Geoderma 138 (2007) 252 260

www.elsevier.com/locate/geoderma

Interdisciplinarity of hydropedology
Miroslav Kutlek a,, Donald R. Nielsen b
a

Emeritus Professor, Nad Patankou 34, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic

Department of Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
Received 27 January 2006; received in revised form 22 November 2006; accepted 27 November 2006
Available online 8 January 2007

Abstract
A new interdisciplinary subject hydropedology is developing owing to the necessity of sustaining optimal environments. Hydropedology
provides the bridge between the disciplines of pedology, including soil macro- and micromorphology and vadose zone hydrology together with
other disciplines dealing with land, air and water interfaces. Soil taxons and soil-forming processes are defined phenomenologically. Soil-forming
processes which are usually linked have rates that differ by orders of magnitude. And, if soil polygenesis is considered, too, the equilibrium
concept between the properties of soil taxons and soil forming factors is not applicable. The coupling of such processes on various tensorial orders
leads to the conclusion that anisotropy is a general characteristic of soils. In order to ascertain the links between pedology and hydropedology, the
formulation of physically meaningful transport parameters from a quantified knowledge of soil micromorphology is required. This linkage is
achieved when the pore size distribution is reflected by the soil hydraulic functions, i.e. by the soil water retention equation and by the unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity function. In future research, parameters of such functions must be related to quantified soil micromorphologic
characteristics. The first attempt evaluating both functions is presented for soils manifesting a distinct bi-modal pore size distribution. A close
cooperation of hydropedology with soil chemistry and microbiology will produce an insight into the role of organic substances upon the change of
soil hydraulic parameters. The substances appear either as a consequence of soil pollution, or due to soil organic matter transformation. An
example is presented on the change of saturated hydraulic conductivity caused by the adsorption of organic cations. Similar linkages are expected
from the cooperation of hydropedology with plant physiology when the role of plant exudates upon the change of soil hydraulic functions is
studied.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Pedology; Soil genesis; Soil micromorphology; Soil hydrology; Soil hydraulic functions

1. Introduction
One of the common denominators identified by a broad
spectrum of politicians, scientists and ecologists dealing with
principal problems of the 21st century is sustainability of the
earth's critical zone. Because soil and water are two critical
components of this critical zone (Lin et al., 2005), it appears
logical that further development of soil hydrology and soil
physics should be extended by considering authentic field soil
properties in their convolution of soil genesis. Kutlek (1966)
took soil genesis into consideration when he used the term
hydropedology for a new subject where physical theories were
applied to deal with soil water properties and transport pro Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +420 233 336 338.
E-mail address: miroslav.kutilek@volny.cz (M. Kutlek).
0016-7061/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2006.11.015

cesses. Lin (2003) and Lin et al. (2005) have discussed a broad
range of problems linked to integration of classical pedology
with soil physics, hydrology and other related bio- and geosciences into hydropedology. The aim of the present paper is to
discuss the interdisciplinary character of hydropedology. The
interdisciplinarity will be demonstrated with links between
hydropedology and neighboring disciplines, i.e. pedology, soil
micromorphology, soil hydrology, environmental protection
and plant physiology.
Interdisciplinary work is that which synthesizes and integrates across different disciplines to form a new discipline
(Wikipedia, 2005). In interdisciplinary studies if we use the
terminology of structural linguistic, information is translated in
both directions between two systems formed usually of metaphoric (similarity) and metonymic (contiguity) observation of
natural processes. The classically developed disciplinary

