaces The general m ethod of nd ing the pounds of d ry steam
evaporated per pound of coal has been treated in MA C H I N E R Y s R efer

ence S er ies N o 6 7 Boilers un der the head of B oiler Testing

In
the presen t case i t is therefore o nly n ecess ary to carry the process a
s te p
further an d determ ine the foot pou nds of wo rk d eveloped p e r
p o u n d o f steam
Th e apparatus used i n engine testing i n add ition to that used i n
bo iler testin g consi sts o f a steam engine i n d i c a t o r an d reduc ing devic e
fo r ta k ing d iagrams an d a p la m m e t e r for m easuring them afterwards
I f the test i s mad e independen tly of the boiler test a calorimeter for
measuring the amoun t of m oi stu re i n the steam shoul d be added to th e
ou tt
I t has already been shown h ow a diagram m ay be made to represent
graph ically the w ork done in a steam engine cyl inder durin g on e
stroke o f the p iston The d iagrams shown thus far have been t h e o r e t i
cal o r i deal cards constructed from assumed relations o f the p ressure
acting an d the d istan ce moved th rough by the p iston An indicato r
i s a devi ce for m aking a d i agram o f wh at ac t u al ly takes place in an
engine cyl inder under w ork ing cond itions S u ch a d i a gram shows
the po in ts of adm iss ion cu t off an d release and ind icates accuratel y
the press ures acti ng upon both s ides of the p iston at all po ints of th e
stroke
A com mon form o f steam engine indic ato r i s shown in F ig 4 9
It
co ns ists o f a cy linder 0 wh ich is placed in com mun ication at E w ith
one end of the engin e cyl inder by a proper p ipe connec tion provi ded
w ith a qu ick open ing an d c losing cock o r val ve The cyl inder 0
contains a p iston above w h ich is pl aced a co il spring of such strength
that a given p ressu re per square inch acting u pon the lowe r s ide of t h e
Ex
pi sto n wil l compress the spring a d en ite an d known amount
t e nd ing thro u gh the cap or head of cyl inder 0 is a stem attached to t h e
p iston below an d connected by su itable l evers w ith a penc i l point P
The arrangemen t o f the levers is such that a certain rise of the p iston
causes the po int P to move u pward in a vertical l ine a proportion al
a moun t
The spr ings u sed above the p iston vary in strength an d are d e s i g
A 2 0 poun d s pr ing is o f
4 0 poun d 6 0 pound etc
n a t e d as 2 0 pound
actin g b e
s uch strength that a pressure o f 2 0 pounds per square inch
neath th e p iston i n cyl inder 0 w i ll raise th e penc il po in t 1 inch W i t h
a p ressure of 4 0 poun ds per square inch w il l b e
a 4 0 poun d spr in g
requ i red to raise the penci l 1 inch and so on for the other strengths
o f sp ring
The hollow dru m D rotates bac k an d forth u pon a vertical stem a t
i t s center its m otion being produced by the strin g H wh ich is a t
3

"

"

