CT Lec 02 6S

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CourseOverview
CommunicationTheory
Objective:Thiscourseprovidesacomprehensiveintroductiontobasic
principlesandtechniquesofcommunicationssystems.Topicsfrom
differentcommunicationsystemslikemodulated(orradio)
communicationtechnologies,digitalcommunicationtechnologies,
wirelesscommunicationtechnologies,satellitecommunication
technologiesandopticalcommunicationtechnologies,willbecovered.
Books:
Communications:PrinciplesandPractice,2ndedition,TheodoreS.Rappaport
ModernDigitalandAnalogCommunicationSystemsbyB.P.Lathi,3rdEdition,
OxfordUniversityPress
WirelessandCellularCommunications,3rdedition,WilliamC.Y.Lee
PrinciplesofElectronicCommunicationSystems(FourthEdition)byLouisE.
Frenzel Jr.
RobertGallager.InformationTheoryandReliableCommunication.Wiley,
1968.
Youcanconsultotherbooksandsearchinternet.
Lecture2
Dr.MuhammadAamir Khan
AssistantProfessor
SchoolofSystemsandTechnology(SST)
DepartmentofInformaticsandSystems
UniversityofManagementandTechnology
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CommunicationTheory Lecture2
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LastLecture
Announcements
SignificanceofCommunication
ElectronicCommunicationSystems
TypesofElectronicCommunication
ModulationandMultiplexing
TheElectromagneticSpectrum
TheOpticalSpectrum
Bandwidth
Nomakeupprovisions.
MidSemesterExam[25%]
FinalExam [50%]
[~30%]fromMidTermExamCourseandremaining[~70%]fromafterMidTermExamCourse
Itismandatorytomaintainatleast80% classattendancetobeallowedtositintheFinal
Exam.
CounselingHoursandContactDetails:
CounselingHours
9:30AMto12:30PM(EveryMondayandThursday)
ContactDetails
SpectrumManagement
GradingPolicy:
HomeWorkAssignments[05%]
Quizzes[20%]
Email:aamir.khan@umt.edu.pk
Room:3S41
MoodleandLectures:
YoucanaddcourseCommunicationTheoryinMoodlebyusingPasswordCT_Fall16
PreviousclasslectureshavebeenuploadedonMoodle.
CommunicationApplications
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DigitalLogicandDesign Lecture5
Outlines
Gain,Attenuation,andDecibels
ElectronicFundamentalsforCommunications
Mostcircuitsinelectroniccommunicationare
usedtomanipulatesignalstoproducea
desiredresult.
Gain,Attenuation,andDecibels
TunedCircuits
Filters
FourierTheory
Allsignalprocessingcircuitsinvolve:
Gain
Attenuation
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Gain
Example
Gain meansamplification.Ifasignalisappliedtoacircuitsuchastheamplifier
andtheoutputofthecircuithasagreater amplitudethantheinputsignal,the
circuithasgain.
Gainissimplytheratio oftheoutput totheinput.Forinput(Vin)andoutput(Vout)
voltages,voltagegainAV isexpressedasfollows:
Thenumberobtainedbydividingtheoutputbytheinputshowshowmuchlarger
theoutputisthantheinput.
Example: Iftheinputis150V andtheoutputis75mV,thegainis
AV =(75x103)/(150x106)=500
Theformulacanberearrangedtoobtaintheinputortheoutput,giventheother
twovariables:
Vout =Vin xAV andVin =Vout /AV.
Iftheoutputis0.6Vandthegainis240,theinputis
Vin =0.6/240=2.5x103 =2.5mV.
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PowerGain
Whentwoormorestagesofamplificationorotherformsofsignal
processingarecascaded,theoverallgainofthecombinationisthe
product oftheindividualcircuitgains.
Thefollowingfigureshowsthreeamplifiersconnectedoneaftertheother
sothattheoutputofoneistheinputtothenext.Thevoltagegainsofthe
individualcircuitsaremarked.
Tofindthetotalgainofthiscircuit,simplymultiplytheindividualcircuit
gains:
AT =A1 xA2 xA3 =5x3x4=60
wherePin isthepowerinputandPout isthepoweroutput.

Example:
TotalGainofCascadedCircuits
Sincemostamplifiersarealsopoweramplifiers,thesame
procedurecanbeusedtocalculatepowergainAP:
AP =Pout/Pin
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Examples
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Attenuation
Attenuation referstoaloss introducedbyacircuitorcomponent.Many
electroniccircuits,sometimescalledstages,reducetheamplitudeofa
signalratherthanincreaseit.Iftheoutputsignalislower inamplitude
thantheinput,thecircuithasloss,orattenuation.
Likegain,attenuationissimplytheratiooftheoutputtotheinput.The
letterA isusedtorepresentattenuationaswellasgain:
Circuitsthatintroduceattenuationhaveagainthatislessthan1.Inother
words,theoutputissomefractionoftheinput.