M. Kutlek, D.R. Nielsen / Geoderma 138 (2007) 252260

structures are constructed by scientists and the role of interdisciplinarity is forming bridges over the fences of those
disciplinary structures. The goal of interdisciplinary studies is
therefore not the accumulation of new knowledge but a way of
looking at the existing accumulated knowledge from the basis
of the neighboring disciplinary structure. Typically, we differentiate between big and small interdisciplinarity (Morillo et al.,
2003). The big one is typified by links between distant categories, e.g. discussions on interdisciplinarity between structures
of natural and humanitarian sciences. The small one deals with
close categories, where e.g. in natural sciences the classical
disciplines consist of more or less isolated sub-disciplines and
the interdisciplinarity is realized by using tools of one subdiscipline to the knowledge of the neighboring sub-discipline.
Our approach for hydropedology features the small interdisciplinarity when the methodology of soil physics is applied to the
discipline of pedology, soil micromorphology, soil biochemistry
and their mutual links.
2. Links between hydropedology and pedology
Mutual links and feedbacks are not only restricted to natural
processes, but they actively influence a theoretical basis for
describing natural processes in neighboring disciplines. Theory
on transport processes is a part of the theoretical basis of hydropedology and it influences the approach of a hydropedologist
wishing to describe pedological processes. This approach is
realized by the extension of transport processes to a general
concept of fluxes on the phenomenological level. In the first
step, we attempt to formulate the soil taxon and its development
on the same phenomenological basis as the description of transport processes. Subsequently, we observe all processes using the
same phenomenological principle.
Dokuchaev (1883) defined soil as a result of processes acting
due to soil-forming factors: parent material, climate, organisms,
relief and time. Later on, man's activity was included. The
factorial description of soil genesis is frequently misinterpreted
and instead of a description of processes, the equilibrium state
between factors and soil taxons is searched. Let us discuss this
assumption of an equilibrium state on a theoretical basis.
We denote here the soil taxon at the lowest level of taxonomy
by It is represented by a set of soil properties {i}. With
each i-th property i depending upon the action of the j-th soilforming factor Fj according to the functional factorial model,
and assuming a smooth functional relationship t (Fj), the
change of the i-th property is
X Pi 
dPi
dFj
1
Fj Fn p j
with index Fnj denoting that all other factors except Fj are kept
constant. Inasmuch as the change in characteristics of the soil
taxon is the consequence of the change of all properties i
we define
X X Pi 
dFj
2
dP
Fj Fn p j
j
i

253

Definition (2) is valid if the time for reaching equilibrium

(TRE) of mutually isolated processes is the same. In order to
keep our approach as transparent as possible, we neglect now
the coupled processes, see Eqs. (3) and (4) later on. This
simplification is the meaning of the term mutually isolated
processes. Additionally, we may assume that for 0 b t b TRE,
dFj /dt = 0, i.e. the factors of soil formation do not change in
time. As we shall read below, those conditions are usually not
satisfied.
Since TRE is a hypothetical term, let us relate it either to the
half-life process or to the turnover time of individual soil
components as a robust indicator of TRE. Chemical weathering
of minerals has a wide spectrum of half-lives which are dependent on the type of mineral and on the chemical composition of
the medium surrounding the mineral. If weathering resistant
minerals are not considered, the half-lives range from 10 1 year
to 104 years. Estimating from the data of Tisdall and Oades
(1982), easily oxidizable components of soil organic matter
have half-lives less than 1 year, whereas forms associated with
longer term accumulation have half-lives greater than 25 years.
Turnover times of C in soil organic matter vary from hours to
thousand of years, and mineral surfaces play a stabilization role
(Trumbore, 1993; Torn et al., 1997). Mean residence time of
humic substances bound by clay minerals differs by one order
of magnitude from those not bound.
Moreover, any given decomposition process has a broadly
variable rate dependent upon the soil-ecological conditions and
nature of the process. For example, the decomposition time of
organic matter in forests of a temperate zone has values up to
102 years, while that in a tropical region is only 100 years
(Jenkinson, 1981). The age of organic C in soil horizons ranges
from 102 to 103 years depending on the pedotaxon and on the
humus fraction (Kgel-Knabner, 2002).
Owing to human activity, some soil formation factors change
rather quickly (b 100 years) while the phases of climatic alterations in Holocene change in a span of 102 to 103 years. If the
scale of our observation is extended to the entire Pleistocene,
the range of substantial climatic change is increased to 104 to
105 years. We speak about relict soils and polygenetic soils if
the soils keep some features characteristic for the earlier climatic conditions. After a climatic change, new processes follow
which are different from the earlier ones and contribute to new
types of soil characteristics (Arnold et al., 1990). A specific
feature of this process is that the earlier formed soil starts to be
the parent material of the new, developing soil. Those sets of
certain properties {iR} not reflecting the recent processes
occurring in the soil are described with a subscript R to
accentuate the relict character of those properties. However, not
all {iR} belonging to the earlier pedotaxon R are kept in the
recent . In such cases, the polygenetic pedotaxon is described by {i} {iR} When the rate of eliminating a relict
characteristic under the action of the changed factors is not
known, we apply the approximation iR/Fj = 0.
A simple example of polygenesis is demonstrated on Chernozems of Central Europe. Luvisols (Parabraunerde) were developed on loess under the vegetation cover of forests in early
Holocene with wet climatic conditions. The soil profile was