S TE A M EN GINE TE S TIN G

43

by means of a su itable reduc ing motion to the cross head of

the engine The return motion to the drum is obtained from a co il
Th e paper upon w hich the
s pring contained w ith in i t and not shown
d iagram is to be drawn is woun d aroun d the drum D and hel d i n place
by the spr ing c lip F
I n taking an in d icato r card the length of stroke must be reduced
to com e w ith in the l imits of the drum that is it must be somewhat
le s s than the circumference of drum D I n practice the d iagram is
commonly made from 3 to 4 inches in length There are a number
of devices in use for reproduc ing the stroke o f the engine on a smaller
scale The most accurate consists of a series of p ul leys over which t h e
cord passes on its w ay fro m the cross head to the indicator drum
The ind icator is connect
ed with th e engine cy li n
der by means o f specia l
open ings tapped close t o
the heads a n d e i t h e r
plugged or closed by mean s
o f stop cocks when not i n
use In some cases two i n
d i ca t or s are used
one b e
ing connected to each en d
o f the cyl inder wh ile in
others a single i nd icato r i s
made to answer the pu r
pose by b e ing so p iped tha t
i t can be connected w i th
e ither end by means of a
three way cock A fter the
ind icato r is connected an d
the cord ad justed to give
M hi
y
the proper motion to the
Fi g 4 9
m E gi
S t
I
di
t
drum a card i s attached
after w h ich the three w ay cock is opened and steam allowed to blow
through the ind icator to warm it up Th e cock is now c losed and t h e
penc i l pressed against the dru m to get the s o called atmospheric l ine
The cock is again opened and the penci l p ressed l ightly against th e
d rum dur ing one comp lete revo lution of the engin e The cock i s
then thrown over to connect the ind icator w ith the other end of t h e
cyl inder an d the operation is repea ted
The ind icato r card obtained in this way is show n in F ig 5 0 It i s
s ometimes preferred to take the d iagrams of the tw o en ds on separate
cards but i t i s simpler to take them both on the s ame one an d als o
e as ier to com p are the working o f the two ends o f the cylinder
The analysis of a card for practi cal p u rposes is shown in F ig 5 1
S uppose for example that the length of the d iagram measures
inches ; the d is ta nce to the point of cut o is
inch ; and the d istance
to the po int of re lease is
inches Then by d ivid ing
by
the
cut o ff i s found to occur at
o f the stroke R eleas e
t a ch e d

n er

ac

ea

n e

ca

or

44

7o

S TE AM

ENGINE S

o ccurs at

o f the stroke C om press ion begins at

o f the stroke The d iagram s sho wn in F igs 5 0
an d 5 1 are from n on condens in g engines and the back press ure l i ne is
therefore above the atm ospheric l ine as ind icated
Th e ind icator d iagram gives a m eans o f determ in in g th e mean ci
fe ct i ve p ressure from w h ich the power o f the engine can be found
fro m the previousl y given equation
.

AP LN
I

method o f determin ing the mean effecti ve pressu re i s as follows :

F irst m easure the area o f the car d in s q uare inches by m eans o f a
p lan imeter ( an instrument described l ater ) an d d ivide this area by
the length in inches Th is gives the mean ord in ate ; the mean ord i
nate in turn mu ltipl ied by th e strength of s pring used w i ll give the
m ean effective p ressure in poun ds pe r s q uare inch F or example sup
pose th at the card shown in F ig 5 1 is taken w i th a (SO p oun d spring
and that the area as measured by a p lan imeter is foun d to be
Th e

Mach i n er y
Fi g

5 0

A Typ

ca l

ca t o r

ra

N Y.
.

square inches D ivid ing the area by the length gives

inch as the mean o rd inate an d th is m ultipl ied by the strength
0 ; sp ring gives a mean e ect i v e p ressure of
pounds
x 60
p3 r square inch
I n p ractice d iagrams ta k en fro m the two ends of the cyl inde r u s
u a lly vary more or less
d ue to inequal ities in the va l ve action A gain
the effective area of the p iston on the crank end i s less than that on
the head end by an amount equal to the area of th e p iston rod F or
these reasons it is c ustomary to compute the m ean e ffective pressure
o f al l the cards separately an d ta k e for u se i n the formula the aver
age of the various computations The corrected value of the pis ton
.

2 A
a

re a is as al ready stated equal to

in w h ich

i s the

rea

of the piston and a the area o f th e p iston rod S ubstitutin g th es e

valu es for A an d P i n the formul a together w ith the len g th o f stroke
and average nu mber of revolution s per minute the ind icated horse
power is eas ily computed
.