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Example
TotalAttenuationofCascadedCircuits
Anexampleofasimplecircuitwithattenuationisavoltagedividersuchas
thatshownbelow.
Theoutputvoltageistheinputvoltagemultipliedbyaratiobasedonthe
resistorvalues.Withtheresistorvaluesshown,thegainorattenuation
factorofthecircuitis
A=R2/(R1 +R2)=100/(200+100)=100/300=0.3333
Ifasignalof10Visappliedtotheattenuator,theoutputis
Vout =Vin A=10(0.3333)=3.333V
Whenseveralcircuitswithattenuationarecascaded,thetotalattenuation
is,again,theproduct oftheindividualattenuations.
Thecircuitinfigureisanexample.Theattenuationfactorsforeachcircuit
areshown.Theoverallattenuationis
AT = A1 xA2 xA3
Withthevaluesshowninfigure,theoverallattenuationis
AT =0.2x0.9x0.06=0.0108
Givenaninputof3V,theoutputvoltageis
Vout =ATVin =0.0108(3)=0.0324=32.4mV
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Examples
GainExactlyoffsetstheAttenuation
Itiscommonincommunicationsystemsandequipmenttocascadecircuits
andcomponentsthathavegainandattenuation.
Forexample,lossintroducedbyacircuitcanbecompensatedforby
addingastageofamplificationthatoffsetsit.
Example: Herethevoltagedividerintroducesa4to1 voltageloss,oran
attenuationof0.25.Tooffsetthis,itisfollowedwithanamplifierwhose
gainis4.Theoverallgainorattenuationofthecircuitissimplythe
productoftheattenuationandgainfactors.Inthiscase,theoverallgainis
AT =A1A2 =0.25(4)=1.
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Decibels
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DecibelCalculations
Thegainorloss ofacircuitisusuallyexpressedindecibels(dB),aunitof
measurementthatwasoriginallycreatedasawayofexpressingthe
hearingresponseofthehumaneartovarioussoundlevels.
Adecibelisonetenthofabel.
Whengainandattenuationarebothconvertedtodecibels,theoverall
gainorattenuationofanelectroniccircuitcanbecomputedbysimply
addingtheindividualgainsorattenuations,expressedindecibels.
Itiscommonforelectroniccircuitsandsystemstohaveextremelyhigh
gainsorattenuations,ofteninexcessof1million.Convertingthesefactors
todecibelsandusinglogarithmsresultinsmallergainandattenuation
figures,whichareeasiertouse.
VoltageGainorAttenuation
dB=20logVout/Vin
CurrentGainorAttenuation
dB=20logIout/Iin
PowerGainorAttenuation
dB=10logPout/Pin
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Examples
Antilogs
Tocalculate theinputoroutputvoltageorpower,given the
decibel gainorattenuationandtheoutputorinput,the
antilog isused.
Theantilogisthenumberobtainedwhenthebaseisraisedto
thelogarithm,whichistheexponent:
Theantilogissimplythebase10raisedtothedB/10power.
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Example
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dBm
Whenthegainorattenuationofacircuitisexpressedindecibels,implicit
isacomparisonbetweentwovalues,theoutputandtheinput.Whenthe
ratioiscomputed,theunitsofvoltageorpowerarecanceled,makingthe
ratioadimensionless,orrelative,figure.Whenyouseeadecibelvalue,
youreallydonotknowtheactualvoltageorpowervalues.Insomecases,
thisisnotaproblem;inothers,itisusefulornecessarytoknowtheactual
valuesinvolved.Whenanabsolutevalueisneeded,youcanusea
referencevaluetocompareanyothervalue.
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dBm
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dBm
Anoftenusedreferencelevelincommunicationis1mW.Whenadecibel
valueiscomputedbycomparingapowervalueto1mW,theresultisa
valuecalledthedBm.
Itiscomputedwiththestandardpowerdecibelformulawith1mW asthe
denominatoroftheratio:
HerePout istheoutputpower,orsomepowervalueyouwanttocompare
to1mW,and0.001is1mW expressedinwatts.
Theoutputofa1WamplifierexpressedindBm is,e.g.,
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Example
dBc
Thisisadecibelgainattenuationfigurewherethereferenceisthecarrier.
Thecarrieristhebasecommunicationsignal,asinewavethatis
modulated.Oftentheamplitudessidebands,spuriousorinterfering
signals,arereferencedtothecarrier.
Forexample,ifthespurioussignalis1mW comparedtothe10Wcarrier,
thedBc is:
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TunedCircuits
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ReactiveComponents
Alltunedcircuitsandmanyfiltersaremadeupofinductive
andcapacitive elements.