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M. Kutlek, D.R. Nielsen / Geoderma 138 (2007) 252260

characterized by the segregated B horizon with a typical braunlehm plasma and concretions. Due to the deforestation in neolite
and later on due to the agricultural revolution in epiatlantic and
subboreal the resulting artificial steppe conditions led to the
intensive humification reaching into B horizon. The original
Luvisol was thus the parent material of the newly formed
Chernozem, or Parachernozem where the braunlehm concretions and plasma are still kept (Smolkov, 1990, p. 403 in
Nmeek et al., 1990) and denoted by us as {iR}.
The profile morphology of some taxons reflects processes
which are independent of recently acting soil-forming factors.
These processes are internal feedbacks which redirect and alter
pedogenetic pathways. In some instances, they form a threshold
against further soil development. Let us denote them as intrinsic
soil processes. In greater detail, they are pedoturbation, melanization, erosion and acretion. Considering intrinsic soil processes, we have to extend the concept of polygenetic soil evolution
to the statement that the majority of soils are to a certain degree
polygenetic, but the degree of polygenesis may or may not be
expressed by soil morphology (Johnson and Watson-Stegner,
1987).
When the above factorialequilibrium approach to soil genesis does not offer a sufficient basis for the description of the
pedogenetic processes, the hydropedologist attempts an alternate
explanation. Because a certain soil property of a particular pedotaxon is the result of several processes, fluxes are defined on a
general level not differentiating between their scalar and vectorial
quantities. Let us assume that the phenomenological descriptions
of the processes are linear and not too distant from thermodynamic equilibrium. Hence, if we include all thermodynamic flows
and forces, any one process influences all other processes. For n
thermodynamic flows there exists a matrix of straight and coupling coefficients which determine all flows in the system. Thus,
just one flow due to a conjugate force causes all flows in the
system. We apply the Onsager principle that any flow may
depend not only on the conjugate force, but also on non-conjugate
forces where all thermodynamic flows and forces are considered.
With its application, the k-th process influences all other processes and the coupled flow of each i-th process is defined by
Ji

Lik Xk

When we apply Eq. (3) to soil genesis, we assume that the

flows can occur on any tensorial order. The flow of chemical
reactions and their associated thermodynamic forces are scalars
which are coupled with flows of heat and matter and their
conjugate vector forces. Recognizing that viscous phenomena
are tensors of the second order, the coupling of soil processes
exists across various tensorial orders. For scalar flow J, straight
and coupled coefficient L and conjugate force X, we have
JS LSS XS LSV XV

where index S pertains to scalar and V to vector. Similar equations describe vector flow JV or tensor flow JT. This type of
coupling generally exists in all soils at all tensorial orders.
According to the CuriePrigogine principle, this extension of
coupled processes to all tensorial orders is applicable only to
anisotropic media. Details are given in e.g. Katchalsky and
Curran (1965, p. 8889). We assume therefore that anisotropy is
a normal soil property while isotropy is an exception. The
assumption that soil is an isotropic body is only an approximation to reality (Kutlek, 1978, 1990). Let us note, that anisotropy is frequently demonstrated as the result of layering and
oriented sedimentation in sedimentary parent rock or due to
oriented metamorphism of parent rock. It is incorrect to assume
that isotropy exists whenever such macroscopically distinct

where Xk is the acting force of the k-th process, and Lik is the
coupling coefficient expressing how the k-th process influences
the i-th process and Lkk is the straight coefficient. Because there is
no possibility of keeping one property i in equilibrium while
another k is changing, the soil system is therefore continuously
in a state of non-equilibrium. Hence, without neglecting the
results of factorial studies, we prefer the concept of processes
when describing soil genesis and its products defined as soil
taxons. Taking this conclusion into consideration, we do not
reject the concept of soil taxonomy, but we only oppose the
equilibrium concept between the soil taxon and the soil-forming
factors as sometimes stated. Moreover, we assume that the boundaries between soil taxons are not distinct and only rarely does a
sharp boundary exist in a geographic sense.

Fig.1. Microphotograph of vertically oriented thin sections prepared from

undisturbed samples from the surface layer (010 cm) of a sandy loam soil. The
subangular blocky structure and the continuity of elongated pores in a vertical
sense are very evident. The white areas represent the pores. Frame length 35 cm.
Modified from Pagliai and Vignozzi (2002).