S TE A M EN GINE TE S TIN G

45

I n making an o rdin ar y test d iagram s are taken from both ends o f

the cyl inder at 1 0 minute intervals fo r several ho u rs depend ing upon
the accuracy re q u ired The revo lutions o f the engine are counted fo r
two o r th ree m inute periods each tim e a pai r o f cards are taken or
stil l better an a u tom atic counter is u sed for the run from w hich the
average n umber of revolutions per m in u te may be determ ined
The friction of the engine is determined b y taking a pair of card s

wh ile runn ing l ight that is w ith th e belt thrown off or the engine
u ncoupled from the dynamo i f part o f a d i rect connected o u tt The
fr iction load is then comp u ted in horsepower from the ind icator cards
Th u s we
a n d s u btracted f om the in d ic ated horsepower w hen lo aded
obtain the de livered o r brake ho rsepower The del ivered horsepowe r
,

"

Ma chi n er y
Fi g

5 1

Diag

r a

m fo r I ll u s t r a t i n g M e t h o d

f C om p

N Y
.

ut a t i o n

divided b y the ind icated horsepowe r gives the mechan ical e i ci e n cy

Th is may be expressed in the form of an e q u ation as follows :
I H
.

friction los s
I

P la n i m e t e r
The plan imeter is an instr u ment for m eas u ring areas i n general an d
espec ial ly for measuring the areas of indicato r cards S ome forms
give the mean effective pressure d irectl y w i tho u t computations b y
changing the scale to correspond w ith the spring used in the ind icato r
A plan imeter of th is type is shown i n F ig 5 2
The method of m a n i p u
latin g this instru ment is as follows S e t the ar m B D e q ual to the
length o f the card E F by means of the thumb sc rew S and set the
w heel at zero on the scale w h ich must correspond to the spring used
in the indicator N ext place the po int D at about the mid dle of the
area to b e meas u red and set po int C so that the arm OB s hall be a p
prox imately a t r ight angles w ith BB Then m ove D to the u pper left
h and cor n e r o f the d iagram and with the l eft hand move 0 either t o
the ri ght o r left u nti l th e wheel comes back exactly to the zero po int
o n th e scale ; then press the point rm ly into the paper N ow g o
,

46

S TE A M EN GINE S

7o

roun d the outl in e o f the d iagram w i th po int D from left to right n

i s h i n g exactl y at the starting point
The mean effective pressu re m ay
n o w be read from the scale oppos ite the edge of the w heel
W hen very accu rate results are re q u ired the tracer point D m ay be
p assed over the d iagram several ti mes and the read ing d ivided by the
number o f times i t is thus passed around W i th shor t cards 3 inches
a n d un der in length
it is bes t to make the arm BD tw ice the length
o f the card and go aro u n d the d iagram tw ice taking the read ing d i
r ect ly fro m th e scale as in the rst case
a

e t er

in in g

St

ea

m C

on

su m p t io n

W hen i t is des ired to determ ine accurately the w ater rate of an

ngine a boil er test shoul d be carried on s imultaneously w ith the test

upon the engine from wh ich the pounds o f dry steam s u ppl ied may be
d eterm ined as described in MA C H I N E n Y s R eference S eries N o
67
e

Mach i n er y
Fi g

B oilers

5 2

Gen

er a

l C on

tr

ucti o n

N Y
.

of

P la n i m e t e r

ow ing the average weight o f steam suppl ied per hour

fo r the r u n an d the average ind icated horsepower developed during
S ome
t he same period the w ater rate o f the engine is easi ly computed
t i mes the average cyl inder con densation for a given type and make i s
k nown for certai n stan dard cond itions
l n this case a h a p p r ox i m a
tion may be made from an ind i cato r d iagram w h ich represents the
a verage operation o f the engine d u ring the test
A d iagram s ho ws by d irect measu rem ent the pressure and volume
at any po in t of the stroke and the weight of steam per c ubic foot for
any given press u re may be taken d irectly from a steam table The
m ethod then of n d ing th e weigh t of steam at an y po int i n the stroke
is to nd the vol ume in cub ic feet includ ing the clearance and p iston
d isplacemen t to the given po int wh ich must be taken at cut off or
l ater and to mu ltiply th is by the weight per cubic foot co rrespondi ng
to the pressure at the given point meas ured on t h e d iagram A s this
incl u des the s team used fo r com pression it must b e corrected as fol
Take some con
l ows to obtain th e actual w eight used per stroke
"

'

'

4
.