Virtuallyallcommunicationequipmentcontains
tunedcircuits,circuitsmadeupofinductorsand
capacitorsthatresonateatspecificfrequencies.
Oppositiontoalternatingcurrent flowofferedbycoils and

capacitors isknownasreactance.
Reactanceisexpressedinohms ().
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Capacitors
CapacitoratHighFrequencies
Acapacitorusedinanaccircuitchargesanddischarges.
Capacitorstendtoopposevoltagechangesacrossthem.
Oppositiontoalternatingcurrentofferedbyacapacitoris
knownascapacitivereactance(Xc).
Capacitivereactance(Xc)isinverselyproportionaltothevalue
ofcapacitance(C)andoperatingfrequency(f).
Thewireleadsofacapacitorhaveresistanceandinductance,andthe
dielectrichasleakagethatappearsasaresistancevalueinparallelwith
thecapacitor.
Thesecharacteristics,whichareillustratedinfigure,aresometimes
referredtoasresidualsorparasitics.
Theseriesresistanceandinductanceareverysmall,andtheleakage
resistanceisveryhigh,sothesefactorscanbeignoredatlowfrequencies.
Atradiofrequencies,however,theseresidualsbecomenoticeable,andthe
capacitorfunctionsasacomplexRLCcircuit.
Mostoftheseeffectscanbegreatlyminimizedbykeepingthecapacitor
leadsveryshort.Thisproblemismostlyeliminatedbyusingthenewer
chipcapacitors,whichhavenoleadsassuch.
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CapacitoratHighFrequencies(Cont.)
Stray(orDistributed)Capacitance
Capacitanceisgenerallyaddedtoacircuitbyacapacitorofa
specificvalue,butcapacitancecanoccurbetweenanytwo
conductorsseparatedbyaninsulator.
Forexample,thereiscapacitancebetweentheparallelwires
inacable,betweenawireandametalchassis,andbetween
paralleladjacentcopperpatternsonaprintedcircuitboard.
Theseareknownasstray,ordistributed,capacitances.
Straycapacitancesaretypicallysmall,buttheycannotbe
ignored,especiallyatthehighfrequenciesusedin
communication.
Strayanddistributedcapacitancescansignificantlyaffectthe
performanceofacircuit.
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Inductors
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TypesofInductors
Aninductor,alsocalledacoilorchoke,issimplyawindingofmultiple
turnsofwire.Whencurrentispassedthroughacoil,amagneticfieldis
producedaroundthecoil.Iftheappliedvoltageandcurrentarevarying,
themagneticfieldalternatelyexpandsandcollapses.Thiscausesavoltage
tobeselfinducedintothecoilwinding,whichhastheeffectofopposing
currentchangesinthecoil.Thiseffectisknownasinductance.
Thebasicunitofinductanceisthehenry(H).Inductanceisdirectly
affectedbythephysicalcharacteristicsofthecoil,includingthenumberof
turnsofwireintheinductor,thespacingoftheturns,thelengthofthe
coil,thediameterofthecoil,andthetypeofmagneticcorematerial.
Practicalinductancevaluesareinthemillihenry (mH = 103 H),microhenry
(H=106 H),andnanohenry (nH =109 H)regions.
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InductiveReactance
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InductoratHighFrequencies
Inadccircuit,aninductorwillhavelittleornoeffect.Onlytheohmic
resistanceofthewireaffectscurrentflow.However,whenthecurrent
changes,suchasduringthetimethepoweristurnedofforon,thecoil
willopposethesechangesincurrent.
Whenaninductorisusedinanaccircuit,thisoppositionbecomes
continuousandconstantandisknownasinductivereactance.Inductive
reactanceXL isexpressedinohmsandiscalculatedbyusingthe
expression:
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Inadditiontotheresistanceofthewireinaninductor,thereisstray
capacitancebetweentheturnsofthecoil.Theoveralleffectisasifasmall
capacitorwereconnectedinparallelwiththecoil.Thisistheequivalent
circuitofaninductorathighfrequencies.
Atlowfrequencies,capacitancemaybeInadditiontotheresistanceofthe
wireinaninductor,thereisstraycapacitancebetweentheturnsofthe
coil.Theoveralleffectisasifasmallcapacitorwereconnectedinparallel
withthecoil.
Thisistheequivalentcircuitofaninductorathighfrequencies.Atlow
frequencies,capacitancemaybeignored,butatradiofrequencies,itis
sufficientlylargetoaffectcircuitoperation.Thecoilthenfunctionsnotas
apureinductor,butasacomplexRLCcircuitwithaselfresonating
frequency.
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InductoratHighFrequencies
QualityFactorQ
Anotherimportantcharacteristicofaninductorisitsquality
factorQ,theratioofinductivepowertoresistivepower:
Thisistheratioofthepowerreturnedtothecircuittothe
poweractuallydissipatedbythecoilresistance.Forexample,
theQofa3Hinductorwithatotalresistanceof45Vat90
MHziscalculatedasfollows:
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Resistors
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SkinEffect
Atlowfrequencies,astandardresistoroffersnearlypure
resistance.