M. Kutlek, D.R. Nielsen / Geoderma 138 (2007) 252260

255

layering is not evident. Or, in other words: Soil scientists suppose that the soil is always isotropic if there is no layering. And
we say that this is false from the point of view of theory. The
result of our theoretical discussion is supported by the recent
research on micromorphology of the soil porous system. Pagliai
and Vignozzi (2002) summarized their discoveries on vertical
elongated pores influencing hydraulic conductivity in vertical
direction in soils without macroscopic features of layering
(Fig. 1). The earlier assumption on vertical and horizontal main
axis of the conductivity tensor ellipsoid is verified by that
empirical procedure for soils without signs of layering.
Transport processes are not restricted just to the depth of
recognizable morphological features of the soil profile. They
exist throughout the entire vadose zone to the base of the
saturated groundwater domain, frequently leaving marks not
only on recent processes but also on paleo-processes. Studying
them, hydropedologists have the tools for a more advanced
formulation of recent and historical pedogenesis.
3. Links between soil micromorphology and hydropedology
Presently, in pedology as well as in soil physics, the upscaling of pedon-scale monitoring and research to regional and
catchment scales is usually attempted with tools of regression
and statistics. These methods have brought remarkable improvement of our estimates. Nevertheless, caution is recommended in regression as e.g. in the use of pedotransfer functions
since soil physical properties are not transferable across high
level soil taxons (Kutlek, 2003). Further progress depends
upon recognition of the real role of statistics. Being primarily a
descriptive tool, statistics does not explain the cause and nature
of variability of soil properties and processes. The key for
understanding why soil physical properties differ in various
pedotaxons is in the internal architecture of the arrangement of
the solid phase influencing the configuration of pores within the
soil system and its quantitative impact on scalar, vector and
tensor flows.
With soil micromorphology studies during the last three
decades bringing a better understanding of the details of soil
forming processes, the internal arrangement of the soil skeleton
(internal architecture) has provided qualitative information on
the characteristics of soil taxons. We suppose that this arrangement is closely related to the configuration of the soil porous
system.
The use of macromorphologic characteristics for the improvement of our knowledge on saturated and near saturated
hydraulic conductivity started with the study on the role on
macropores (Bouma, 1982). Further on, morphometric expressions were used for the improvement of physical analysis of field
soils (Bouma, 1990) and Lin et al. (1999) attempted to relate
fluxes to macromorphological characteristics of soil structure.
The study on the pore scale is closely related to micromorphologic features of soils. The links between soil structure
and micromorphological characteristics and processes were
studied by Horn (1994), and Pagliai and Vignozzi (2002) demonstrated significant correlation between elongated pores and
saturated hydraulic conductivity (Fig. 1). The change of the

Fig. 2. Microphotograph of vertically oriented thin sections from the surface

layer (05 cm) of a cultivated (ploughed) clay loam soil. Plain polarized light.
Pores appear white. The presence of a platy structure due to the formation of
surface crust at the soil surface is very evident. The structure below the crust is
rather massive and the few pores (irregular-vughs according to micromorphological terminology) are not interconnected and not continued in a vertical sense,
so the water movements are strongly reduced with respect to the previous Fig. 1.
Frame length 3 cm. Modified from Pagliai and Vignozzi (2002).

configuration of the soil porous system of ploughed soil with a

crust is in Fig. 2. The pore size distribution is altered, too. This
example shows how powerful tool micromorphology is in
hydropedological research.
The fractal dimensions of pore surfaces as derived from
micromorphic data by Pachepsky et al. (1996) offered a basis
for predicting soil hydraulic properties. The derived relationships were reviewed by Gimenz et al. (1997) but the results did
not proceed beyond empirical forms of soil hydraulic functions
or simple Kozeny (1927, quoted according to Zunker, 1930) and
Averianov (1949) models. There was mentioned a note on
retention curve modeled by log-normal pore size distribution
but the principle was not further developed to a form applicable
to experimental retention and conductivity data. Fractal analysis
was used for fragmentation of soils (Perfect, 1997) and in
comparative research on the influence of soil use upon the
relative change of soil porous system, see e.g. Jzefaciuk et al.
(2001). However, the quantified relationships between soil
micromorphology and physically expressed soil hydraulic
functions remain inadequate in relation to their importance.
For locally studied Vertisols, Verwoort and Cattle (2003) related
micromorphological features to Kosugi's (1999) unsaturated
conductivity parameters of mono-modal soils.
The quantitative evaluation of the bi-modal porosity of soils
(Othmer et al., 1991; Durner, 1992) and its relationship to soil
hydraulic functions in the wet range of the soil water retention
curve (SWRC) has improved our knowledge on the influence of
soil structure upon soil hydraulics and hydrology. The existence