S TE A M EN GINE TE S TI N G

47

po int on the compress ion c u rve as Q in Fi g 5 3 ; measure its

absolute press u re from the vacuum line O K and comp u te the weight
of stea m to th is point S u btract this weigh t fro m th at computed above
fo r the given po int on the expansion line and the res u lt w ill be the
weight of steam used per stroke The best po in t on the expans ion l ine
t o use for this p u rpose is just before release both because the maximum
and also because of the r e evapora
a mount of leakage has taken p lace
tion of a portion of the steam condensed d u ring admiss ion The act u al
comp u tation of the steam consum ptio n from an indicator d iagram is
b es t shown by a practical illustration

l
Let F i g
5 3 represent a d iagram taken from the head
E xa m p e
end o f a 1 6 x 3 0 inch non condens ing engine runn ing at a spee d of 1 5 0
revolutions per m inute ; the card is taken w ith a 6 0 pound s pr ing ; the
c learance o f the engine i s 6 per cent ; the average cylinder con densation
ven i en t

Ma chi n er y
Fi g

5 3

Diag

fo r C a l c ul a t i

r am

S t e am

C on

N Y3
.

um p t i o n

per cent of the total steam consumption ; the d iamete r of the

piston rod is 3 inche s
Meas u ring the card w ith a plan i meter shows the m ean effective p res
s ure to be
pounds The area of the p iston is 2 0 1 s q u are inches ;
the area of the piston rod is 7 s q u are inches ; h e nce the average p iston

20

( 2 X 201 )

area

7
1 98

s q u are inches approximately

,

T hen

I H
.

1 98 x
.

X 3 00
217

In F ig 5 3 GE is the atmospher ic line ; OX is the line of vacuum or

zero press u re draw n so that G 0
poun ds on the scale ; an d O Y
is th e clearance l ine s o drawn that 0 N
The l ine P 0 is
NX
d rawn fro m O K to some po int on the compression l ine as at Q
Fr om
a po int on the expansion line just before release the l ine C F is
d rawn perpen d ic u lar to OK The follow ing d imens ion s are now c are
f u lly meas u red from the actual d iagram ( no t the on e s hown in the i l
l u stration ) w ith the resu lts given :
,

'

48

0X

S TE A M EN GINE S

7o

3 7l

0P

NX

CF

OF 2

QP

=0

42

the ind icator d iagram be ing taken w ith a 6 0 poun d spr ing a ll
vertical d istances represent pound s pe r square inch in the ratio of 6 0
pounds per inc h o f height The stroke of the engine is 3 0 inches o r
feet Th e l ength o f the d iagram N X i s
inches ; hence each inch i n
On

len gth represen ts

feet

F rom th e above it is eviden t that

vertical d istances in F ig 5 3 m ust be multipl ied by 6 0 to red uce them

to pounds p ressure per square inch and that hori zontal d istances m ust
be mul ti pl ied by
to reduce them to feet Making thes e reduc tion s
g ive s :
0X
feet
O P = O BO foo t
NX:
feet
C F = 4 8 6 pounds
O F = 2 2 7 feet
QP = 4 8 6 pound s
As a card fro m the head en d of the cyl inder i s taken to avoid co r r ec
tions for the p iston rod the area is 2 0 1 square inches or
square foot
W i th the abo ve data the volu me and w eigh t of the steam in the cyl ind er
can be computed at an y po int in the s troke W hen the p iston i s at C
the volum e i s
cub ic feet W hen the p iston i s at Q
x
the volume is
cub ic foot F rom a steam table the
X
we ight o f a cubic foo t of steam at
pound s absol u te p ress u re is
foun d to be
pounds Therefore th e w eigh t of s team presen t w hen
pound s The w e ight o f steam
the p iston i s at C is
x
pound That i s
presen t w hen the p iston is at Q i s
X
the we ight of steam in the cyl inder at release i s
po und an d the
pound
w eight kept at exhaus t closure for compress ion is
The w e ight exhausted per stroke i s therefo re
po und The numbe r o f strokes per hour is 1 5 0 X 2 x 6 0
from wh ich th e steam accounted for by the diagram is foun d to be
217
poun ds per ind icated ho rse
5 7 60 pound s o r 5 7 6 0
x
power per hour I f th e cyl inder condens ati on for th is type of engine i s
per cen t of the total s team con sum ption the w ater rate w ill be
pounds pe r i nd icated horsepo wer per hou r
I n the p resen t case it has been assumed for s imp lic ity that the
head an d cr a n k e n d d iagrams were exactl y al ike excep t fo r the p iston
rod O rd inar i ly th e above proces s should be c arr ied out for both h ead
and crank ends and the results averaged
.