Athighfrequencies,aresistorsleadshaveinductance.
Aresistorsleadinductanceandstraycapacitancecausethe
resistortoactlikeacomplexRLCcircuit.
Tinyresistorchipsusedinsurfacemountcircuitsminimize
inductanceandstraycapacitance.
Filmresistorsminimizethermaleffectnoise.
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Skineffectisthetendencyofelectronsflowinginaconductor
toflownearandontheoutersurfaceoftheconductor
frequenciesintheVHF,UHF,andmicrowaveregions.
Thisprocessincreasestheresistanceoftheconductorand
greatlyaffectstheperformanceofthecircuit.
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TunedCircuitsandResonance
SeriesResonantCircuits
Atunedcircuitismadeupofinductanceandcapacitanceand
resonatesataspecificfrequency,theresonantfrequency.
Ingeneral,thetermstunedcircuitandresonantcircuitare
usedinterchangeably.Becausetunedcircuitsarefrequency
selective,theyrespondbestattheirresonantfrequencyand
atanarrowrangeoffrequenciesaroundtheresonant
frequency.
Aseriesresonantcircuitismadeupofinductance,
capacitanceandresistanceconnectedinseries.
SeriesresonantcircuitsareoftenreferredtoasLCRorRLC
circuits.
Theinductiveandcapacitivereactances dependuponthe
frequencyoftheappliedvoltage.Resonanceoccurswhenthe
inductiveandcapacitivereactances areequal.
AplotofreactanceversusfrequencyisshowninFigure,
wherefr istheresonantfrequency.
Resonantfrequency(fr)isinverselyproportionalto
inductanceandcapacitance.
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SeriesResonantCircuits
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ImpedanceandResonantFrequency
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Example
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ImpedanceandResonantFrequency
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FrequencyandPhaseResponse
Curves
ResonanceinaSeriesTunedCircuit
Asindicatedearlier,thebasicdefinitionofresonanceinaseriestuned
circuitisthepointatwhichXL equalsXC.Withthiscondition,onlythe
resistanceofthecircuitimpedesthecurrent.Thetotalcircuitimpedance
atresonanceisZ=R.
Forthisreason,resonanceinaseriestunedcircuitcanalsobedefinedas
thepointatwhichthecircuitimpedance islowest andthecircuitcurrent
ishighest.
Sincethecircuitisresistive atresonance,thecurrentisinphasewiththe
appliedvoltage.
Above theresonantfrequency,theinductivereactance ishigher thanthe
capacitivereactance,andtheinductorvoltagedropisgreaterthanthe
capacitorvoltagedrop.Therefore,thecircuitisinductive,andthecurrent
willlag theappliedvoltage.
Below resonance,thecapacitivereactance ishigher thantheinductive
reactance;thenetreactanceiscapacitive,therebyproducingaleading
currentinthecircuit.Thecapacitorvoltagedropishigherthanthe
inductorvoltagedrop.
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FrequencyandPhaseResponse
Curves(Cont.)
Bandwidth
Atverylowfrequencies,thecapacitivereactanceismuchgreater
thantheinductivereactance;therefore,thecurrentinthecircuitis
verylowbecauseofthehighimpedance.Inaddition,becausethe
circuitispredominantlycapacitive,thecurrentleadsthevoltageby
nearly90.
Asthefrequencyincreases,XC goesdownandXLgoesup.The
amountofleadingphaseshiftdecreases.Asthevaluesof
reactances approachoneanother,thecurrentbeginstorise.When
XL equalsXC,theireffectscancelandtheimpedanceinthecircuitis
justthatoftheresistance.Thisproducesacurrentpeak,wherethe
currentisinphasewiththevoltage(0).
Asthefrequencycontinuestorise,XL becomesgreaterthanXC.The
impedanceofthecircuitincreasesandthecurrentdecreases.With
thecircuitpredominantlyinductive,thecurrentlagstheapplied
voltage.
Thenarrowfrequencyrangeoverwhichthecurrentishighestiscalledthe
bandwidth.
Theupperandlowerboundariesofthebandwidtharedefinedbytwo
cutofffrequenciesdesignatedf1 andf2.Thesecutofffrequenciesoccur
wherethecurrentamplitudeis70.7percentofthepeakcurrent.Inthe
figure,thepeakcircuitcurrentis2mA,andthecurrentatboththelower
(f1)andupper(f2)cutofffrequencyis0.707of2mA,or1.414mA.
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HalfPowerPoints
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Bandwidth(Cont.)