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M. Kutlek, D.R. Nielsen / Geoderma 138 (2007) 252260

of bi-modal porosity is also verified by the results of micromorphic observations of Pagliai and Vignozzi (2002). The
principle of bi-modal porosity was further extended to the
concepts of dual porosity and dual permeability for the numerical solutions of transport in soils (Gerke and van Genuchten,
1993; imnek et al., 2003) with the applications in modeling
preferential flow. Moreover, Currie and Rose (1985) studied trimodal pore size distribution for gas diffusion in structured materials. This latter study, and our results on pore size
distribution obtained from SWRC (Kutlek et al., 2006)
lead us to the conclusion that we have to extend our concept
from bi-modal to n-modal pore size distribution in order to
effectively deal with the entire range of the SWRC. This
concept of n-modality has important consequences for preferential flow presently, a preferential system of flow paths has
been primarily documented for infiltration for the soil surface
having a boundary condition of either h = 0 or close to zero, and
for relatively wet soil initial conditions. For n-modal soils we
must expect preferential flow even in relatively dry soil when
the flux density is by many orders below the value of the
saturated hydraulic conductivity.
If research is realized in the future on low level soil taxons,
we must seek physically-based knowledge about relationships
between soil taxons and soil hydraulic functions. The systematic study on the relationships between soil hydraulic functions
and the configuration of the soil porous system in individual soil
taxons can be realized only if the number of fitting parameters in
hydraulic functions is minimized and the principal equations are
physically based. These physically based parameters of soil
hydraulic functions could be then related to topological characteristics of the soil porous system, or to realistic models of
the soil porous system derived from the direct micromorphologic observations.
The first step in proceeding in this direction is the formulation of the soil water retention curve SWRC as a function of
the log-normal pore size distribution proposed originally by
Brutsaert (1966). Pachepsky et al. (1992) and Kosugi (1994)
derived and tested the SWRC based on log-normal distribution.

Fig. 3. The example of application of Eq. (5): measured data and the fitted soil
water retention curve of the loamy Hapludalf, A horizon according to parameters
in Table 1. The procedure includes the construction of the separated retention
curves of matrix pores (theta 1) and of structural pores (theta 2), according to
data in Kutlek (2004).

Table 1
Parameters of the log normal pore size distribution in bi-modal soils hA, hmi, i,
Eq. (5) and of the relative unsaturated conductivity , with = const. = 1, Eqs.
(7), (8) for Hapludalf loamy soil (data of SWRC and K(h) in Othmer et al., 1991,
evaluation in Kutlek, 2004) and in Hapludalf silt (data of SWRC and K(h) in
UNSODA 4670. 4672, Leij et al., 1996, evaluation in Kutlek and Jendele,
2005)
Depth cm Hor. Porous
domain
Hapludalf, loam
15
A