:2

O F D A TA S H E E T BO O K S

C O N TE N TS

i
s
W
i is Ass c i
i
T
s
s Pi
T
W ll
si G s
H s
c i s
Ac
T
W
T
s
ic T
s
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W
c
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s
r i
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s

i
ll
a
n
t
a
l
s
a
d
N
w
B
o
t
r
e
s
Sc
N o 2
list
S q ua r e h e d
H e d l ss gO
h ad
h e ad S c
ws ; S t a d
h
d a n d H xa g o
l
ut s T b l t s d
d S peci l N ut s ; T
a rd
W sh r s ; Th u m b S c ws a d N ut s ; A L
d N u t s ; Ma ch i e
d
d S c ews
A M St
w H d s ; W o d S c e w s ; Ta p D r ll s ;
Sc
bo l t s e t c
L ck N u t s ; E y

e
h
d
M
a
i
e
a
m
D
s
H
c
i
a
n
d
a
3
T
o
N
p

U n t ed S t a t e ,
Th r ea t
1t h 1 . S cr e
t
o
a
i
wo r t h , S h a r p V a n d B r t h
h
Br i g g
h r ea d ;
pe
S ta n da r d
t on
o e
ag e
ng
Ca
e
; Fi r e
h r ea d ; O i l
or m
h r ea d ;
me
C o n n e t on ;
o od ,
h r ea d ; Ma h n e,
h r ea d ; M et r
h r ea d ; C a r a g e Bo t
S r ew
La g
a nd
h r ea d , e t c
,

ea

re

a n

re

an

er

ar

an

e-

s bl e

A d ju t a
D e
N o 4
m mh g

i s

ea

re

an

ar

S pr

and

ck

c e w Th r ea d i

ll

s
s

R
s
b s Pi
Pi s
R
s
s
ck s
R
i ll s Wi G s
i
A l s
i ll i
i ll s
ul
u
s
i
l
i cu l Pi c
i
si s
u G s
bl s
Pi c
i
s
bl s R l l i
ill G i
u G s H s w
s i
s i
R w i Pi i s
si
u G s W i
s i
G s
i c cl i c
i

Rul s
ul s
l
G s
l
s
si
l G rs R u l s
ul s
i l G i
bl s
cili i
i
u
s
l
G s Rul s
ul s
W
Ge a r i n g t
N o 7
S h a f t i n g K e y s a n d K e y w ay s
H o s e p o w r of S h f t i n g ; D i g r m s a d
Ta bl e s f o r t h e S t r e n g t h o f S h a ft i n g ;
S h r i k i g a d R u nn i g
Fo r c i n g D r i v i n g
F i t s ; W o o d r u ff K e y s ; U i t e d S t t e s N a v y
S t a n d a r d K e y s ; G i b K e y s ; M i ll i n g K e y
wa y s ; D up le x K e y s
B e ar i n g s
C o u p li n g s
N o 8
Cl u t ch e s
C r a n e C h a i n a n d E o o k s P i ll o w B l o ck s ;
B a b b i t t e d B e a r i g s ; B a ll
n d R ll e r B e a r
i n g s ; C la m p CC o u p l i n g s ; P l a t e C o u p l i n g s ;
F l a n g e C o u p l i n g s ; Too t h C l u t c h e s ; C r a b
C oup l i n g s ;
C on e
C l u t ch s ;
U n iv r s l
Cra ne
C ha i n ;
C h ai n
Fr i c t i on ;
Joi n t s ;
C r a n e H oo k s ; D r u m S c o r e s
N o 9
Sprin g s
S li d e s
an d
M a ch i n e
D e t a i l s F o r m u l a s a d T a bl e s f o
S pr in g
C a lc u l a t i o n s ;
Ma ch i n e S l i d e s ; M a ch i n e
and
Leve r s ;
Ha n d
H a n d les
C o ll a r s ;
h e e l s ; P i n s a n d C t t e r s ; T u r n b u ckl e s
e c
.