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Selectivity
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CircuitResistanceQandBandwidth
Thebandwidthofaresonantcircuitdefinesitsselectivity,i.e.,howthe
circuitrespondstovaryingfrequencies.Iftheresponseistoproducea
highcurrentonlyoveranarrowrangeoffrequencies,anarrow
bandwidth,thecircuitissaidtobehighlyselective.
Ifthecurrentishighoverabroaderrangeoffrequencies,i.e.,the
bandwidthiswider,thecircuitislessselective.
Ingeneral,circuitswithhighselectivityandnarrowbandwidthsaremore
desirable.
TherelationshipbetweencircuitresistanceQand
bandwidthisextremelyimportant.
ThebandwidthofacircuitisinverselyproportionaltoQ.
ThehigherQis,thesmallerthebandwidth.
LowQsproducewidebandwidthsorlessselectivity.
Inturn,Qisafunctionofthecircuitresistance.Alow
resistanceproducesahighQ,anarrowbandwidth,anda
highlyselectivecircuit.
AhighcircuitresistanceproducesalowQ,widebandwidth,
andpoorselectivity.
Inmostcommunicationcircuits,circuitQsareatleast10
andtypicallyhigher.Inmostcases,Qiscontrolleddirectly
bytheresistanceoftheinductor.
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Examples
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ResonantstepupVoltage
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ResonantstepupVoltage(Cont.)
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ParallelResonantCircuit
Aparallelresonantcircuitisformedwhentheinductorand
capacitorareconnectedinparallelwiththeappliedvoltage.
Ingeneral,resonanceinaparalleltunedcircuitcanalsobedefined
asthepointatwhichtheinductiveandcapacitivereactances are
equal.Theresonantfrequencyisthereforecalculatedbythe
resonantfrequencyformulagivenearlier.
Ifweassumelosslesscomponentsinthecircuit(noresistance),
thenthecurrentintheinductorequalsthecurrentinthecapacitor:
IL = IC
Althoughthecurrentsareequal,theyare180 outofphase,asthe
phasor diagraminfigureshows.Thecurrentintheinductorlagsthe
appliedvoltageby90,andthecurrentinthecapacitorleadsthe
appliedvoltageby90,foratotalof180.
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ResonantstepupVoltage(Cont.)
ParallelResonantCircuit
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Now,byapplyingKirchhoffscurrentlawtothecircuit,thesumoftheindividual
branchcurrentsequalsthetotalcurrentdrawnfromthesource.Withthe
inductiveandcapacitivecurrentsequalandoutofphase,theirsumis0.Thus,at
resonance,aparalleltunedcircuitappearstohaveinfiniteresistance,drawsno
currentfromthesourceandthushasinfiniteimpedance,andactsasanopen
circuit.
However,thereisahighcirculatingcurrentbetweentheinductorandcapacitor.
Energyisbeingstoredandtransferredbetweentheinductorandcapacitor.
Becausesuchacircuitactsasakindofstoragevesselforelectricenergy,itisoften
referredtoasatankcircuitandthecirculatingcurrentisreferredtoasthetank
current.
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PracticalResonantCircuit
PracticalResonantCircuit(Cont.)
Inapracticalresonantcircuitwherethecomponentsdohavelosses
(resistance),thecircuitstillbehavesasdescribedabove.Typically,wecan
assumethatthecapacitorhaspracticallyzerolossesandtheinductor
containsaresistance,asillustratedinFigureonpreviousslide.
Atresonance,whereXL =XC,theimpedanceoftheinductivebranchofthe
circuitishigherthantheimpedanceofthecapacitivebranchbecauseof
thecoilresistance.Thecapacitivecurrentisslightlyhigherthanthe
inductivecurrent.Evenifthereactances areequal,thebranchcurrents
willbeunequalandthereforetherewillbesomenetcurrentflowinthe
supplyline.Thesourcecurrentwillleadthesupplyvoltage,asshownin
Figureonpreviousslide.
Nevertheless,theinductiveandcapacitivecurrentsinmostcaseswill
cancelbecausetheyareapproximatelyequalandofoppositephase,and
consequentlythelineorsourcecurrentwillbesignificantlylowerthanthe
individualbranchcurrents.Theresultisaveryhighresistiveimpedance,
approximatelyequalto
Z=VS /IT
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EquivalentCircuitofResonantCircuits
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PracticalResonantCircuit(Cont.)
Onewaytosimplifythemathematicsinvolvedistoconvertthecircuitto
anequivalentcircuitinwhichthecoilresistanceistranslatedtoaparallel
resistancethatgivesthesameoverallresults,asshowninfigure.
TheequivalentinductanceLeq andresistanceReq arecalculatedwiththe
formulas
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Examples
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FrequencyandPhaseResponseCurve
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(Cont.)
(Cont.)
Afrequencyandphaseresponsecurveofaparallelresonantcircuitis
showninFigureonthepreviousslide.