1.5
1.0
1.1
0.45
1.52 0.3
0.84 1.0

UNSODA 4670, Hapludalf, silt

2030
A1 Matrix
296
Structural

0.336 1249
0.126
47

0.81 1.04
2.64
1.50
2.19 0.64

UNSODA 4672, Hapludalf, silt loam

7585
Bt
Matrix
627
Structural

0.307 3229
0.087 140

1.15 0.50
1.26
1.22
2.59 0.78

55

hmi cm i

0.318 2460
0.147
9.8
0.350 1000
0.079
13.8

60

Matrix
Structural
Matrix
Structural

hA cm Si

30

2.3
0.7
1.4
1.8

Kutlek (2004) obtained then for n-modal soils the retention

curves of the i-th domain


1
lnh=hmi
p
Si erfc
5
2
ri 2
where
Si

hi hRi
hSi hRi

and h is the pressure head, hm its mean value, h corresponding

with pore radius r, the standard deviation, the volumetric
soil water content, S the relative saturation of soil, R the
residual soil water content and S the saturated soil water
content with the indexes denoting the particular domain of the
soil porous system. For the first approach on bi-modal system
(in wet range of SWRC) i = 1 denotes the matrix (intrapedal,
textural) pores and i = 2 denotes the structural (interpedal,
interaggregate) pores. When the principle of superposition is
applied, the SWRC of the entire soil [(h) = 1(h) + 2(h)] is
obtained (Fig. 3). For an n-modal soil, the SWRC of the entire
soil becomes (h) = i(h). The example of evaluation of
SWRC in bi-modal soils is in Table 1. The parameter hm1 is the
mean of the pore characteristic in the matrix domain, hm2 is the
mean in the structural domain. They characterize together with
1 and 2 the log-normal pore size distribution in two distinct
domains. S1 is the saturated water content of the matrix domain, taken as porosity of this domain, S2 is the saturated water
content of the structural domain, taken as the porosity of this
domain, S1 + S2 = PT, the total porosity of the soil. Structural
porosity is decreasing with the depth of the horizon. It is more
decreasing due to the compression than the total soil porosity
(Kutlek et al., 2006). Both domains are separated by hA, the air
entry pressure head of the matrix domain. The value of hA is not
constant for all soils, it exists in broad ranges depending on the
soil taxon, soil horizon and the soil use. The log-normal

M. Kutlek, D.R. Nielsen / Geoderma 138 (2007) 252260

257

distribution model is not fully applicable in all instances, but it

is at least a workable approximation for those exceptions
(Kutlek et al., 2006).
The FattBurdineMualem model of the relative unsaturated hydraulic conductivity KR = K/KS (Fatt and Dijkstra, 1951,
quoted according to Burdine, 1953; Scheidegger, 1957; Mualem, 1976) is for an n-modal soil (Kutlek, 2004)
" R r bi
#gi
i
ai
0 ri gri dri
KRi Si R l bi
7
0 ri gri dri
where g(r) is the pore size distribution function, r is the equivalent pore radius. For SWRC of the log-normal pore size
distribution in an n-modal soil we obtain from Kosugi's (1999)
development (Kutlek, 2004)
KRi

Siai

1
erfc
2




hi
1
bi ri gi
p p
ln
hmi ri 2
2

where parameters and are assumed to be related to

characteristics of the soil porous system (tortuosity and pore
connectivity, see Mualem, 1976). Their physical interpretation
has still to be tested by an evaluation of micromorphological
characteristics. From Eq. (8) we obtain Ki(h) = KRi(h) KSi where
KSi is saturated conductivity in the i-th domain. With the principle of superposition, K(h) = Ki(h) provided that the principle
of superposition is applicable for such a strong non-linear
relationships as K(h). When the porous system is approximated
in the next paragraphs by bi-modality, we have K(h) = K1(h) +
K2(h) for matrix (index 1) and structural (index 2) domains
(Figs. 4 and 5).
We first assumed that the configuration of the soil porous
system (i.e. shape of pores, their tortuosity and connectivity)
should be reflected by the variation of values of the parameters
, , . The study based on the log-normal pore size distribution
shows great differences in the values of parameters , in two
domains when the bi-modal model is studied, i.e. between 1,
2 and 1, 2 (Kutlek, 2004). Substantial differences were also
found between 1, 2 when soils from the catalogue UNSODA
were evaluated, see the Table 2. We suppose therefore that great

Fig. 5. Eq. (8) enables the separation of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in

matrix domain (K1) and in structural domain (K2), according to parameters in
Table 1.

differences in the configuration of pores exists between the

matrix and structural domains (Kutlek, 2004).
When all parameters of soil hydraulic functions in two
identical soil taxons are compared (Tables 1 and 2), we find that
they are far from identity, and hence, we assume that there exists
a strong dependence upon soil structure and upon soil properties
influenced by soil use. Because our examples presented here are
only initial first approximations, we expect that there is an
opportunity with future research to relate the values of parameters hmi, i, i, i, i to quantified results of soil micromorphology and to soil taxons.
Taking into consideration the fact that parameters , are in
some instances negative, a simple physical interpretation of
parameters , as macro- and microtortuosity in Mualem's
model is not acceptable for real soil porous systems. Similarly
does not represent directly the pore connectivity. The eventual
functional form of their physical interpretation has to be searched on basis of soil micromorphology, relating parameters to
tortuosity, pore connectivity and other characteristics of the soil
porous system. Since the negative values of occur in the
matrix domain of all studied soils, it is probable that Eqs. (7)
and (8) describe the full profile flow only and the film and
corner flows have to be additionally considered for matrix
domain. Then the fitting procedure will offer different parameters probably better suitable for physical interpretation.
If parameter is interpreted as connectivity of pores, we
have the chance to relate it to percolation models and their
characteristics. Percolation models combined with the theory of
Table 2
Parameters , , of the relative unsaturated hydraulic conductivity KR(h),
Eqs. (7), (8) evaluated for soils from the UNSODA catalogue (Leij et al., 1996)
Code Soil taxon

Fig. 4. The example of application of Eq. (8): measured data and the fitted
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function of the loamy Hapludalf, A horizon
according to parameters in Table 1.