'

Tur i

T bl s
illi
c i
G s
i ll i
i ls
s i
H
w
lu c s
l
i
ic
l
s Pl
ck s
T
s
G
s
st i
g
i i s Pi
l
s
s Pi
l
s
H
s
si s
Pi
i us
ic s
ci
ci
il
i s Ri i
oil

an d
et s ,
D r i ll s
B ea m er s , S o
ea m er
S he
an d
C u t t er s
;
or
and Ar
ea m er
;
p e R e a m e r ; Ta p e r
S ha r p e
B r own
ea m er
and
n
;
ea m
M o r e a n d Ja r n o Ta p er S o e t a n d
C u t t er s ;
a g e ; M i l li n g
re
ers ; Dr
;
ng
Te et h i n E n d
fo r M
ng e
Set t ng
etc
t t er
ar C
an d An g
M
Gea r i n g D a m e t r a a n d
S pu r
N o 5
r
ear
on
of S p
t h ; D m en
ar
C r
;
Ta e o f
t h D a m et e r ; O d on t og r a ph
Ta e ; o n g M
ea r n g ; S t r e n g t h o f
er
or ep o
Tr a n m t t ed b y
Sp r
ea r
;
n on
h de
a
C a t r on a n d
; De
g n of
r on
ea r
e g ht
of C a t
ea r
Sp r
;
;
Ep y
G ea r n g
Be c
N o 6
S p i r a l a n d W o r m Ge ar
fo r
Be v e
a
e
For m
iug r
and
Ge a r ; D e g n
ea r
; S t r en g t h o f B ev e
a
for
a n d Fo r m
e
ea
of Beve
;
t a t n g C a lc u
Fa
e
ea r n g ; T a
S p ra
for S p i r a
la t i o n s ; D a g r a m f o r C t t e r
or m
fo r
e
a
and
For m
ear
;
.

l T ls T

n n g ; C han
a pe r
oo
S t ee
;
i n g for t h e L a t h e ; B o r i n g B a r
an
et c
Ma
11
M i lli n g
11 0
4
D e vi c e s
C a m pi n g
ng
Ma h n e I nde
fo r
M
a
e
ea r
fo r M
ng
S p ra
C ha n g e
; A
I n d e xi n g
et t n g
ea d
hen M
for
C
C a m p n g D ev es ; S
t he ; Ji g
a n e r Ja
and C amp ;
P i pe a n d P i p e F i t t i n
N o 12
h r ea d
and
ag e ;
Ca
r on
it
B r o n ze
F t t ng ;
F ang e ;
pe
Ben d ;
and
a n g er
pe C am p
; D
on
of
S er v e ,
p e fo r V a r o
13
B o i l e r s a n d C hi m n e y s
N o
ng a n d Bra
S pa
n g f o r B o i le r s ; S t r
of Bo
er Jo n t
vet n g ; B
er S e
;

c ; I e t i a o f T ra i s ; B a k e L
k R od s e t c
N o 15
S t e a m an d G a s
es
u r a t ed
S t e a m ; S t ea m P i p e 8 z s ;
E g in
D e si g n ;
V ol um e
f
C y li
S t i i g
B x e s ; S e t t i n g C r l is s E
V l v e G a s ; C on d e s e
a d
Ai r
D t ; Ho s pow
of
G
ol i n e
En
Au t o m b l e E n g i n e C n s ha f t s e