Belowtheresonantfrequency,XL islessthanXC;thustheinductivecurrent
isgreaterthanthecapacitivecurrent,andthecircuitappearsinductive.
Thelinecurrentlagstheappliedvoltage.Abovetheresonantfrequency,XC
islessthanXL;thusthecapacitivecurrentismorethantheinductive
current,andthecircuitappearscapacitive.
Therefore,thelinecurrentleadstheappliedvoltage.Thephaseangleof
theimpedancewillbeleadingbelowresonanceandlaggingabove
resonance.
Attheresonantfrequency,theimpedanceofthecircuitpeaks.Thismeans
thatthelinecurrentatthattimeisatitsminimum.Atresonance,the
circuitappearstohaveaveryhighresistance,andthesmalllinecurrentis
inphasewiththeappliedvoltage.
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Example
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Filters
Afilter isafrequencyselectivecircuit.
Filterspasscertainfrequenciesandreject
others.
Passivefilters arecreatedusingcomponents
suchas:resistors,capacitors,andinductors
thatdonotamplify.
Activefilters useamplifyingdevicessuchas
transistorsandoperationalamplifiers.
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KindsofFilter
RCFilters
1. Lowpassfilter.Passesfrequenciesbelowacritical
frequencycalledthecutofffrequencyandgreatly
attenuatesthoseabovethecutofffrequency.
2. Highpassfilter.Passesfrequenciesabovethecutoffbut
rejectsthosebelowit.
3. Bandpass filter.Passesfrequenciesoveranarrowrange
betweenloweranduppercutofffrequencies.
4. Bandrejectfilter.Rejectsorstopsfrequenciesovera
narrowrangebutallowsfrequenciesaboveandbelowto
pass.
5. Allpassfilter.Passesallfrequenciesequallywelloverits
designrangebuthasafixedorpredictablephaseshift
characteristic.
RCfiltersusecombinations ofresistorsandcapacitorsto
achievethedesiredresponse.
MostRCfiltersareofthelowpassorhighpass type.Some
bandreject ornotchfiltersarealsomadewithRCcircuits.
Bandpass filterscanbemadebycombininglowpassand
highpassRCsections,butthisisrarelydone.
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LowPassFilter
RCLowPassFilter
Alowpassfilterisacircuitthatintroducesnoattenuationatfrequencies
belowthecutofffrequencybutcompletelyeliminatesallsignalswith
frequenciesabovethecutoff.Lowpassfiltersaresometimesreferredto
ashighcutfilters.
Theideal responsecurveforalowpassfilterisshowninFigure.This
responsecurvecannotberealizedinpractice.Inpracticalcircuits,instead
ofasharptransitionatthecutofffrequency,thereisamoregradual
transitionbetweenlittleornoattenuationandmaximumattenuation.
Thesimplestformoflowpassfilter istheRC circuitshowninfigure.The

circuitformsasimplevoltagedividerwithonefrequencysensitive
component,inthiscasethecapacitor.
Atverylowfrequencies,thecapacitorhasveryhighreactance compared
totheresistanceandthereforetheattenuationisminimum.Asthe
frequencyincreases,thecapacitivereactancedecreases.Whenthe
reactancebecomessmallerthantheresistance,theattenuationincreases
rapidly.Thefrequencyresponseofthebasiccircuitisillustratedinfigure.
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CutoffFrequency
Atthecutofffrequency,theoutputamplitudeis70.7percentoftheinput
amplitudeatlowerfrequencies.Thisisthesocalled3dBdownpoint.In
otherwords,thisfilterhasavoltagegainof3dBatthecutofffrequency.
Atfrequenciesabovethecutofffrequency,theamplitudedecreasesata
linearrateof6dBperoctave or20dBperdecade.
Anoctave isdefinedasadoublingorhalvingoffrequency,andadecade
representsaonetenthortimes10relationship.
Assumethatafilterhasacutoffof600Hz.Ifthefrequencydoublesto
1200Hz,theattenuationwillincreaseby6dB,orfrom3dBatcutoffto9
dBat1200Hz.Ifthefrequencyincreasedbyafactorof10from600Hzto
6kHz,theattenuationwouldincreasebyafactorof20dBfrom3dBat
cutoffto23dBat6kHz.
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HighPassFilter
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RCHighPassFilter
Ahighpassfilter passesfrequenciesabovethecutofffrequencywith
littleornoattenuationbutgreatlyattenuatesthosesignalsbelowthe
cutoff.TheidealhighpassresponsecurveisshowninFigure.
ApproximationstotheidealresponsecurveshowninFigurecanbe
obtainedwithavarietyofRCandLCfilters.
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3dBPoint
ThecutofffrequencyofthisfilteristhatpointwhereRandXC areequal.