4040
4660
4661
4670
4671
4672

Hapludalf
Distrochrept
Distrochrept
Hapludalf
Hapludalf
Hapludalf

Texture

Silt loam
Sand
Sand
Silt
Silt loam
Silt loam

Hor 1

Ap
Ah
Bv
A1
Ag1
Bt

Matrix domain

Structural domain

3.98
6.64
6.71
2.72
1.05
1.40

0.07 4.04 0.76

6.74 2.25 4.85
0.52 0.22 0.66
0.41 0.50 4.54
0.01 3.48 0.39
2.48 3.65 0.03

0.91
0.42
0.74
2.14
3.38
0.76

3.99
6.69
6.17
2.15
0.85
1.98

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M. Kutlek, D.R. Nielsen / Geoderma 138 (2007) 252260

fractals (Bartoli et al., 1999), and their use in soil hydrodynamics (Hunt, 2005) will be a theoretical basis for a quantified
description of the real porous system and pores connectivity
observed by soil micromorphology.
We also strongly suggest that the next step in modeling the
soil hydraulic functions will be to abandon oversimplified
models of the soil porous system depicted as cylindrical tubes
or regular rectangular nets of cylindrical and spherical pores.
We expect the shapes of the pore configurations will change to
star-like and polygonal space combined with slits and ribs, all
covered by coatings of various biogeochemical nature where
the flux is realized as full profile flow, film flow and corner
flow (Tuller and Or, 2002). If morphological observations are
quantified within each pedotaxon and related to parameters of
transport equations, upscaling to soil mapping units will be
easier and what is more important, scientifically based
upon our knowledge of soil processes (Kutlek and Nielsen,
1994).
The theory on soil water has advanced enough to include
results of micromorphological research of soil porous systems
in theoretical studies and in physical models of soil hydraulic
functions. If we succeed in developing realistic models of the
soil porous systems and related soil hydraulic functions for soil
low level taxons, we have the chance of upgrading soil hydraulic functions based on observation and evaluation of soil
cover. The existing soil maps with polypedons, soil series,
families and subgroups will be used in the upgrading process,
see Table 3.
Parallel to this type of research, the dynamic character of the
soil pore configuration has to be studied. We have to accept the
fact that the configuration of soil pores varies not only with the
change of seasons, but also during drying and wetting, especially in Vertisols (Kutlek and Nielsen, 1994, p.84). Although
swelling and shrinking is studied at the macro-scale, it occurs
also in clay coatings and in argillans, thus changing the configuration of pores. The question is the extent of swelling and
shrinkage on the microscale and how the process is reflected on

the macroscale of the representative elementary volume in soils

other than Vertisols. In spite of the first theoretical approach to
the problem by Leij et al. (2002), the experimental proof on pore
size distribution dynamics and pore shape change at the microscale is still missing.
4. Hydropedology and the interface with soil chemistry and
microbiology
Active and potential pollutant transport within the entire
vadose zone is a traditional part of soil physics, soil hydrology
and environmental protection. The accelerated flux of pollutants, the preferential flow within the soil profile and through
the entire vadose zone can be understood only if the soil porous
system is properly described in its full complexity. Pollutants
are transported in soils to deeper horizons where their accumulation, transformation and decontamination processes differ
from the conditions in the root zone. Rates of various processes
depend upon the nature of the elluviated matter from neighboring horizons, upon pH, redox potential etc. all of which
are directly related to pedogenetical processes. The variation of
hydrophility and hydrophobicity due to transformed organic
matter, root exudates and enzymes also plays an important role
in transform processes of pollutants on pore scale. The pollutants alter the physical and chemical properties of soils, act
either directly upon the soil edaphon, or indirectly through the
microbial activity being influenced by changes of the soil solution. And the changed soil properties impinge upon the diversity and activities of soil microbiological communities. Even
if the complicated processes are truly identified, knowledge
regarding the nature and intensity of induced changes is not
transferable from one taxonomic order to another.
In addition to pollutant transport, soil physical characteristics
are changed directly by the quality and concentration of the soil
solution. The influence of inorganic cations upon the change of
soil hydraulic characteristics is well known in relation to salinization and alkalization. More should be known on the role of

Table 3
Approximation levels of transport models
Scale
level

Soil
feature

Observation

Particles

Pore

Aggregate

Soil porous system

Horizon

Pedon

Macro- and
micromorphology
Soil profile

Polypedon

Field

Soil series,
Detailed soil map (e.g.
families
farm, small catchment)
Examples of basic equations
PDF probability density function.
SPS soil porous system.