For
Br a

<

a
a

er

ra

N o 16
M a t h e m a t i ca l T a b l es r - S q
of
M x ed N m er ; F n t on
of
t on ;
C r
m er en e a n d D i a met e
C r
e ;
T a le f o r S p a
g o ff C i
t o n o f T r a n g e ; F o r m u as f o r
So
ing
eg
ar
o y g on
; G eo m et r i c a l
et c
g r e s s i on
.

i
u b s
u c i s
i s
i cu f
c
i cl s
b s
cin
lu i
i
l s
l
R ul
P l
s
,

N o 17
M e ch an i c s a n d
o
t er i a l s
E n er g y ;
en tr i
or
;
F o r e ; C e n t e r of
r a vi t y ;
M ot i on ;
end
t on ;
m;
a i n g Bod e ; St r
of
M a t e r a ; S en g t h o f F a t P
of
at o
O t s d e a n d I n s de
d
a
R
h
C y n d er , e t c
.

W k
c
i
P
ulu
i ls
R i
u i
T i ck
li
s
.

i s
l

B e a m F or m u la s a n d S t r m
B e a m F o r m ul a ; S e t o n a l
Str
t ra
S h a p e ; Be a m C

18

o.

G
ll

s
c i
uc u l
s
A s
uc u l A l s
ci
ls
b
s
ss s
R f T uss
i
si s
P ul l s W i
s
s H s w
l
l
A ul
l
i s
s i
R s
s
i
i
r s
Wi
ck s
k
s
ul
bl s
i us l ss s

ign
u li
of
of
N et
r ea
S tr
t ra
n g e ;
S pa n g ;
S p l i ne s
fo r
C ha nn e
a
ea m
e
in
oo
r
es , e
; S tre
B el t , B o ne a n d C h a i n D r i
N o 19
on
of
D m en
ey
e g ht
of
;
1
or
ep o
er
le y ;
o f Be t i n g ; B e t
i ty ;
ar
ng
Be t
D r ve ;
H ous e ]
t r a n m t t ed b y
op e ; S h e a v e
f or
D r v e ; B e n d n g S t es es i n
re
R
S pr o
et
fo r L i n
a
C ha i n ; For m
fo r
e
V ar o
e
C a
of
DI

es

ga

i a i n

20
W i r i n g D i a g r a m s , n ea t i n
V e n t i l a t i on , a n d M l s o e u a n e o u s T a b
r i ng
a
Mo t o
D ia g am ;
yp
o n d C op p e r
re;
er
a n e of
e ;
c r ed
Ca
C r ren t D en
t e
fo r
ous
Con t a t
and
a er a
; C en r
F a n a n d B lo e r C a
i t i e s ; H ot 1
Ma n Ca pa t e ; M
:
e l la n e o u s
D e ma
E q
va en t ,
M et r
C on v<
a
e
e g h
and
S pe
rav
Met a
e g ht
of F
et , D r a t n g
C o n ve n t o n s , e t c

ic l

r Wi
r s R
c
R u
Wi
R u bb
bl s
u
si i s
c s
t i ls
t i
M
N o 10
M ot or D r i v e S p e e d s a n d F e ed s
w
P owc r
C h a n g e Ge a r i n g a n d B o r i n g B a r s
i
ci i s
T
g
r e q ui r e d
fo r
To ol ; C u t t i n g
Ma ch i e
ci l
ui l s
ic
S p e e d s a n d F e e d s fo r C a r b o n a n d H i g h
T bl s W i ts
ci c G i
sp eed S t eel ; S c w M c h i
S p ed s a n d
ls W i s
i ll s
f i
Fe e d s ; H e a t T r e a t m e t
f H i g h sp eed
i
MA C H I N E R Y t h e m onthly mec h an i cal journ a l o r i g i n at or of t he R efer en ce
D a t a S h eet S er ies i s publi shed in fo u r edi tion s
t h e S hop E d i t i o n
a
t h e E n g i n ee r i n g E d i t i o n
a year ; the R a i lwa y E di t i on
a y ear a n
For e i g n E d i t i o n
a ye a r

r e

ne

4 9 6 5 La fa y et t e S t r ee t ,