Thecutofffrequency,alsoknownasthecriticalfrequency,isdetermined
bytheexpression
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ThebasicRChighpassfilterisshowninFigure.Again,itisnothingmore
thanavoltagedividerwiththecapacitorservingasthefrequency
sensitivecomponentinavoltagedivider.
Atlowfrequencies,XC isveryhigh.WhenXC ismuchhigherthanR,the
voltagedividereffectprovideshighattenuationofthelowfrequency
signals.Asthefrequencyincreases,thecapacitivereactancedecreases.
Whenthecapacitivereactanceisequaltoorlessthantheresistance,the
voltagedividergivesverylittleattenuation.Therefore,highfrequencies
passrelativelyunattenuated.
Ahighpassfiltercanalsobeimplementedwithacoilandaresistor.
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CutoffFrequency
CutoffFrequency
Thecutofffrequencyforthisfilteristhesameasthatforthelowpasscircuit
andisderivedfromsettingXC equaltoRandsolvingforfrequency:
fco =1/2RC
Therolloffrateis6dBperoctaveor20dBperdecade.
Thecutofffrequencyisofahighpassfilterimplementedwithacoilanda
resistoris:
fco =R/2L
TheresponsecurveforthisfilteristhesameasthatofRCfilter.
Therateofattenuationis6dBperoctaveor20dBperdecade,aswasthecase
withthelowpassfilter.
Again,improvedattenuationcanbeobtainedbycascadingfiltersections.
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Example
80
RCNotchFilter
Notchfiltersarealsoreferredtoasbandstop orbandrejectfilters.Band
rejectfiltersareusedtogreatlyattenuateanarrowrangeoffrequencies
aroundacenterpoint.
Notchfiltersaccomplishthesamepurpose,butforasingle frequency.
Asimplenotchfilterthatisimplementedwithresistorsandcapacitorsas
showninFigureiscalledaparallelTortwinT notchfilter.
Thisfilterisavariationofabridgecircuit.Recallthatinabridgecircuitthe
outputiszeroifthebridgeisbalanced.
Ifthecomponentvaluesarepreciselymatched,thecircuitwillbein
balanceandproduceanattenuationofaninputsignalatthedesign
frequencyashighas30to40dB.
AtypicalresponsecurveisalsoshowninFigure.
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RCNotchFilter(Cont.)
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CenterNotchFrequency
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Example
FilterTerminologies
1.Passband.Thisisthefrequencyrangeoverwhichthefilterpasses
signals.Itisthefrequencyrangebetweenthecutofffrequenciesor
betweenthecutofffrequencyandzero(forlowpass)orbetweenthe
cutofffrequencyandinfinity(forhighpass).
2.Stopband.Thisistherangeoffrequenciesoutsidethepassband,i.e.,
therangeoffrequenciesthatisgreatlyattenuatedbythefilter.
Frequenciesinthisrangearerejected.
3.Attenuation.Thisistheamountbywhichundesiredfrequenciesinthe
stopbandarereduced.Itcanbeexpressedasapowerratioorvoltage
ratiooftheoutputtotheinput.Attenuationisusuallygivenindecibels.
4.Insertionloss.Insertionlossisthelossthefilterintroducestothe
signalsinthepassband.Passivefiltersintroduceattenuationbecauseof
theresistivelossesinthecomponents.Insertionlossistypicallygivenin
decibels.
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FilterTerminologies (Cont.)
FilterTerminologies (Cont.)
5.Impedance.Impedanceistheresistivevalueoftheloadandsource
terminationsofthefilter.Filtersareusuallydesignedforspecificdriving
sourceandloadimpedancesthatmustbepresentforproperoperation.
6.Ripple.Amplitudevariationwithfrequencyinthepassband,orthe
repetitiveriseandfallofthesignallevelinthepassband ofsometypesof
filters,isknownasripple.Itisusuallystatedindecibels.Theremayalsobe
rippleinthestopbandwidthinsometypesoffilters.
7.Shapefactor.Shapefactor,alsoknownasbandwidthratio,istheratio
ofthestopbandwidthtothepassbandwidthofabandpass filter.It
comparesthebandwidthatminimumattenuation,usuallyatthe3dB
pointsorcutofffrequencies,tothatofmaximumattenuationandthus
givesarelativeindicationofattenuationrateorselectivity.Thesmallerthe
ratio,thegreatertheselectivity.Theidealisaratioof1,whichingeneral
cannotbeobtainedwithpracticalfilters.
8.Pole.Apoleisafrequencyatwhichthereisahighimpedanceinthe
circuit.ItisalsousedtodescribeoneRCsectionofafilter.
ForLClow andhighpassfilters,thenumberofpolesisequaltothe
numberofreactivecomponentsinthefilter.Forbandpass andbandreject
filters,thenumberofpolesisgenerallyassumedtobeonehalfthe
numberofreactivecomponentsused.