Model approximation
1st

2nd

3rd

4th

Cylindrical
tube
Tubes of
uniform radii
No layers

Cylindrical tube

Cylindrical tube

Pore and skeleton topology

System of tubes of nonuniform radii

Schematic layer

PDF of radii of tubes

assumed
n-modality of SPS

Homogeneous
profile

Layered profile

Pedotransfer function

Kozeny,
Averianov

CollisGeorge and Childs,

Mualem, van Genuchten

PDF of radii, n-modality

in SPS of all horizons
Statistics of characteristics
of pedons
Taxon related SPS
characteristics
Kosugi ?

PDF and pore shape related

to pore topology
SPS related to quantified
soil morphology
SPS related to quantified
morphology of soil profile
SPS characteristics
of polypedon
Taxon related
SPS characteristics
?

Statistics and geostatistics

M. Kutlek, D.R. Nielsen / Geoderma 138 (2007) 252260

Table 4
The influence of adsorbed organic cations upon the increase of hydraulic
conductivity (Kutlek and Salingerov, 1966)
Clay mineral

Cation

Hydraulic conductivity cm h 1 10 3

Kaolinite

Ca
Quinolinium
Pyridinium
Ca
Quinolinium
Pyridinium
Ca
Quinolinium

1.5
50
45
0.15
300
160
1.5
50

Montmorillonite

Illite

products of humification upon the hydraulic functions of soil.

Similarly, our knowledge on the role of organic pollutants in
changing the soil porous system and soil hydraulic characteristics is insufficient. The change is either direct as is the case for
organic cations (Kutlek and Salingerov, 1966), or indirect
through the stimulation effect of particular species of the soil
micro-edaphon. In the example of direct change, the influence
of pyridinium and quinolinium upon water flow was modeled in
the laboratory on kaolinitic, montmorillonitic and illitic pastes,
see the Table 4. A great change of hydraulic conductivity at
hydraulic gradient close to one was documented in the quoted
paper dealing with non-Darcian flow. In kaolinite, due to the
adsorbed organic cations, the increase of hydraulic conductivity
was about one order of magnitude, while that in montmorillonite was more than three orders of magnitude.
Root exudates stimulate microbial activity and stabilize
soil aggregates by the increase of adhesive forces (Amellal
et al., 1998). The produced polysaccharides together with
enzymes act as mucilage causing stability of aggregates at
appropriate water regimes (Tisdall and Oades, 1982; Czarnes
et al., 2000). The increased aggregate stability changes the
characteristics of the K(h) function as it can be derived from
the study on the influence of soil structure upon soil hydraulic
properties (Kutlek, 2004). The mucilaginous effects are more
intensive for soil in close vicinity to roots (Czarnes et al.,
1999), i.e. at the microscale where they are also related to the
local change of hydrophobicity, which may provide a local
micro-buffer against desiccation at low water contents (Hallett et al., 2003). Kodeov et al. (2003) assumed that enzymes of some bacteria changed the surface tension of the
soil solution and its contact angle to such extent that scaling
of soil water retention curves for water and NAPL could not
be recommended.
According to Read et al. (2003) hydraulic transport in the
rhizosphere may also be influenced by surfactants produced by
plant roots. They increase soil hydrophilicity, and thus change
the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function. However, with
these processes not being uniform at the microscale, hydrophobic interfaces between water and organic coatings of solid
particles also occur to change the local hydraulic characteristics
in the opposite direction in the vicinity of roots. An open
question remains if plant root exudates play a role in increasing
the hydraulic conductivity at very low pressure heads of soil
water either directly or indirectly through the enzymes of

259

drought-resistant bacteria. This mechanism may contribute to

survival of plants in drought periods. A better understanding is
attainable by a close cooperation between hydropedologists,
plant physiologists and soil microbiologists.
5. Summary
The objectives of hydropedological studies are similar to
those of soil hydrology within a broad spectrum of scales
ranging from the soil pore scale up to regional and soil mapping
scales (Kutlek and Nielsen, 1994). In addition to soil hydrology, hydropedology keeps and develops its links with pedology
and with all neighboring disciplines in both theory and technological applications especially related to agronomy and environmental protection.
Acknowledgement
The support by the Czech Grant Agency, grant GACR No
103/05/2143 is acknowledged with thanks.
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