9.Zero.Thistermreferstoafrequencyatwhichthereiszeroimpedance
inthe
circuit.
10.Envelopedelay.Alsoknownastimedelay,envelopedelayisthetimeit
takesforaspecificpointonaninputwaveformtopassthroughthefilter.
11.Rolloff.Alsocalledtheattenuationrate,rolloffistherateofchange
ofamplitudewithfrequencyinafilter.Thefastertherolloff,orthehigher
theattenuationrate,themoreselectivethefilteris,i.e.,thebetterableit
istodifferentiatebetweentwocloselyspacedsignals,onedesiredandthe
othernot.
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LCFilters
88
TypesofLCFilters
LCfiltersusecombinationsofinductorsandcapacitors toachievea
desiredfrequencyresponse.
Theyaretypicallyusedwithradiofrequency(RF)applications.
ThemostwidelyusedLCfiltersarenamedafterthepeople
whodiscoveredthemanddevelopedtheanalysisanddesign
methodforeach.
Butterworth: TheButterworthfiltereffecthasmaximumflatnessin
responseinthepassband andauniformattenuationwithfrequency.
Chebyshev:Hasextremelygoodselectivity,andattenuationjust
outsidethepassband isveryhigh,buthasrippleinthepassband.
Cauer (Elliptical):Producesgreaterattenuationoutofthepassband,
butwithhigherripplewithinandoutsideofthepassband.
Bessel(Thomson):Providesthedesiredfrequencyresponse(i.e.,low
pass,bandpass,etc.)buthasaconstanttimedelayinthepassband.
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TypesofLCFilters(Cont.)
Bandpass Filters
Bandpass filters,configuredwithseriesorparallelresonantcircuits,allow
anarrowrangeoffrequenciesaroundacenterfrequencytopass with
minimumattenuationbutrejectsfrequenciesaboveandbelowthisrange.
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BandRejectFilters
ActiveFilters
Bandrejectfiltersrejectanarrowbandoffrequenciesaroundacenteror
notchfrequency.
Bandrejectfiltersarealsoknownasbandstop filtersortraps.
Activefiltersarefrequencyselectivecircuitsthatincorporate
RCnetworksandamplifierswithfeedbacktoproducelow
pass,highpass,bandpass,andbandstop performance.
Advantagesare:
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Gain
Noinductors
Easytotune
Isolation
Easierimpedancematching
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ActiveFilters
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ActiveFilters(Cont.)
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VariableStateFilter
CrystalandCeramicFilters
Aspecialformofactivefilteristhevariablestatefilter,which
cansimultaneouslyprovidelowpass,highpass,andbandpass
operationfromonecircuit.
Crystalandceramicfiltersaremadeofthinsliversofquartzcrystalor
certainothertypesofceramicmaterials.
Crystalsandceramicelementsarewidelyusedinoscillators toset
frequencyofoperationtoaprecisevalue.
Crystalsandceramicelementsarealsousedascircuitelementstoform
filters,specificallybandpass filters.
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FourierTheory
98
SineandCosineWaves
Onemethodusedtodeterminethecharacteristicsandperformanceofa
communicationcircuitorsystem,specificallyfornonsinewaveapproach,
isFourieranalysis.
TheFouriertheorystatesthatanonsinusoidal waveformcanbebroken
downintoindividualharmonically relatedsinewaveorcosinewave
components.
Asquarewaveisoneclassicexampleofthisphenomenon.
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SineWaveandItsHarmonics
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ASquareWave
101
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BasicConcepts
FourierAnalysis
Fourieranalysisstatesthatasquarewaveismadeupofasine
waveatthefundamentalfrequencyofthesquarewaveplus
aninfinitenumberofoddharmonics.
Fourieranalysisallowsustodeterminenotonlysinewave
componentsinacomplexsignalbutalsoasignalsbandwidth.
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CommonFourierEquations
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CommonFourierEquations(Cont.)
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TimeDomainVersusFrequency
Domain
106
FrequencyDomainPlots
Analysisofvariationsofvoltage,current,orpowerwith
respecttotimeareexpressedinthetimedomain.
Afrequencydomainplotsamplitudevariationswithrespect
tofrequency.
Fouriertheorygivesusanewanddifferentwaytoexpress
andillustratecomplexsignals,thatis,withrespectto
frequency.
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RelationshipBetweenTimeand
FrequencyDomains
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TheImportanceofFourierTheory
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FilteringoutHarmonics
110
NextLecture
Inthenextlecture(s)wewillstartdiscussingAmplitude
Modulation(AM).
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Questions?
Any questions?
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wherePin isthepowerinputandPout isthepoweroutput.

Oppositiontoalternatingcurrent flowofferedbycoils and

Thesimplestformoflowpassfilter istheRC circuitshowninfigure.The

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